Amera

Spectral Remote Sensing of
Hydrothermal Alteration associated with

Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits,
Gorob-Hope area, Namibia
Sisay Ayalew Amera

February 2007
Spectral Remote Sensing of
Hydrothermal Alteration associated with
Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits,
by
Sisay Ayalew Amera
Thesis submitted to the International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geo-information Science
and Earth Observation, Specialisation: Earth Resources Exploration.
Supervisors:
Dr. T. Woldai
Dr. E.J.M. Carranza
Thesis Assessment Board

Prof. Dr. F.D. van der Meer (Chairman)
Prof. Dr. S.B. Kroonenberg (External)
Dr. T. Woldai (1st Supervisor)
Dr. E.J.M. Carranza (2nd Supervisor)
Observer:
Dr. J.B. de Smeth (Programme Director)
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION

ENSCHEDE, THE NETHERLANDS
Disclaimer
This document describes work undertaken as part of a programme of study at the

International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation. All views and
opinions expressed therein remain the sole responsibility of the author, and do not necessarily
represent those of the institute. Data used in the thesis will not be used for publishing without
written permission of the thesis supervisor.
Abstract
This thesis involves analysis of multispectral (Landsat ETM+, ASTER), hyperspectral (HyMap) and
field spectra datasets to identify and map hydrothermal alteration patterns and hydrothermal mineral
abundances associated with volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposit in the Gorob-Hope area.
Band combinations in colour composites, band ratios, and principal component analyses using multi-
spectral images are found to be useful to identify hydroxyl and iron oxide alteration zones. Analysis
of diagnostic absorption feature (absorption depth and wavelength position) of white micas at and
around 2200 nm region is useful in mapping hydrothermal alteration zones. Analysis of spectral
variability and estimation of alteration indices for white micas and chlorites reveal vectors toward
zones with volcanic massive sulphide mineralization. Analysis of band ratios in the shortwave
infrared wavelength range and creation of band ratio colour composite images are useful in
identifying identify hydrothermal alteration zones and in selecting endmembers from the HyMap data.
Endmembers selected from the hydrothermal alteration zones are useful for surface compositional
mapping. The use of band ratios as predictor variables and field spectra data as predicted variables
enables development of prediction model for presence or absence of white micas and for estimation of
their absorption wavelengths. Integrated analysis of field spectra data and airborne hyperspectral
imagery results in estimation and mapping of degrees of presence or absence of white micas, the
spatial distributions of which have good spatial coincidence field spatial distribution of white micas
and chlorites. Hydrothermal zones identified by the integrated analysis are consistent with detail
published geological map of the study area.
Key words: imaging spectrometry; band ratios; volcanogenic massive sulphide; hydrothermal
alteration, white micas.
i
Acknowledgements
I would like to cordially thank and express my gratitude to The Royal Netherlands Government,
NUFFIC and ITC and my employing organisation Ministry of Mines of Ethiopia for giving me the
possibility to study in The Netherlands.
My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisors, Dr. Tsehaie Woldai and Dr. E.J.M. Carranza. You have
been of active support and assistance throughout the whole duration of this thesis research. Thank you for
your advice, guidance, patience and encouragement that you showed to me. I have learned a lot from you;
above all the essence of a scientific research and critical comments.
Great thanks and special appreciation go to Drs. Frank van Ruitenbeek for your valuable guidance and
critical comments that you gave me and your warm welcome whenever I need help.
I also extend my sincere gratitude to Drs. Boudewijn de Smeth for your assistance in all circumstances
and for that you gave me a lot of basic knowledge starting from Module 1 and then other specialization
courses. I am grateful to the staff and Programme Director of the AES programme, under whom I have
learnt a lot for the past 18 months.
My special thanks will go to my beloved wife and my children for your love, constant support, pray
understanding and encouragement. You are a pillar of my strength, moral and hope. I am in debt to you. I
love you.
Finally, my classmates and friends; especially my cluster mates who shared all the happiness and pains
I felt.I thank you all and wish you the best.
19 February 2007
Enschede, The Netherlands
ii
Table of contents
Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Research background .................................................................................................................1
1.2. Research problem definition ......................................................................................................1
1.3. Previous work and justification for using the various remotely sensed datasets.......................1
1.4. Study area...................................................................................................................................2
1.4.1. Location2
1.4.2. Datasets 2
1.4.3. Software........................................................................................................................3
1.5. Research Objectives...................................................................................................................3
1.5.1. General objectives ........................................................................................................3
1.5.2. Specific objectives........................................................................................................3
1.6. Research questions.....................................................................................................................3
1.7. Research hypotheses ..................................................................................................................3
1.8. Research methodology...............................................................................................................4
1.9. Thesis organization ....................................................................................................................4
Chapter 2: Description of the Study Area ....................................................................................................... 7
2.1. Overview of the geology............................................................................................................7
2.2. Local geology.............................................................................................................................8
2.2.1. Lithologies....................................................................................................................8
2.3. Structure, mineralization and stratigraphy.................................................................................9
2.4. Implication for remote sensing ................................................................................................10
Chapter 3: Hydrothermal alteration mapping with multispectral data ..................................................... 11
3.1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................11
3.2. Pre-processing of the multispectral datasets............................................................................11
3.2.1. Landsat ETM+ data ....................................................................................................11
3.2.2. ASTER data................................................................................................................11
3.3. Colour composites ...................................................................................................................11
3.4. Band ratios ...............................................................................................................................12
3.5. Principal components analysis.................................................................................................12
3.5.1. PCA of Landsat data...................................................................................................13
3.5.2. PCA of ASTER data...................................................................................................17
3.6. Discussion and conclusions .....................................................................................................18
Chapter 4: Alteration mineral abundance and zonations mapping with hyperspectral data................... 21
4.1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................21
4.2. Spectroscopy ............................................................................................................................21
4.3. Datasets ....................................................................................................................................21
4.3.1. Field spectral data.......................................................................................................21
4.3.2. HyMap imagery..........................................................................................................23
4.4. Analysis of field spectral data..................................................................................................24
4.4.1. White mica alteration index .......................................................................................26
4.4.2. Spectral variability of illite.........................................................................................29
4.5. Analysis of spectral endmembers from HyMap data...............................................................31
4.6. Discussion and conclusion.......................................................................................................34
Chapter 5: Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMap data ............................................................... 35
5.1. Mapping spatial distribution of hydrothermal minerals ..........................................................35
5.1.1. Application of Spectral Angle Mapper ......................................................................35
5.2. Predicting spatial distribution of white micas .........................................................................39
5.2.1. Probability of white mica occurrence.........................................................................39
5.2.2. Variation in absorption wavelength of white micas...................................................43
iii
5.3. Validation of results................................................................................................................ 47
5.3.1. Validation against geological map ............................................................................ 47
5.3.2. Validation against field spectra ................................................................................. 47
5.3.3. Validation against location of known VMS deposit occurrences ............................. 47
5.4. Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations............................................................................................ 50
6.1. Conclusions............................................................................................................................. 50
6.2. Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 51
References 53
List of figures
Figure 1.1: Location map of the study area............................................................................................. 2
Figure 1.2: Essential characteristics of an idealized volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit (adopted
from Taylor et al., 1995). Mineral abbreviations as follows: Sp, sphalerite; Gn, galena;
Py, pyrite; Ba, barite; Cpy, chalcopyrite; Po, pyrrhotite; and Hem, hematite. .................... 4
Figure 2.1: Geologic map of Gorob-Hope area (adopted from Breitkopf and Maiden, 1988). .............. 7
Figure 2.2: Geological map of the Gorob area (adopted from Preussinger (1990)). 1-calcrete and
gravel, 2-amphibolite, 3- metagabbro, 4- talc schist and related rocks, 5- metasediments,
6- zones of pre-metamorphic hydrothermal alteration, 7- magnetite-quartzite, 8- graphitic
schist, 9- F1 axial plane trace, 10- F2 axial plane trace, 11- S2 foliation, 12- F2 axial plane
and plunge, 13- L2 intersection lineation, 14- So bedding form line.................................... 8
Figure 3.1: Wavelength coverage of Landsat ETM+ and ASTER bands. ............................................ 11
Figure 3.2: Colour composite of Landsat ETM+ band ratios in RGB sequence: 5/7 (for clay), bands
5/4 (for ferrous) and bands 3/1 (for iron oxide). The bright red pixels represent
hydrothermal alteration zones............................................................................................ 12
Figure 3.3: Negated PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ bands (Table 3.2). The
bright pixels indicate hydroxyl minerals enrichments....................................................... 14
Figure 3.4: Negated PC3 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ bands (Table 3.3). The
bright pixels indicate iron oxide mineral enrichments. ..................................................... 15
Figure 3.5: PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ band (Table 3.4) after masking out
the surficial deposits. The bright pixels indicate enrichments in hydroxyl minerals. ....... 16
Figure 3.6: PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ band (Table 3.5) after masking out
the surficial deposits. The bright pixels indicate enrichments in iron-oxide minerals...... 16
Figure 3.7: PC2 image resulting from using six ASTER bands (Table 3.6). The bright pixels indicate
hydroxyl minerals enrichments.......................................................................................... 17
Figure 3.8: PC2 image resulting from using six ASTER bands (Table 3.7) after masking out the
surficial deposits. The bright pixels indicate hydroxyl minerals enrichments. ................. 18
Figure 4.1: Locations of field spectral data from rock samples plotted on the geological map of Gorob
area (digitized from Preussinger (1990))........................................................................... 22
Figure 4.2: An enlarged image in natural colour combination of part of the HyMap of Gorob scene.
The map was produced using the approach explained by (van der Werff et al., 2006). The
brownish colour shows the hydrothermal zones. The dark areas represent metagabbro and
the remaining lighter areas represent metasediments (see Figure 2.2).............................. 24
Figure 4.3: Spectrum.142 and spectrum.173 interpreted as illite and muscovite, respectively, by TSG
software. Arrows and numbers (m) indicate absorption wavelength positions in the
spectrum............................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 4.4: Spectra of field samples containing dominantly of chlorite minerals: (a) Mg-chlorite
(spectrum.239), (b) intermediate chlorite (spectrum.228), and (c) Fe-chlorite
(spectrum.2690. Arrows and numbers (m) indicate absorption wavelength positions in
the spectrum....................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.5: Reflectance spectrum showing spectral parameters that were determined from near-
infrared reflectance spectra. DAlOH is depth AlOH-absorption feature of white mica, DFeOH
is depth of FeOH-absorption of chlorite (Clark, 1999). A is reflectance minimum of
iv
AlOH-absorption feature, B is reflectance minimum of FeOH-absorption feature, Rx is
reflectance at wavelength x, and Wy is wavelength position of feature y (adopted from
Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2005). .............................................................................................26
Figure 4.6: Box plots of (A) mineral versus WMAI and (B) mineral versus wavelength position of
reflectance minimum. Boxes represent inter-quartile range that contains 50% of values.
Line across the box indicates mean; the circle indicates an outlier. ..................................27
Figure 4.7: Plot of white mica alteration index versus wavelength position of reflectance minimum.
Circles with different colour indicate the distribution of the minerals in the diagram.
Arrows represent the direction of the abundance of chlorites, white micas, and Al content
in the minerals. ...................................................................................................................28
Figure 4.8: Portions of geological map (see Figure 2.2) overlain with locations of field samples with
WMAI values equal to one and less than one. Hydrothermal zones are shown in blue and
VMS ore bodies are in dark grey. Boxes labelled as B, C and D enlarged images for visual
clarity. .................................................................................................................................29
Figure 4.9: Sample number versus depth absorption of illite peak around 2.200 m wavelength. This
graph shows AlOH depth (DAlOH) variability of illite in the field samples. .......................30
Figure 4.10: Spectra of illite minerals showing variation on depth and shape of absorption around
2.200 m wavelength. Spectrum 62t, spectrum.322, spectrum.279 and 32t are collected
from field samples and interpreted by TSG software for visual clarity. Spectrum 62t has
the highest white mica absorption depth (DAlOH)................................................................30
Figure 4.11: Typical reflectance spectra of white mica (Clark, 199). Dotted and solid rectangles and
numbers in nanometers (nm) indicate wavelength positions of spectral bands in the
HyMap imagery used..........................................................................................................31
Figure 4.12: False colour composite (RGB) of band ratio images (R=2.171m/2.187m,
G=2.187m/2.205m and B=2.356m/2.257m). Polygons with black colour boundary
are hydrothermal zones (see Figure 2.2). Box B is an enlargement from Box A...............32
Figure 4.13: Endmember spectra collected from the HyMap imagery (section 4.2.1). Spectra
representing AlOH, FeOH and MgOH absorption depths were selected and plotted in
Figure 4.14 for clarity (visually).........................................................................................32
Figure 4.14: Endmembers selected from Figure 4.12. Arrows and numbers (m) in spectra indicate
absorption wavelengths of H-O-H, Al-OH, Fe-OH and Mg-OH........................................33
Figure 4.15: Subsets of reflectance spectra (Figure 4.12). This diagram shows absorption depth
(DAlOH) variability in white micas. Relative absorption depth at 2.2050 m in
decreasing order was SM1, SM2, SM3, SM4 and SM5.....................................................33
Figure 4.16: Plots of endmember spectra (SM1), field spectra (spectrum.142, illite) and USGS library
spectra (illite 3 spec). The endmember spectra collected from airborne imagery (SM1)
shows a good match to field spectra and USGS library spectra.........................................33
Figure 5.1: False colour composite of rule images SM3, SM2 and SM1 (in RGB sequence) produced
using endmembers collected from the HyMap imagery (Figure 4.13). Green colour in
these images indicates the hydrothermal alteration zones (see also Figure 4.12A), whereas
other colours represent unaltered areas. Boxes labelled as B, C and D represent areas
enlarged images from Box A for visual clarity. .................................................................36
Figure 5.2: Image output of SAM classification using endmembers derived from HyMap band ratios
(Figure 4.13). Legends SM1, SM2, SM3, SM4 and SM5 represent spectra with AlOH
absorption depth (around 2.200 m) in decreasing order (Figure 4.15). Most of the spectra
(endmembers) are mapped in the hydrothermal alteration zones (Figure 2.2). Boxes
labelled as B, C, D and E represent areas enlarged from Box A for visual clarity. ...........37
Figure 5.3: Image output of the SAM classification using endmembers derived from the field spectral
data. Boxes labelled as B, C and D represent areas enlarged from Box A for visual clarity.
............................................................................................................................................38
Figure 5.4: White mica probability estimated using logistic regression model in Equation 5.3. Boxes
labelled as B, C, D and E represent areas enlarged images for visual clarity. High
probability values (reddish brown color) represent white micas; and northeast southwest-
v
elongated magenta colours indicate metagabbro rock units and areas that have low white
mica probability values...................................................................................................... 41
Figure 5.5: Plot of white mica probability measured in field spectra versus white mica probability
predicted from airborne spectra for prediction subset (A) and validation subset (B). ...... 42
Figure 5.6: Absorption wavelength of white micas measured from field spectra versus absorption
wavelengths of white micas predicted using the multiple regression model (Equation 5.5).
........................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 5.7: Plots of white mica absorption wavelength predicted from airborne spectra versus white
mica probability predicted from airborne data. A represents for training samples, B for
validation subsets, C after masking out probability values 0.5 from the training subset
and D after masking out probability values 0.5 from the validation subset. Triangles
indicate absence of white mica and circles indicate presence of white mica. The
presence/absence of white micas was determined from analysis of the field spectral data
(Equation 4.2). ................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 5.8: Top panel shows white mica absorption wavelengths estimated from the airborne data
using the model (Equation 5.5). Bottom panel is an enlarged image of the northeastern
part of the top image. ......................................................................................................... 46
Figure 5.9:Image output of SAM classification using endmembers derived from HyMap band ratios
(Figure 4.13) overlain by mineral deposits and white micas and chlorites. Boxes labelled
as B, C, D and E enlarged images from Box A for visual clarity. Red circle with dark
colour at the centre in box B, C, D and E represent Gorob, Vendome, Lungui and Bruna
copper deposits, respectively. ............................................................................................ 48
List of tables
Table 1.1: Research activities, datasets, and outputs. ............................................................................. 5

Table 3.1: Principal components analysis on six TM bands, Gorob-Hope area. .................................. 13
Table 3.2: Principal components analysis on four TM bands (TM1, TM4, TM5, and TM7), Gorob-
Hope area. .......................................................................................................................... 14
Table 3.3: Principal components analysis on four TM bands (TM1, TM3, TM4, and TM5), Gorob-
Hope area. .......................................................................................................................... 14
Table 3.4: Principal Component analysis on four bands (TM1, TM4, TM5, and TM7) after masking
out the surficial deposits, Gorob-Hope area. ..................................................................... 15
Table 3.5: Principal Component analysis on four bands (TM1, TM3, TM4, and TM5) after masking
out the surficial deposits, Gorob-Hope area. ..................................................................... 16
Table 3.6: Principal components analysis on six ASTER Bands, Gorob-Hope area............................ 17
Table 3.7: Principal components analysis on six ASTER Bands after masking out the surficial
deposits Gorob-Hope area. ................................................................................................ 18
Table 4.1: Minerals analyzed from field spectral samples using TSG software................................... 23
Table 5.1: Statistical parameters of logistic regression model (Equation 5.3) of white mica probability
using different band ratios as predictors............................................................................ 40
vi
Spectral Remote Sensing of Hydrothermal Alteration associated with Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits,
M.Sc. Thesis by Sisay Ayalew Amera
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Research background

Many developing countries rely on the utilization of their mineral resources to sustain their
economic development. Exploration and exploitation of mineral deposits, especially metalliferous
deposits, is necessary for many developing countries. Moreover, the price of some metals like gold
and platinum group metals is always in a better position compared to other metals. Finding new
mineral deposits, especially metalliferous deposits, will therefore be useful to sustain economic
development of a country. Reliable geo-information in the form of geological and mineral
prospectivity maps is, in turn, important in exploration and development of mineral resources.
However, geological and mineral exploration methods require huge investments, extended time, and
tremendous human labor particularly in areas that are not easily accessible. Drury (2001)
approximated the costs and average efficiencies of some of the exploration methods. If we take one
example from his approximations, the cost and efficiency of geological reconnaissance field study are,
respectively, 160 US dollars km-1 and 10 km2 day-1. In contrast, in his study, the cost and efficiency of
satellite remote sensing for preliminary study are, respectively, 0.02 US dollars km-1 and greater than
106 km2 day-1. He also concluded that the low cost and efficiency of remote sensing, in early
exploration, makes it a favored method. It is also useful in targeting smaller areas for more detailed
and follow-up studies (Drury, 2001).
Remote sensing has paramount importance not only for geological surveys of the developing
countries but also for potential investors in the field of mineral exploration (Rokos et al., 2000). Thus,
employing the advantages of remote sensing can help in reducing the degree of risk to investment in
the mining sectors (Drury, 2001). Further understanding of ore deposit lenses and their pattern of
mineral zonations (Cudahy et al., 2000) will facilitate much more mineral exploration activities.
Therefore, the main motivation of this research is to support field prospecting in providing geo-
information to geological and mineral prospectivity mapping by analyzing and integrating spatial
information from remotely sensed data sets.
1.2. Research problem definition

Conventional geological and mineral exploration methods require huge investments, extended
time, and tremendous human labor particularly in areas that are not easily accessible. The use of
remote sensing data allows effective localization of exploration targets and reducing costs and time
spend during prospecting fieldwork (Rokos et al., 2000) of geological, geophysical, and geochemical
studies of an area. On the one hand, therefore, evaluation of quantitative properties of the geological,
geophysical, and geochemical characteristics of earth materials and their spatial association using
remotely sensed datasets such as hyperspectral, multi-spectral and airborne geophysical data is very
important before and after field mapping of mineral and geological features. On the other hand, the
lack of up-to-date mineral abundance maps and the lack of a clear definition of geological features
associated with the massive sulfide deposits are major contributing factors that hold back investment
and development for mineral exploration and mining in the study area.
1.3. Previous work and justification for using the various remotely
sensed datasets
Several studies demonstrate the importance of remote sensing to mineral exploration. There are
two general approaches for using remote sensing applications (Sabins, 1999) in mineral exploration.
The first approach is mapping of lithologies and fractures that localize ore deposits. The second
approach is recognizing hydrothermally altered rocks by their spectral signatures.
Sabins (1999) explained the use of multispectral and hyperspectral images to identify
hydrothermal alteration. Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite images are beneficial to
interpretation of geology and structures. Using bands subtraction and principal component analyses,
1
Chapter 1
Torres-Vera and Prol-Ledesma (2000) presented the results and explained the possibility of spectral
enhancement of a TM image to identify oxides and hydroxyl-bearing mineral in Guanajuato district
(Mexico). However, due to their broad spectral band passes Landsat images are not effective for
detection and mapping of specific hydrothermal alteration minerals. ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne
Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) images are also useful for interpretation of geology,
structures, and hydrothermal alteration zones. Rowan and Mars (2003) compared high-resolution
laboratory reflectance spectra of selected minerals and corresponding re-sampled ASTER spectra and
showed that ASTER mineral spectra are distinguishable in spite of their much lower spectral
resolution. They also explained that the spectral reflectance differences between the carbonate
minerals (calcite and dolomite) and the muscovite minerals (Al-muscovite and Fe-muscovite) are
noticeable in the ASTER spectra, as well as in the laboratory spectra. However, detailed mineralogical
information is more obtainable by processing and analyzing hyperspectral data. Hyperspectral data
obtained from the short wave infrared (SWIR) wavelength region 2.0-2.5 m are extensively useful
for mineral mapping in hydrothermal alteration systems (Van der Meer and Bakker, 1998; Tapia et
al., 2000; Wendell and Nasubaum, 2000; Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2006). Cudahy et al. (2000) used
HyMap to identify and derive mineral maps (e.g., hydrated iron oxides and sulphate related weathered
exposures of VMS gossans). They concluded that white mica information from hyperspectral VNIR-
SWIR data is useful to map VMS discharge zones and target potential metals occurrences.
1.4. Study area

1.4.1. Location
The study area is the Matchless Amphibolite Belt (MAB) in the Gorob-Hope Region, Namibia. It
is located between longitudes 15011E and 15029E; and latitudes 23036S and 23031S (Figure 1.1).
The belt is up to 5 km wide and stretches for about 350 km east - northeastwards. The study area is
arid-environment and has well-exposed rocks and soils.
Figure 1.1: Location map of the study area.
1.4.2. Datasets
The datasets used for the research are hyperspectral image (2004 Gorob-Hope HyMap scene),
ASTER image, Landsat ETM+ image, regional geological map and analogue detailed geological map.
Detail explanations for Landsat ETM+ data in section 3.2.1; for ASTER data in section 3.2.2; for
regional and detail geological maps in section 2.4; and for hyperspectral image in section 4.3.2 were
given.
2
Introduction
1.4.3. Software
The different types of software used for this research include: ENVI 4.2, Spectral Geologist
(TSG), SPSS14 and ArcGIS 9.1. ENVI 4.2 was mainly used for processing and analyses of
hyperspectral and multi-spectral images. TSG was used to interpret field spectra data and calculate
their absorption depths and wavelength regions. SPSS14 was used to carry out the statistical analyses
and to develop models of the probability of the presence or absence of white micas and estimation of
absorption wavelengths of minerals in the study area. ArcGIS 9.1 was used to georeference, digitize
and capture various maps in a database. Images and maps were compared and analyzed in ArcGIS 9.1.
1.5. Research Objectives

1.5.1. General objectives
The main objective of this research is:
To assess usefulness of multispectral (Landsat ETM+, ASTER) and hyperspectral (HyMap)
datasets in identifying and mapping patterns of mineral zonations associated with
volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposit in the Gorob-Hope area, Namibia.
1.5.2. Specific objectives
The specific objectives of this research are to:
Identify/map hydrothermal alteration zones associated with VMS deposit using multispectral
(Landsat ETM+, ASTER) and hyperspectral (HyMap) datasets of Gorob-Hope (Namibia).
Characterize alteration minerals and determine mineral vectors to mineralization.
Develop a model of probability of absence or presence of white micas and estimate their
absorption wavelength.
1.6. Research questions

Are mineralized lenses and hydrothermal alteration patterns associated with VMS deposits in
the Gorob-Hope area (Namibia) identifiable/mappable by using multispectral and/or
hyperspectral data?
Are spectral features (absorption) in HyMap data useful in hydrothermal alteration mapping in
the Gorob-Hope area?
Is spectral variability of hydrothermal alteration minerals useful in identification of mineral
zonations associated with VMS deposits?
1.7. Research hypotheses

Distinctive absorption features of mineral spectra are useful to discriminate/identify
mineralized lenses, patterns of mineralized zones and geologic features in the study area.
Typical VMS deposits such as Besshi-type deposits (Taylor et al., 1995) consist of lens-shaped to
sheet-like bodies of sulphide-rich rocks spatially associated with volcanic rocks ranging in
composition from basalt to rhyolite (Figure 1.2). Many Besshi-type deposits form thin, laterally
extensive sheets of pyrrhotite- and (or) pyrite-rich massive sulphide rock (Taylor et al., 1995).
Moreover, these deposits tend to cluster in en echelon pattern (Cox, 1986). Therefore, it can be
hypothesized that VMS deposits lenses and associated hydrothermal alteration patterns are
identifiable by studying absorption spectral features using hyperspectral data.
3
Chapter 1
Figure 1.2: Essential characteristics of an idealized volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit (adopted
from Taylor et al., 1995). Mineral abbreviations as follows: Sp, sphalerite; Gn, galena; Py, pyrite; Ba,
barite; Cpy, chalcopyrite; Po, pyrrhotite; and Hem, hematite.
1.8. Research methodology

To achieve the research objectives and to answer the research questions, several steps were taken
(Table 1.1).
Literature review was carried out in order to understand the geology and the geological
features related to mineralization of the study area.
The datasets were digitally be captured into a Geographic Information System (GIS),
processed, analyzed and integrated so as to interpret geological features and their spatial
associations to each other. Moreover, the analogue detailed geological map of Gorob area was
scanned, georeferenced and digitized.
Image processing and classification were done to identify and map mineralized zone and
mineral abundance.
The specific steps are discussed in respective chapters of the thesis.
1.9. Thesis organization

This thesis has been developed as a series of chapters that are connected each other.
o Chapter 2. Description of the study area-briefly describes general and local
geology, structure and mineralization of the study area.
o Chapter 3. Hydrothermal alteration mapping with multispectral data- starts with
basic pre-processing and explains processing of multispectral images in order to
delineate hydroethermal alteration minerals.
o Chapter 4. Alteration mineral abundance and zonation mapping with
hyperspectral data-this part explains analysis of field spectra and airborne spectra
data for spectral variability of hydrothermal alteration minerals and selection of
endmembers for surface compositional mapping of hydrothermal minerals.
4
Introduction
o Chapter 5. Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMap data-this chapter

explains how analysis of field spectra data and hyperspectral data were carried out.
Surface compositional mapping of hydrothermal alteration minerals and developing
for absence or presence of white micas and their absorption wavelength were
elaborated. Validation of results obtained against the results of previous researchers
and public maps were also explained.
o Chapter 6. Summary, conclusion and recommendation-In this chapter summary of
the study, conclusions drawn and recommendation given were presented.
Table 1.1: Research activities, datasets, and outputs.

Activities
Main steps Input spatial data Procedures Outputs* Validation
involved
Literatures
Review regarding geology
----------- ----------- -----------
literature of study area and
methodologies
Scanning,
Analogue
georeferencing and Digital geological
geological map -----------
digitizing lithologic map
(Figure 4.1)
Building units and structures
spatial data Capture and Landsat ETM+, Data preparation,
Using detailed
processing ASTER, HyMap, processing, Alteration zones
geological map of
of spatial field spectral data interpretation and map
Gorob area
data sets digitizing
Endmember
Processed HyMap
2004 HyMap; field selection and
images and spectral -----------
spectral data building spectral
library**
library
Using field spectral
data and
Spatial data Mineral Classification using Mineral abundance
Processed HyMap hydrothermal zones
processing abundance the built spectral map and
images in Gorob area
and analysis mapping library (refer **) mineralized lenses
detailed geological
map
probability model
and map (white
Statistical Field spectral data; Using validation
Analyses Statistical analyses micas); absorption
analysis HyMap subsets
wavelength model
of white micas
Integration Map overlay Produced maps
Visual comparison ----------- -----------
of results operations (refer *)
5
Chapter 2: Description of the Study Area
2.1. Overview of the geology

The age of the geological history and rocks of Namibia ranges from Achaean to Phanerozoic, thus
covering more than 2600 million years of earth history. Nearly half of the countrys surface area is
bedrock exposure, while the remainder is covered by young surficial deposits of the Kalahari and
Namibia Deserts (Geological Survey of Namibia, 2005).
522198 530198 538198 546198

7393052
7393052
522198
Faults
5
530198
5
2.5 0
2.5 0
538198

5 Kilometers
5 Kilometers
amphibolite;amphibole schist;metagabbro;ultramafic schist
mica schist (migmatitic)
mica schist;metagreywacke;migmatite
546198
monzogranite
monzogranite (migmatitic;foliated;biotite-rich)
schist (graphitic)
surficial deposits
Figure 2.1: Geologic map of Gorob-Hope area (adopted from Breitkopf and Maiden, 1988).
The Damaran Orogenic Belt, which strikes ENE across Central and Northern Namibia, is part of
the late Precambrian to early Paleozoic Pan African network of mobile belts (Downing and Coward,
1981). The Damara Orogen is formed at the triple junction of the Kalahari, Congo, and Rio-de-la-
Plata Cratons (Poli and Oliver, 2001). The depositional, metamorphic, and deformational history of
central Damara orogen is complex; and Miller (1983) summarized it into an extensional-rifting-
spreading phase and a compressional-convergence-collision phase. Jung and Mezger (2003) stated
that The early history is characterized by deposition of a widespread flysch facies. and suggested
that crustal thinning took place around 700 Ma ago and might be accompanied by limited seafloor
spreading and its outcome is the 300 km long Matchless Amphibolite belt in Gorob-Hope area (Figure
2.1).
Kuiseb Formation is the youngest unit in the stratigraphic column of Swakop Group (Preussinger,
1990). Matchless Member Amphibolite (MMA) is a member of the Kuiseb Formation with prominent
assemblages of lenses of foliated amphibolite, chlorite amphibolite schist, talc schist, and metagabbro.
7
Chapter 2
The MMA occurs over the whole strike length of the Kuiseb Formation as a narrow band of
amphibolites interbedded with metasediments. Preussinger (1990) recognized the metasediments in
the Gorob-Hope area as metaturbidites. As reported by Klemd and Okrusch (1990), typical
intercalations within the MMA are magnetite quartzites and chloritic schists.
Silicate assemblages in the wall rocks of the metamorphosed sulphide deposits of Matchless
indicate that metamorphism took place under temperatures between 5500 and 6250C and minimum
pressure of 6-8 k bar (Klemd and Okrusch, 1990). In addition to regional metamorphism, the northern
limb of the Hope synform underwent a further thermal event caused by the post-tectonic intrusion of
the Donkerhuk Granite (Preussinger, 1990).
2.2. Local geology

2.2.1. Lithologies
The main lithologic units of Gorob-Hope area (Figure 2.2) are metabolites, metasediments, and
pre-metamorphic alteration zones (Preussinger, 1990).
Figure 2.2: Geological map of the Gorob area (adopted from Preussinger (1990)). 1-calcrete and gravel, 2-
amphibolite, 3- metagabbro, 4- talc schist and related rocks, 5- metasediments, 6- zones of pre-metamorphic
hydrothermal alteration, 7- magnetite-quartzite, 8- graphitic schist, 9- F1 axial plane trace, 10- F2 axial plane
trace, 11- S2 foliation, 12- F2 axial plane and plunge, 13- L2 intersection lineation, 14- So bedding form line.
2.2.1.1. Metabasites
In Gorob-Hope area, there are two bands of amphibolites with a maximum thickness of 400 m
each (Preussinger, 1990). The two bands are the hanging wall band and the outer band, which are best
developed in the southern limb and the core of the Hope synform, respectively. The two distinct
amphibolite layers appear to coalesce on the northern limb (Mineral Resources of Namibia, 2006).
Pillow-structures are widespread within the Matchless Member Amphibolite (MMA). Further, in the
8
Description of the study area
structural footwall of the Gorob area, there are several boudinaged, sill-like and thin amphibolite
layers interpreted as metamorphosed gabbroic intrusions (Preussinger, 1990).
2.2.1.2. Metasediments
Graded units and psammitic intercalations are the two main types of metasediments (Preussinger,
1990). Graded units that are originally derived from deposition by turbidity currents have high lateral
continuity (Preussinger, 1990) . Layers and boudins of calc-silicate rock (hornblende-garnet gneiss)
are frequent within the graded cycles and they are interpreted by Preussinger (1990), as original
contents of detrital carbonates. Unlike graded units, psammitic intercalations are laterally
discontinuous but of very homogeneous composition and without preserved sedimentary structures
(Preussinger, 1990). The rock types change from psammitic quartzbiotiteplagioclase schists to
pelitic staurolitemuscoviteplagoclase schists. Preussinger (1990) interpreted the psammitic turbidite
beds north of the amphibolites at Gorob as a number of coarsening- and thickening-upward cycles,
which are tectonically inverted.
2.2.1.3. Pre-metamorphic alteration zones

Zones of pre-metamorphic alterations present in the structural hanging wall of the ore bodies are
staurolitekyanitesillimanite schists, chlorite schists and mica felses (Preussinger, 1990). According
to Preussinger (1990), the boundaries of these zones are commonly gradual; and sedimentary
structures such as graded bedding can be seen at the fringes, but are completely overprinted further
inside. He also reported that a typical feature is the lack of cal-silicate rocks within these zones, but
they contain rather high amounts of opaque phases, generally increasing towards the main
mineralization. Pre-metamorphic alteration zones around Gorob (see Figure 2.2) are always between
the structural hanging wall and the amphibolites except at Bruna (see Figure 2.2). At Bruna, the pre-
metamorphic hydrothermal alteration zones are in the structural footwall of the ore bodies.
2.2.1.4. Magnetite-quartzite and quartzite-muscovite schists

Magnetite-quartzite and quartzite-muscovite schists present in the lowermost parts of the
mineralized sections and accompany the ore lenses in the Gorob area. Pirajno and Jacob (1991)
regarded the magnetite-quartzites as the metamorphosed equivalents of Fe- and Si-rich exhalites. The
mineralization in these rocks is mainly stratiform. According to Preussinger (1990), the content of the
sulphides decreases as the content of magnetite increases rapidly in the structural footwall at Gorob
area. Magnetite-bearing-quartzites lenses around the Matchless mine are contained in the biotite-
sericite schist and amphibolite schist (Dill et al., 2002). According to Dill et al. (2002), pyrite,
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, marcasite, sphalerite, and galena are the major sulphide minerals of the ore
body.
2.3. Structure, mineralization and stratigraphy

The VMS mineralization in the Gorob area (Figure 2.2) occurs as lenses and cuspate structures of
variable size enveloped by magnetite quartzite and quartz-muscovite schist (Preussinger, 1990). The
quartz-muscovite schists in the immediate structural hanging wall are fine grained and show a strong
planar fabric mainly defined by oriented muscovite (Preussinger, 1990). The thin layers of
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite are arranged conformably to the fabric (Preussinger, 1990). The
elongation of the general patterns and shapes of the ore bodies and hydrothermal zones in the NE-SW
direction (Figure 2.2) was the effect of the simple shear (Preussinger, 1990).
Pirajno and Jacob (1991) subdivided the auriferous deposits of the intercontinental branch into
extensional and convergence phases of the geodynamic evolution of the orogen. Massive sulphide
deposits of Otjihase, Matchless, Hope, and Gorob are Besshi-type (Breitkopf and Maiden, 1988).
These deposits are believed to be the results of extension culminated with the emplacement of mafic
intrusive and extrusive rocks of the Matchless Amphibolite Belt (Miller, 1983). All the mineralized
zones are elongated towards the west because of deformation (Figure 2.2).
9
Chapter 2
In general, mineralization in the study area is regarded as typical of proximal volcanogenic sulfide
deposits formed at site of sea-floor spreading (Mineral Resources of Namibia, 2006). Preussinger
(1990) explained that massive sulfide deposits in the Gorob-Hope area is hosted by pelitic and
psammitic schists of the Kuiseb Formation and are associated with MMA. He also suggested that
hydrothermal convection and expulsion of metal-rich fluids on the seafloor have been the main ore
forming processes; and magnetite-quartzites (iron-formation) at Gorob were interpreted as
metamorphosed ferruginous cherts of exhalative origin and synsedimentary faulting would have
provided migration ways for the hydrothermal fluids. There are eight separate sulfide-mineralized
lenses in the Gorob-Hope area of which Gorob, Vendome, Luigi, Bruna, and Hope are in the Gorob-
Hope area (see Figure 2.2). However, according to Pirajno and Jacob (1991) the sulfide ore bodies
occur as not only lenses but also as pods and disseminations within the schists and are associated with
zones of magnetite-quartzite. These deposits are stratabound but Matchless Mine is not (Pirajno and
Jacob, 1991). It reaches across the lithologic boundaries and structurally controlled (Mineral
Resources of Namibia, 2006). Vesignieite, a secondary copper mineral (BaCu3 (VO4)2(OH)2), was
found in the gossan zone of Gorob, Vendome, Bruna and Hope lenses (Schneider and Lauenstein,
1992). Preussinger (1990) reported that gossan lenses are tectonically controlled and concentrated at
the boundary of the magnetite- quartzites and the quartz-muscovite schists. According to his remark,
the iron-content of the originally altered rocks or pre-metamorphic alteration zones is responsible for
their most characteristic feature in the field.
2.4. Implication for remote sensing

As the study area is mostly devoid of vegetation, the lithological units and structures (Figures 2.1
and 2.2) could be identified and mapped using remote sensing datasets. Multi-spectra (Landsat and
ASTER) and hyperspectral (HyMap) data are used in this study for geological mapping, especially
identification of alteration zones and mineralized lenses. The geological maps are used as guides in
the analyses of the remote sensing datasets. The geological map shown in Figure 2.1 is already
available in digital format.
The geological map shown in Figure 2.2 was raster scanned with a resolution of 600 dpi and
georeferenced to the UTM zone 33S projection using WGS84 datum. This geological map (Figure
2.2) is the only geological reference data present to the researcher and used as a base for this research.
The geological units in the georeferenced raster-scanned map were then digitized and used to guide
and validate remote sensing of mineralized lenses and /or hydrothermal alteration zones in the study
area.
10
Chapter 3: Hydrothermal alteration mapping with

multispectral data
3.1. Introduction
Digital image processing techniques have been widely applied to mineral exploration using
multispectral and hyperspectral remote sensing images (for example, Van der Meer, 1997; Torres-
Vera and Prol-Ledesma, 2000; Drury, 2001; Owusu et al., 2006). The spectral information related to
minerals of interest represent very small fraction of the total information in these remote sensing
images. Thus, the information interest within the vast amount of data in spectral RS images is usually
not identifiable or its extraction is difficult unless the data is properly processed (Loughlin, 1991).
The main objective of this chapter is to identify and map hydrothermal alteration zones associated
with VMS deposits in the Gorob area (Figure 2.2; section 2.2.1.3) using Landsat ETM+ and ASTER
datasets. Figure 3.1 shows a comparison of wavelength band coverage of Landsat ETM+ imagery,
which has nominal spatial resolution of 30 m, and of ASTER imagery, which has variable spatial
resolutions. For this study, the Landsat ETM+ image used was acquired on 6th of April 2000 and the
ASTER image used was acquired on 27th of September 2006.
Figure 3.1: Wavelength coverage of Landsat ETM+ and ASTER bands.
3.2. Pre-processing of the multispectral datasets

3.2.1. Landsat ETM+ data
The Landsat ETM+ imagery was projected to the UTM projection (WGS84, zone 33S). Path and
row of the image were 179 and 76, respectively. A subset from whole scene covering only the study
area was extracted. The Landsat ETM+ data were corrected for haze and atmosphere interference
using ATCOR2 in ERDAS7.8. The solar zenith angle used for the correction was 43.81822974
degrees.
3.2.2. ASTER data
The ASTER image is Level-1B, which is already radiometrically calibrated, geometrically
corrected and scaled radiance at the sensor. A subset from whole scene covering only the study area
was extracted. The ASTER data were also projected to the UTM projection (WGS84 datum, zone
33S).
3.3. Colour composites

Most of the images are displayed in grey scales. However, the human eye is capable of
discriminating about 30 grey levels in the black to white range (Drury, 2001) but much more sensitive
colour differences to recognize colour patterns. Therefore, different false colour combinations of
Landsat TM, ASTER, and Hyperspectral images were used to identify lithologic units, linear features,
and hydrothermal alteration zones. Combination of Landsat TM bands in RGB sequence 5, 4, 1
11
Chapter 3
enhances geological units (Rigol and Chica-Olmo, 1998); and colour composites of ratios 5/7, 5/4, 3/1
in RGB sequence highlighted hydrothermally altered areas.
3.4. Band ratios

Band ratios enhance the spectral differences between bands and reduce the effects of topography
(ENVI, 2005). Dividing one spectral band by another produces an image that provides relative band
intensities. The image enhances the spectral differences between bands. Band ratios of 5/7, 5/4 and
3/1 and their colour combinations in RGB sequence of TM images were created for the detection of
hydrothermal zones (Figure 3.2). Band ratio of 5/7 enhanced clay minerals as they have reflectance in
band 5 and absorption in band 7, whereas band ratios 3/1 enhances iron-oxides and ratio 5/4 enhances
ferrous minerals. Similarly, ASTER band ratio (5+7)/6 was also created for AlOH enhancement.
524148 530148 536148 542148

7395044
7395044
7389044
7389044
524148 530148 536148 542148
,
Kilometers
0 2 4 8
Figure 3.2: Colour composite of Landsat ETM+ band ratios in RGB sequence: 5/7 (for clay), bands 5/4 (for
ferrous) and bands 3/1 (for iron oxide). The bright red pixels represent hydrothermal alteration zones.
3.5. Principal components analysis

Principal components analysis (PCA) is a technique for simplifying a dataset by reducing
multidimensional datasets to lower dimensions for analysis and for removing the redundancy of
information that exists between the different bands to extract the pertinent information from them
(Loughlin, 1991; Gomez et al., 2005). The Crosta Technique which is fast, robust, reliable, requires
no atmospheric correction, requires no detail knowledge of the spectral properties of specific targets
and which can be carried out with standard PCA software (Loughlin, 1991) was applied to identify
alteration mineral mapping from Landsat TM and ASTER images. According to Loughlin (1991), this
technique could be implemented by geologists using inexpensive image processing systems; and the
images produced by PCA could be accurate in delineating alteration zones. Feature Oriented Principal
Components Selection (FPCS), which was described by Crosta and Moore (1989), is based on the
examination of PCA eigenvector loadings to decide which of the principal component images will
concentrate information directly related to the theoretical spectral signatures (Figure 3.1) of specific
targets. The relevant principal component images could show targeted surface types by highlighting
them as bright or dark pixels (Loughlin, 1991).
12
Hydrothermal alteration mapping with multispectral data
3.5.1. PCA of Landsat data

Landsat ETM+ image covering the Gorob-Hope area acquired on 6 April 2000 was projected to
WGS84 datum of UTM 33S projection. The image covers large area and it was resized (subset) to fit
the study area. The Landsat ETM+ image used for this analysis was not atmospherically corrected.
Principal component analysis of six TM bands (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7) raw data (unstretched) is shown
in the Table 3.1. The table is a listing of the image statistics, eigenvalues (which give an indication of
decreasing variance in successive principal components), and eigenvector loadings (linear
combinations of weighted input images in the principal components) for a principal components
transformation, using the covariance matrix, on all six reflective bands on the Gorob-Hope Landsat
TM scene.
Table 3.1: Principal components analysis on six TM bands, Gorob-Hope area.

Input Bands TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM5 TM7
Band Means 119.10 123.18 159.83 122.32 161.20 148.58
SD of Bands 16.42 21.00 31.41 24.66 28.20 21.80
Eigenvector matrix Eigenvalue (%)
PC1 0.2647 0.3522 0.5327 0.4156 0.4722 0.3555 95.84
PC2 0.4148 0.3616 0.3174 0.1017 -0.5450 -0.5377 2.29
PC3 0.5046 0.2490 -0.1994 -0.5081 -0.2305 0.5765 1.32
PC4 0.4727 0.0947 -0.4470 -0.0939 0.5935 -0.4546 0.31
PC5 0.0677 0.1482 -0.5942 0.7167 -0.2590 0.1993 0.15
PC6 0.5246 -0.8076 0.1515 0.1907 -0.0870 0.0753 0.09
The first principal component (PC1) is composed of a positive weighting from all the six bands
(Table 3.1). As it is observed, the first principal component does not contain spectral features relevant
in this analysis, as it is a combination of all bands with a major contribution from band 3, which has
the largest standard deviation (SD) of 31.41. The eigenvalue, PC1 accounts for 95.84 % of the total
variance. Overall brightness, or albedo, is effectively mapped into PC1. The remaining components
showed decreasing variance caused by differences between spectral regions and between individual
bands. According to the Crosta and Moore (1989) approach, the magnitude and sign (positive or
negative) of eigenvector loadings are indications of which spectral properties of surface materials
(rocks, vegetations, and soils) are responsible for the statistical variance mapped into each PC. The
second component (PC2) indicates in visible and near infrared data and short wave infrared data. High
positive values in this PC are due to the high EM (Electro-Magnetics) reflectance values of visible
and near infrared data, whereas the negative values are due to the low EM reflectance of the infrared
data. Negated PC3 indicates iron-oxide enrichments, as band 1 and band 3 are inversely related.
Hydroxyl minerals are enhanced in PC4 as this PC has higher loading of band 5, but with opposite
sign with band 7. PC4 has positive contribution of band 5 (0.5935) and negative contribution of band
7 (-0.4546). This is in accordance with spectral characteristics of hydroxyl minerals that have
reflectance in band 5 and absorption in band 7 (Figure 3.1.). The PC5 represents vegetation as it has
reflectance in band 4 and opposite loading in band 3. The PC6 most probably relates to noise.
Principal component analysis of four TM bands (1, 4, 5, and 7) is shown in Table 3.2. Analysis for
the four bands is similar to those for the six bands. Landsat TM bands 1, 4, 5, and 7 can be used for
the hydroxyl mapping (Loughlin, 1991). Omission of TM bands 2 and 3 is to avoid mapping of iron
oxides. The PC1 is composed of a positive weighting from all the four bands (Table 3.2). As it is
indicated by the eigenvalues, PC1 accounts for 95.14 % of the total variance. Overall brightness, or
albedo, is effectively mapped into PC1. The values of PC2 for TM1 and TM4 are negative while the
values for the same PCA for TM5 and TM7 is positive (Table 3.2). This is the contrast between
visible and SWIR region in the image. Hydroxyl mapping by PCA on TM bands 1, 4, 5, and 7 is to
examine the eigenvector loadings (Loughlin, 1991) for bands 5 and 7, in both of PC3 and PC4. It is a
methodology to find which (PC3 or PC4) has a moderate or strong loading from both bands, with
opposite signs (Loughlin, 1991). Negating PC4 (Figure 3.3) is needed because the loading on TM5 is
13
Chapter 3
negative and the loading on TM7 is positive (Table 3.2) so that the anomalous pixels, which may
suggest clay alterations, are brightest in all cases (Loughlin, 1991).
Figure 3.3: Negated PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ bands (Table 3.2). The bright pixels
indicate hydroxyl minerals enrichments.
Table 3.2: Principal components analysis on four TM bands (TM1, TM4, TM5, and TM7), Gorob-Hope area.
Input Bands TM1 TM4 TM5 TM7
Band Means 119.10 122.32 161.20 148.58
SD of Bands 16.42 24.66 28.20 21.80
PC1 0.3363 0.5350 0.6184 0.4672 95.14
PC2 -0.6292 -0.4533 0.3260 0.5406 2.45
PC3 0.6261 -0.4766 -0.3246 0.5248 1.99
PC4 -0.3146 0.5301 -0.6371 0.4627 0.42
Principal component analysis for the iron-oxide minerals was also carried out; and the rules
applied for mapping iron oxides are similar to those for hydroxyl mapping. The bands used are 1, 3, 4,
and 5 of Gorob-Hope scene. Table 3.3 describes the principal components transformation on these
bands. The omission of one SWIR band (TM7) is to avoid hydroxyl mapping (Loughlin, 1991). To
enhance iron oxides as bright pixels (Figure 3.4), PC3 was negated as band 3 has negative loading and
band 1 has positive loading (Loughlin, 1991).
Table 3.3: Principal components analysis on four TM bands (TM1, TM3, TM4, and TM5), Gorob-Hope area.
Band Means 119.10 159.83 122.32 161.20
SD of Bands 16.42 31.41 24.66 28.20
PC1 0.3033 0.6157 0.4821 0.5446 96.83
PC2 0.6491 0.3259 -0.0501 -0.6855 2.09
PC3 0.6211 -0.3103 -0.5365 0.4798 0.85
PC4 0.3178 -0.6469 0.6909 -0.0572 0.23
14
Figure 3.4: Negated PC3 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ bands (Table 3.3). The bright pixels
indicate iron oxide mineral enrichments.
The PCA approach described above enhanced not only the hydrothermal alteration minerals but
also the surficial deposits (Figure 2.1). The DN value of pixels of surficial deposits could influence
the loadings of the PCs. Hence, the surficial deposits in the geological map are masked out and the
PCA technique was re-applied. The rules applied for mapping hydroxyls and iron oxides in these
areas (after the surficial deposits are masked out), are similar to those before they were masked out.
The results are shown in Table 3.4 and 3.5 and the corresponding maps Figures 3.5 and 3.6,
respectively.
Table 3.4: Principal Component analysis on four bands (TM1, TM4, TM5, and TM7) after masking out the
surficial deposits, Gorob-Hope area.
Band Means 55.11 52.69 71.31 68.23
SD of Bands 56.27 55.05 73.81 70.12
PC1 0.44 0.43 0.57 0.55 99.58
PC2 -0.27 -0.73 0.17 0.61 0.20
PC3 -0.82 0.34 0.45 -0.08 0.19
PC4 0.24 -0.42 0.67 -0.57 0.03
15
Chapter 3
Figure 3.5: PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ band (Table 3.4) after masking out the surficial
deposits. The bright pixels indicate enrichments in hydroxyl minerals.
Table 3.5: Principal Component analysis on four bands (TM1, TM3, TM4, and TM5) after masking out the
surficial deposits, Gorob-Hope area.
Band Means 55.11 69.57 52.69 71.31
SD of Bands 56.27 72.61 55.05 73.81
PC1 0.43 0.56 0.42 0.57 99.62
PC2 0.86 -0.32 -0.40 -0.04 0.19
PC3 -0.25 -0.45 -0.25 0.82 0.17
PC4 -0.13 0.62 -0.77 0.07 0.02
Figure 3.6: PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ band (Table 3.5) after masking out the
surficial deposits. The bright pixels indicate enrichments in iron-oxide minerals.
16
3.5.2. PCA of ASTER data

Principal component analysis was also applied to the ASTER image (Table 3.6). The PC1 has
98.88% eigenvalue; most of it is contributed by band 4. As it can be observed from Figure 3.1, band 4
of ASTER image covers the spectral region where hydrothermal alteration minerals reflect strongly.
This is shown in PC2 resulting from six ASTER bands (Table 3.6; Figure 3.8) where the other bands
have negative loadings for this PC. According to Crosta and de Souza Filho (2003), other bands
encompass wavelength ranges in which different alteration minerals show diagnostic absorption
features:
2.17-2.21 m (bands 5 and 6) PC3: major absorption by Al(OH)bearing minerals (kaolinite,
montmorillonite, illite, pyrophyllite), plus alunite and buddingtonite;
2.25-2.30 m (band 8) PC5: major absorption by Fe(OH)-bearing minerals (jarosite);
2.30-2.40 m (bands 8 and 9) PC4: major absorptions by Mg(OH)bearing (chlorite, talc) and
carbonate (calcite, dolomite) minerals;
2.40 m (band 9): broad absorption feature by opaline silica.
Table 3.6: Principal components analysis on six ASTER Bands, Gorob-Hope area.
Input Bands Band 4 Band 5 Band 6 Band 7 Band 8 Band 9
Band Means 25.35 8.66 8.13 7.37 5.52 4.29
SD of Bands 3.64 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.70 0.47
PC1 0.904 0.221 0.219 0.212 0.167 0.112 98.80
PC2 0.424 -0.381 -0.444 -0.489 -0.398 -0.284 0.99
PC3 0.044 -0.549 -0.477 0.322 0.576 0.186 0.12
PC4 -0.015 0.512 -0.630 0.483 -0.227 -0.236 0.05
PC5 -0.013 0.493 -0.323 -0.615 0.478 0.214 0.02
PC6 -0.011 0.018 0.162 -0.027 0.450 -0.878 0.01
Figure 3.7: PC2 image resulting from using six ASTER bands (Table 3.6). The bright pixels indicate hydroxyl
minerals enrichments.
17
Chapter 3
Table 3.7: Principal components analysis on six ASTER Bands after masking out the surficial deposits Gorob-
Hope area.
Input Bands Band 4 Band 5 Band 6 Band 7 Band 8 Band 9
Band Means 11.400 4.041 3.779 3.412 2.543 1.999
SD of Bands 11.614 4.081 3.824 3.460 2.584 2.022
PC1 0.8453 0.2967 0.2780 0.2517 0.1879 0.1470 98.88
PC2 0.5292 -0.5415 -0.4597 -0.3414 -0.1953 -0.2463 0.92
PC3 -0.0722 -0.5165 -0.1719 0.4376 0.6978 0.1417 0.11
PC4 -0.0009 -0.5004 0.7859 -0.3491 0.0221 0.0981 0.05
PC5 -0.0059 -0.2467 0.2167 0.6845 -0.4670 -0.4534 0.03
PC6 -0.0167 0.2016 0.1314 -0.1955 0.4702 -0.8261 0.01
Figure 3.8: PC2 image resulting from using six ASTER bands (Table 3.7) after masking out the surficial deposits.
The bright pixels indicate hydroxyl minerals enrichments.
3.6. Discussion and conclusions

Colour composite, band ratio and principal component analysis results highlighted alteration
areas. Colour combination of band ratios (section 3.4) used to identify the hydrothermal alteration
zones (Figure 3.2). Moreover, it was possible to identify hydroxyl and iron-oxide alteration minerals
using principal component analysis. The loadings of TM5, TM7 and ASTER band 4 for hydroxyl
minerals in principal component analysis increased after surficial deposits were masked (see Table
3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.7 and 3.8).
Both loadings of TM1 and TM3 for PC3 (Table 3.5) were negative after the surfacial deposits
were masked thus the only the possibility of PC to display, according to Loughlin (1991), was PC4
which had opposite loading of TM1 and TM3 (Table 3.5). The corresponding image produced,
however, was not sharp. This may be due to the fact that most of iron oxide minerals are more
dominant in surfacial deposits than the other lithologic units (Figure 2.1). This can be observed in
Table 3.1 that band 3 has higher standard deviation (SD) and PC1 loading than other bands. When
surfacial deposits are masked out, SD and PC1 values of band 7 become higher but of band 3 become
lower (see Table 3.5).
18
Hydrothermal alteration areas highlighted by the analyses results of this chapter together with
hydrothermal zones delineated in the geological map (Figure 2.2) are investigated further for
alteration mineral abundance and zonation mapping with hyperspectral data in the next chapter.
19
Chapter 4: Alteration mineral abundance and zonations

mapping with hyperspectral data
4.1. Introduction
Remote sensing for mineral deposits with associated hydrothermal alteration is one of the most
common applications in mineral exploration. Identification of hydrothermally altered minerals and
understanding the characterization of hydrothermal alteration systems are progressively become
possible using field and laboratory reflectance spectroscopy. Analysis of spectral variability of
alteration minerals such as illite, muscovite, alunite and other alteration minerals allows estimation of
temperature of formation and compositional zonations of associated mineral deposits (Tapia et al.,
2000). Van Ruitenbeek et al. (2005) studied the spectral characteristics of white micas to reconstruct
fluid pathways in fossil hydrothermal systems. Therefore, the main objective of this chapter was to
identify hydrothermal mineral zones that can help for exploration of VMS deposits. In order to
achieve this objective, field spectral and airborne hyperspectral datasets were analyzed to study
spectral variability of minerals and selection of spectral endmembers for identifying hydrothermal
zones and to develop models for the presence or absence of white micas and their absorption
wavelengths. The later one is dealt in chapter five.
4.2. Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of light as a function of wavelength that has been emitted, reflected, or
scattered from a solid, liquid, or gas (Clark, 1999). Shifts in position and shape of absorption bands in
the electromagnetic spectrum are caused by variations in the material compositions (Clark, 1999). In
general, the 0.45-2.5 m wavelength region provides mineralogical information based on analysis of
electronic absorption features in transitional metals, especially iron and of molecular absorption
features in carbonate, hydrate, and hydroxide minerals (Hunt, 1977). Many hydrothermal alteration
mineral spectra display well-defined and characteristic features in the regions near 1.4, 1.76, and 2.0-
2.4 m (Hunt, 1977). Vibrational transitions associated with hydroxyl and water produce absorption
features near1400 nm (OH and H2O) and 1900 nm (H2O) (Clark, 1999; Pontual et al., 1994). Other
important spectral absorption features that distinguish different silicates in SWIR occur at
wavelengths near 2200, 2250 and 2330 nm, which are related to the bending and stretching of the
bonds between AlOH, FeOH, and MgOH, respectively (Clark, 1999; Pontual et al., 1994).
4.3. Datasets
4.3.1. Field spectral data
The field spectral reflectance measurements in the study area were collected by the Geological
Survey of Namibia in 2000, 2002 and 2004 using ASD (Atomic Spectral Device) in and around the
hydrothermal alteration zones. The location of the field spectral data and the frequency of the
minerals identified are shown in Figure 4.1 and Table 4.1, respectively. The field spectral
measurements were visually inspected and then analyzed using the Spectral Geologist (TSG)
software. However, there are no other available data such as thin section results to compare or support
the TSG mineral identifications. Therefore, these available data were initially accepted and the further
analyses in this study were carried out based on them. These field spectral datasets were the main
inputs for analyses to identify hydrothermal alteration zones and to develop white mica probability
and their absorption wavelengths.
21
Chapter 4
537065 539065 541065 543065

7396742
7396742

R

49

R R

50
7394742
7394742
R
39

45

R

38

R

42

7392742
7392742

R

30

1 0.5 0 Kilometers

537065 539065 541065 543065

L
Legend d
amphibolite
calcrete and gravel
graphitic schist
magnetite-quartizite
metagabbro
metasediments
talc schist and related rocks
zones of pre-metamorphic hydrothermal alteration
R
S2_foliation

fault
F1_axial_plane

F2_axial_plane_trace
So_bedding_from_lines
Field_spectra
Figure 4.1: Locations of field spectral data from rock samples plotted on the geological map of Gorob area
(digitized from Preussinger (1990)).
22
Alteration mineral abundance and zonations mapping with hyperspectral data
Table 4.1: Minerals analyzed from field spectral samples using TSG software.
Mineral Number of spectra Per cent (%)
Ankerite 2 0.5
Aspectral 11 2.9
Biotite 99 26.2
Brucite 1 0.3
Calcite 1 0.3
Dark 2 0.5
Diaspore 2 0.5
Epidote 4 1.1
Fe-Chlorite 1 0.3
Fe-Tourmaline 4 1.1
Halloysite 5 1.3
Hornblende 48 12.7
Illite 30 7.9
Int-Chlorite 102 27.0
Jarosite 1 0.3
K-Alunite 2 0.5
kaolinite 1 0.3
Mg-Clays 1 0.3
Mg-Chlorite 14 3.7
Muscovite 26 6.9
Opal 14 3.7
Paragonite 3 0.8
Phlogopite1 2 0.5
Tremolite 1 0.3
Total 377 100.0
4.3.2. HyMap imagery

Five HyMap scenes covering the Gorob-Hope area were acquired on 10 April 2004. Each of the
HyMap scenes consists of hyperspectral data in 126 narrow bands from 0.45 to 2.48 m with a
nominal 5 m spatial resolution. The recording time for all the scenes ranges from 10:26:25 to 11:24:34
Coordinated Universal Time (UCT). The HyMap images of Gorob-Hope area were already corrected
geometrically, atmospherically, and radiometrically. The HyMap data are huge and they require large
disk space and takes large amount of time to process. Therefore, only the northeastern part of Figure
2.1, which is around Gorob area, was selected for analysis based on the results of the multispectral
image analyses applied for identification and delineation of hydrothermal alteration zones (see
sections 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5). Image processing and mineral abundance mapping of the HyMap were
carried out on these selected areas. Moreover, alterations spatially associated with tectonic structures
(faults) were assumed to be results of hydrothermal alterations as tectonic structures (faults) could be
used as conduits for fluids and to localize hydrothermal alteration minerals. This helped the selection
of areas of hyrothermally-altered zones.
In addition to the false colour combinations (see section 3.3), natural colour combination of the
HyMap using the algorithm developed by (van der Werff et al., 2006) was produced (Figure 4.2). In
this figure, the lighter colour show the metasedimentary (schist) units, the darkish colour show
metagabbro and the brownish colour shows the hydrothermal alteration zones (see Figure 2.2). The
HyMap imagery of the Gorob scene together with field spectral data was the main input for analyses
to identify hydrothermal alteration zones and to develop white mica probability and their absorption
wavelengths.
23
Chapter 4
Figure 4.2: An enlarged image in natural colour combination of part of the HyMap of Gorob scene. The map was
produced using the approach explained by (van der Werff et al., 2006). The brownish colour shows the
hydrothermal zones. The dark areas represent metagabbro and the remaining lighter areas represent
metasediments (see Figure 2.2).
4.4. Analysis of field spectral data

Among the spectral data collected in the field and analyzed by the TSG software, only those
minerals present in the hydrothermal zone of the study area were selected and their spectral
characteristics were visually inspected. The minerals selected to be representative for hydrothermal
alteration in the study area, based on Haussinger et al. (1993), are chlorites and micas. The spectral
library of the spectral interpretation field manual volume 1 (Pontual et al., 1994) and the reference
library of TSG software were used for the visual inspection. After visual inspection of the spectra, the
representative minerals such as, white micas and chlorites were analyzed based on their distinguishing
absorption features. After evaluating the errors of the mineral identification of the TSG software,
representative sample spectra of white micas (illite, muscovite, and paragonite) and chlorites were
plotted in Figures 4.3 and 4.4. The errors, in the result of interpretation of the TSG software, show the
level of confidence of the mineral identification. The error or acceptable score that is considered to be
viable, according to the TSG software manual, is a score of 2000 or less. All of the white mica and
chlorite minerals analyzed by the TSG software were in this acceptable range (Pontual et al., 1994).
Representative field spectra of illite and muscovite are shown in Figure 4.3. These spectra show
sharp absorption features at 2.212 m and 2.204 m diagnostic of muscovite and illite, respectively;
and sharp absorption features at 1.413 and 1.406 m also diagnostic of muscovite and illite,
respectively. The water absorption feature at 1.921 m of muscovite is weaker than the water
absorption feature of illite at 1.913 m. According to Pontual et al., 1994, muscovite can be
distinguished from illite by weak to absent water absorptions.
Chlorite group minerals occur more frequently than other groups of minerals in the field samples
as indicated by the spectral measurements (Table 4.1). Representative field spectra of chlorites are
shown in Figure 4.4. Common shape of chlorite water absorptions can be seen from all the chlorite
field spectral measurements. The shift in wavelength position of absorption features due to MgOH
and FeOH can be noticed at around 2.300 m (Figure 4.4). The strong and wide absorption feature of
24
Fe-chlorite (Figure 4.4, bottom) is an artifact of strong Fe2+ (Clark, 1999; Hunt, 1977; Pontual et al.,
1994).
Figure 4.3: Spectrum.142 and spectrum.173 interpreted as illite and muscovite, respectively, by TSG software.
Arrows and numbers (m) indicate absorption wavelength positions in the spectrum.
(a (b)
)
(c)
Figure 4.4: Spectra of field samples containing dominantly of chlorite minerals: (a) Mg-chlorite (spectrum.239),
(b) intermediate chlorite (spectrum.228), and (c) Fe-chlorite (spectrum.2690. Arrows and numbers (m) indicate
absorption wavelength positions in the spectrum.
25
Chapter 4
4.4.1. White mica alteration index

Wavelength position of mineral absorption features and white mica alteration index (WMAI) were
determined from the field spectral data. The parameters and formulae (Figure 4.5, Equations 4.1, 4.2
and 4.3) used for the calculation of the white mica alteration index (WMAI) were developed by Van
Ruitenbeek et al. (2005).
Figure 4.5: Reflectance spectrum showing spectral parameters that were determined from near-infrared
reflectance spectra. DAlOH is depth AlOH-absorption feature of white mica, DFeOH is depth of FeOH-absorption of
chlorite (Clark, 1999). A is reflectance minimum of AlOH-absorption feature, B is reflectance minimum of
FeOH-absorption feature, Rx is reflectance at wavelength x, and Wy is wavelength position of feature y (adopted
from Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2005).
D AlOH
WMAI = (Equation 4.1)
D AlOH + D FeOH
(W A 2146nm)
D AlOH = R ( R2146nm R2236nm ) RWA (Equation 4.2)
90
(WB 2236nm)
DFeOH = R2236nm ( R2236nm R2286nm ) RWB (Equation 4.3)
50
Box plots of mineral versus WMAI and mineral versus wavelength position of reflectance
minimum were created (Figure 4.6). Values of WMAI (Figure 4.6A) higher than 0.75 indicate that
white mica dominates in the reflectance spectra; and values lower than 0.6 indicate chlorite
dominance (Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2005). These thresholds were determined from the reflectance
spectra. Absorption feature of white micas dominate the lower wavelength positions (Figure 4.6B). In
turn, the position of an absorption feature is a function of Al content of white mica (Van Ruitenbeek
et al., 2005); as the content of Al increases, the wavelength position of absorption feature decreases
from 2209 nm to 2195 nm range (Figure. 4.6B)
26
(A)
White mica dominant

1.0
0.8
White mica alteration index
0.6
0.4
Chlorite dominant
0.2
0.0
Illite IntChlor. MgChlori. Muscovit. Paragoni.

Minerals
(B)
2250 Low
wavelength position of reflectance minimum (nm)
IntChlorite
2240
2230
Al content
2220
2210
2200
2190
High
Illite IntChlor. MgChlori. Muscovit. Paragoni.
Minerals
Figure 4.6: Box plots of (A) mineral versus WMAI and (B) mineral versus wavelength position of reflectance
minimum. Boxes represent inter-quartile range that contains 50% of values. Line across the box indicates mean;
the circle indicates an outlier.
27
Chapter 4
A scatter plot of WMAI versus wavelength position of reflectance minimum was also created
(Figure 4.7). A WMAI of 1.0 indicates that a sample contains dominantly of white mica but not
chlorite, while a WMAI of 0.0 indicates that a sample contains dominantly of chlorite but not white
mica (Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2005). The scatter plot shows that composition of most of the field
samples is dominantly white mica while few of the field samples dominantly contain chlorite
minerals. Field samples consisting dominantly of white mica have higher WMAI values than field
samples consisting dominantly of chlorite minerals.
Chlorite dominant White mica dominant
Low
2220 Legend
Illite
Wavelength position of reflectance minimum (nm)
IntChlorite
MgChlorite
Muscovite
2215 Paragonite
2210
Al content
2205
2200
High
2195
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

White mica alteration index
Figure 4.7: Plot of white mica alteration index versus wavelength position of reflectance minimum. Circles with
different colour indicate the distribution of the minerals in the diagram. Arrows represent the direction of the
abundance of chlorites, white micas, and Al content in the minerals.
The field spectral samples with WMAI values equal to 1.0 are plotted and overlaid on the
geological map shown in Figure 2.2. These samples are located within hydrothermal zones very close
to the structural hanging wall of VMS mineralized zones (Figure 4.8). The position of the samples
with WMAI values of 1.0 is consistent with the report of Preussinger (1990) that the top of
stratigraphic sequence of the VMS mineralization in the study area is towards the south and it is
consistent with position of hydrothermal alteration in a model of VMS deposit (Figure 1.2). Thus,
while it was not possible in this research to study actually the mineralogy of field samples of
hydrothermally altered and mineralized outcrops, the analysis of the field spectral data especially the
WMAI values, indicates that minerals in the hydrothermal zones associated with the VMS deposits
contain white mica.
28
Figure 4.8: Portions of geological map (see Figure 2.2) overlain with locations of field samples with WMAI
values equal to one and less than one. Hydrothermal zones are shown in blue and VMS ore bodies are in dark
grey. Boxes labelled as B, C and D enlarged images for visual clarity.
4.4.2. Spectral variability of illite

The spectral information derived for the characterization of hydrothermal alteration haloes is
critical in the search for specific vectors of mineral deposits in mineral exploration (Tapia et al.,
2000). In order to obtain this information in this study, illite was considered as it is a white mica
mineral and it is more sensitive to environmental depositions than other alteration minerals (Tapia et
al., 2000). The spectral feature variability of illite in the field spectral data was determined using the
TSG software.
The variability in spectra of illite is a function of temperature and intensity of alteration (Pontual
et al., 1994; Tapia et al., 2000). Thus, because of the notably varied field spectra of samples known to
contain illite (Figure 4.9), it can be deducted that crystallinity and weathering intensity of illite in
hydrothermally altered rocks of the study area are also varied. The AlOH absorption depth (around
2.200 m wavelength) in these field spectra data was calculated using the Spectral Geologist software
and the result is plotted (Figure 4.9). Field spectral samples, for instance, spectrum.322 and 62t show
higher absorption depth at and near 2.200 m wavelength but spectrum.279 and 62t show shallower
absorption depth. In addition to absorption depth, the shape of absorption features was analyzed.
Sample spectrum.279 and 62t show broad and asymmetric features but samples spectrum.322 and 62t
show sharp and symmetric feature at 2.2 m (Figure 4.10). Shallower depth and asymmetric feature at
and near 2.2 m may be due to the mixture of illite and smectite (Tapia et al., 2000). This, in turn,
may imply a decrease in illite crystallinity and therefore a decrease in temperature of formation
(Pontual et al., 1994).
29
Chapter 4
Spectra of illite-bearing samples:absorption depth near 2200 nm
0.5
Absorption depth near 2200 nm
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
4
2
tru 8 t
UM t
tru 4 t
50
43
74
28
79
TR 64
ec .59
10
ec .14
ec .17
ec .27
ec .32
32
4
2
.2
.1
.1
.2
.3
m
m
tru
tru
tru
tru
tru
tru
tru
tru
ec
ec
ec
ec
ec
EC
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
SP
Sample number
Figure 4.9: Sample number versus depth absorption of illite peak around 2.200 m wavelength. This graph shows
AlOH depth (DAlOH) variability of illite in the field samples.
Figure 4.10: Spectra of illite minerals showing variation on depth and shape of absorption around 2.200 m
wavelength. Spectrum 62t, spectrum.322, spectrum.279 and 32t are collected from field samples and interpreted
by TSG software for visual clarity. Spectrum 62t has the highest white mica absorption depth (DAlOH).
30
The variability of spectral features of illite in the field samples suggest mineral zonations in the
hydrothermally altered rocks association with the VMS deposits in Gorob area (Figure 1.2). In this
area chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and pyrite are the main ore minerals (Haussinger et al., 1993; Klemd and
Okrusch, 1990; Preussinger, 1990). However, the field spectral data did not include these ore minerals
and they could not be mapped by the mapping methods used in this research. Therefore, it was
attempted to determine spatial distribution of illite from the field spectral data based on their
absorption depth at 2.200 m. The results do not, however show clear spatial distribution of illite
based on their absorption depths at 2.200 m in the field spectral data. This might be due to the
structural complexities (section 2.3) and/or the samples were not collected traverse to the zonations of
the hydrothermally altered areas.
4.5. Analysis of spectral endmembers from HyMap data

The analysis of the spectral endmembers (spectra dominated purely or mostly by one material, in
this case mineral) from airborne hyperspectral data is important, as it influences accuracy of the
mapping process. With available expert knowledge, endmembers can be selected from available
spectral libraries (USGS or JPL), but in the absence of expert knowledge they can be analysed from
field spectral data or from airborne/Spaceborne hyperspectral data. The latter has the advantage that
the spectra may match with the image being processed, as they are under the same atmospheric
conditions and bear the same distortions associated with the conversion to the surface reflectance
except that it has the risk of considering mixed pixels as endmembers. Thus, band ratios of the
radiance image, not atmospherically corrected image, were used in the analysis of spectral
endmembers. Spectral bands in the wavelength position ranging from 2000 nm to 2340 nm (Figure
4.11) were used in the calculation of band ratios since the hydrothermal minerals have diagnostic
absorption features within this wavelength range.
Figure 4.11: Typical reflectance spectra of white mica (Clark, 199). Dotted and solid rectangles and numbers in
nanometers (nm) indicate wavelength positions of spectral bands in the HyMap imagery used.
Colour composites of various combinations of band ratio images were then created and carefully
studied for their distinguishable zonations (for example, 2.171m/2.187m in red, 2.187m /2.205m
in green and 2.356/2.257 m in blue). The colour composite showing the best result is displayed in
Figure 4.12. This image and the continuum removed reflectance image were displayed and
geographically linked using ENVI 4.2 software. Then, the spectra of the areas showing distinct
zonations (Figure 4.12) were collected for analysis of endmembers (Figure 4.13). Endmembers having
absorption features at and near 2.20 m (AlOH absorption) include SM1, SM2, SM3, SM4 and SM5;
31
Chapter 4
and endmembers having absorptions at and near, 2.25 m (FeOH absorption) include SC1, SC2, SC3
and SC4. The other endmembers collected having absorptions at and near 2.30 m (MgOH
absorption) include S01, S02, S03 and S04. Endmember spectra SM1, SC1 and S02 were selected for
AlOH, FeOH and MgOH adsorptions, respectively, and plotted (Figure 4.14) for visual clarity.
Moreover, to show the spectral variability within the groups (AlOH, FeOH, MgOH) of the
endmembers collected, endmembers showing AlOH absorption (2.2050 m), as an example, are
plotted in Figure 4.15. In order to evaluate the spectra of the endmebmers collected, spectrum SM1, as
an example, were compared with the field spectra and USGS library spectra (Figure 4.16).
536613 538613 540613 542613 541936 542436 542936 543436
739 5793
739 5793

Kilometers
B

739 4746
7394746
0 0.4 0.8 1.6 2.4
739 5293
739 5293
739 2746
7392746
739 4793
739 4793
Kilometers
0 0.125 0.25 0.5
A B
536613 538613 540613 542613 541936 542436 542936 543436
Figure 4.12: False colour composite (RGB) of band ratio images (R=2.171m/2.187m, G=2.187m/2.205m
and B=2.356m/2.257m). Polygons with black colour boundary are hydrothermal zones (see Figure 2.2). Box B
is an enlargement from Box A.
Figure 4.13: Endmember spectra collected from the HyMap imagery (section 4.2.1). Spectra representing AlOH,
FeOH and MgOH absorption depths were selected and plotted in Figure 4.14 for clarity (visually).
32
Figure 4.14: Endmembers selected from Figure 4.12. Arrows and numbers (m) in spectra indicate absorption
wavelengths of H-O-H, Al-OH, Fe-OH and Mg-OH.
Figure 4.15: Subsets of reflectance spectra (Figure 4.12). This diagram shows absorption depth (DAlOH)
variability in white micas. Relative absorption depth at 2.2050 m in decreasing order was SM1, SM2, SM3,
SM4 and SM5.
Figure 4.16: Plots of endmember spectra (SM1), field spectra (spectrum.142, illite) and USGS library spectra
(illite 3 spec). The endmember spectra collected from airborne imagery (SM1) shows a good match to field
spectra and USGS library spectra.
33
Chapter 4
4.6. Discussion and conclusion

Field spectral and HyMap image analysis results showed that there is spectral variability of
hydrothermal alteration minerals in the study area. Diagnostic absorption features of AlOH, FeOH,
and MgOH occur at or near 2200 nm, 2250 nm and 2330 nm (Pontual et al., 1994), respectively.
Therefore, understanding the absorption features of minerals in relation to their wavelength positions
could help in identifying the minerals of interest (i.e., white micas and chlorites) in this research.
White micas and chlorites could be the result of alteration of host rocks with hydrothermal fluids
that used faults as migration ways. Identification of these minerals, in turn, can assist in selecting
target areas for VMS deposits explorations. In order to identify these minerals and use them as vectors
for VMS mineral deposits, alteration indices were calculated and spectral variability of the minerals
were analyzed. It was also possible to collect endmebmers that have absorption features of AlOH,
FeOH, and MgOH (see section 4.2) from HyMap data. Then, the endmebmers were used for surface
compositional mapping and prediction of presence or absence of white micas in the next chapter.
34
Chapter 5: Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMap

data
The main objective of this chapter is to carry out integrated analysis of field spectral
measurements data and airborne images (HyMap) for delineation of hydrothermal alteration minerals
distribution in general and white micas in particular. Surface compositional mapping using filed and
airborne spectral endmembers and developing models to predict absence or presence of white micas
and to estimate their absorption wavelengths are carried out. Importance of hydrothermal minerals
such as white micas for exploration of VMS deposits was briefly described in section 1.2 and 4.6.
5.1. Mapping spatial distribution of hydrothermal minerals

5.1.1. Application of Spectral Angle Mapper
The Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) is an automated classification method for directly comparing
image spectra to a reference reflectance spectrum or a known spectrum (usually determined in a
laboratory or in the field with a spectrometer) or an endmember (ENVI Tutorial, 2001). This method
treats both the questioned (t) and known (r) spectra as vectors in an n-dimensional space (with n being
the number of bands) and calculates the spectral angle () between them (ENVI Tutorial, 2001; Kruse
et al., 1993). Smaller angles indicate similarity of t spectrum to r spectrum (ENVI Tutorial, 2001).
The SAM method is insensitive to illumination because (see Equation 5.1) it has only vector direction
and not vector length.
n

ti ri

i =1
= cos 1/ 2 1/ 2
(Equation 5.1
n n

ti2
ri2
i =1 i =1
The output of SAM for each pixel is an angular distance between the endmember spectrum and
reference spectrum in radiance (ranging from zero to /2). The output of SAM is a new data set with
as many bands as the number of input endmebmers given to the algorithm (Equation 5.1). The SAM
classifier has other output images called rule images, which show the best SAM match between the
reference and the test (endmember) spectrum at each pixel. Darker pixels in these images represent
smaller spectral angles and thus spectra that are more similar to the reference spectrum and vice versa.
The endmembers used in application of the SAM classification were those collected in section 4.5
and the field spectra. The SAM classification was performed on HyMap image spectra pertaining to
the areas where hydrothermal alteration zones are delineated by the techniques discussed in sections
3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 and those indicated on the detailed geological map (Figure 2.2). For endmembers
derived from both the field spectral data and the HyMap data, the wavelength regions between 0.5 and
1.40 m and between 2.20 and 2.48 m were used for the classification in order to avoid matching
effects for the classification of large absorptions of OH and H2O at and around 1.40 m and 1.9 m
(Figure 4.13), respectively. The maximum angle (i.e., 0.1 radiance) used in the classification
procedures and minimum threshold for both field spectra and airborne spectra endmembers were used.
The results of the SAM classification using the airborne spectra and using the field spectra are shown
in Figures 5.2 and 5.3, respectively; the rule image of the airborne spectra is shown in Figure 5.1.
35
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1: False colour composite of rule images SM3, SM2 and SM1 (in RGB sequence) produced using
endmembers collected from the HyMap imagery (Figure 4.13). Green colour in these images indicates the
hydrothermal alteration zones (see also Figure 4.12A), whereas other colours represent unaltered areas. Boxes
labelled as B, C and D represent areas enlarged images from Box A for visual clarity.
The results show that hydrothermally altered rocks associated with the VMS deposits in the study
area can be mapped using endmembers derived from airborne hyperspectral images and spectral data
collected in the field. In this study, surface compositional mapping was carried out using spectral
endmembers selected from field spectral data and HyMap data.
The spectra of the endmembers collected from the airborne hyperspectral image of the study area
interpreted as white mica based on their absorption at and near 2.200 m mapped along the
hydrothermal alteration zones mapped by Preussinger, (1990). Endmembers that had absorption
around the AlOH absorption feature (Figure 4.13) were mapped close to the magnetite-quartzites (see
Figure 2.2). These endmembers were mapped on the structural hanging wall of the ore body (Figure
5.2) except around Baruna (see section 2.2.1.3 and 5.3.3) where these endmembers are plotted on the
structural footwall of the ore body.
36
Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMAP data
538235 541235 544235

B

7394330
7394330

C
D

E
1 0.5 0 1 Kilometers
7391330
7391330
538235 541235 544235
542349 542849 541198 541698

,

160 80 0 160 Meters

739 4801
7394801

73 9 55 8 0
73 9 55 8 0

160 80 0 160 Meters

,

739 4301
7394301
73 9 50 8 0
73 9 50 8 0
B C

542349 542849 541198 541698
539167 539667 540167 540667 536907 537107
,E
7393149
7393149
739 4464
7394464
,
739 3964
7393964

60 30 0 60 Meters
D
7392949
7392949
739 3464
7393464

300 150 0 300 Meters
539167 539667 540167 540667 536907 537107
SM1 SC2 SC1
SM2 SC3 SO3

SM3 SC4 unclassified
SM4 SO1 WMAI = 1
SM5 SO2 WMAI < 1

Hydrothermal alteration zone
Figure 5.2: Image output of SAM classification using endmembers derived from HyMap band ratios (Figure
4.13). Legends SM1, SM2, SM3, SM4 and SM5 represent spectra with AlOH absorption depth (around 2.200
m) in decreasing order (Figure 4.15). Most of the spectra (endmembers) are mapped in the hydrothermal
alteration zones (Figure 2.2). Boxes labelled as B, C, D and E represent areas enlarged from Box A for visual
clarity.
37
Chapter 5
536 831 538 831 540831 542831 542261 542 461 542 661 542861

Kilometers
0 0.03
0.06 0.12

7395600
7395600

B

Kilometers

0 0.4 0.8 1.6

7394792
7394792

C

D
739 5400
739 5400

739 2792
739 2792

739 5200
739 5200

B
536 831 538 831 540831 542831 542261 542 461 542 661 542861
541431 541631 539203 539503 539803 540103
Kilometers

0 0.020.04 0.08
7394073
7394073

7394582
7394582

7393773
7393773
D

7393473
7393473
7394382
7394382
Kilometers
C 0 0.050.1 0.2
541431 541631 539203 539503 539803 540103
spectrum.142--illite spectrum.343--halloysite
spectrum.155--hornblende spectrum.101-- intermediate chlorite
spectrum.175--intermediate chlorite spectrum.123--muscovite
spectrum.187--intermediate chlorite spectrum.24t--illite
spectrum.206--opal spectrum.67t--muscovite
unclassified WMAI < 1
WMAI = 1 Hydrothermal alteration zone
Figure 5.3: Image output of the SAM classification using endmembers derived from the field spectral data. Boxes
labelled as B, C and D represent areas enlarged from Box A for visual clarity.
38
5.2. Predicting spatial distribution of white micas

In order to predict presence of white micas and to estimate their wavelength absorption, regression
equations were determined using multiple regression analyses. The field spectra samples together with
the band ratios (section 4.5) were used for these analyses. Band ratio values were averaged using 15 m
x 15 m window in order to account for strong local variations due to mineralogy and other material.
The value of the airborne band ratios were extracted at each sample location of the field spectra.
The airborne band ratios were used as predictor (independent) variables and wavelength
absorptions measured in the field spectroscopy were taken as predicted (dependant) variables in order
to find the regression models for the prediction of the presence of white micas and for the estimation
of their absorption wavelengths
5.2.1. Probability of white mica occurrence

Van Ruitenbeek et al. (2006) used logistic regression modelling for mapping of white micas.
Logistic regression is a technique for the prediction of presence or absence of an outcome based on
values of a set of predictor variables. In order to obtain probability values for presence or absence of
white micas from a set of airborne band ratios, the following logistic regression model (Hosmer and
Lemeshow, 2003) was used:
1
Pi = ( b0 + b j x ij +.....+ b n x in ) (Equation 5.2)
1+ e
where:
Pi is the estimated white mica probability (ranging from 0 to 1) in the pixel that spatially coincides
with the ith rock sample;
xij is the jth predictor (airborne band ratio) value of the pixel that spatially coincides with the ith rock
sample;
bj is the jth regression coefficient, j = 1, .,n;
n is the number of predictors.
Maximum likelihood method was used to estimate the coefficient of the logistic regression model
in order to minimize the difference between measured white mica probability in rocks samples and
estimated white mica probability in spatially coinciding airborne pixels.
Analyses of reflectance spectra of field rock samples with field spectrometer indicated that 46.6%
of the samples collected contain white micas and chlorites (see Table 4.1). However, only 184
samples that are within and around the hydrothermal zones were selected for this research. White
mica is present in 39% of the 184 samples used as prediction subset and 38% of the184 samples used
as validation subset. Measuring very small absorption depths of AlOH (i.e., DAlOH 0.02) is difficult
and introduces errors. Therefore, samples with white micas with DAlOH 0.02 were not used in the
white mica probability analysis.
The probability of white micas being present in the rock samples was modelled with the following
logistic regression equation:
white mica probablity = 1

L
( 68.767 + 72.703( 2240nm )) (Equation 5.3)
1+ e L2205nm
where:
Lu is the radiance value of the airborne spectral band with centre wavelength u.
39
Chapter 5
The positive regression coefficient of the airborne band ratio L2240 nm to L2205 nm in the
Logistic regression model indicates that the steeper the slope in the airborne spectra the higher the
white mica probability in the ground. The squared ratios of the regression coefficient to their standard
errors, the Wald value, of predictor variable L2240 nm/L2205 nm was 8.944 and the p- value of the
predictor variable was 0.003. These statistical parameters indicate that the band ratio chosen was
useful to the model or the band ratio used contribute significantly to estimating absence or the
presence of white mica (SPSS, 2005). The overall percentage of classification is 82.40 for the
prediction and 73.90 for the validation, (using a white mica probability threshold value of 0.50). The
statistical parameters of this model are also compared (Table 5.1) with the parameters of models
produced using the band ratios used by Van Ruitenbeek et al. (2006). Band ratio 2240/2205 resulted
in the model with highest classification percentage and smallest p-value was therefore selected to
predict white mica probability, which is shown in Figure 5.4. Plots of measured white mica
probability in field spectra versus predicted white mica probability calculated from airborne spectra
show a good fit for both prediction and validation subset (Figure 5.5).
Table 5.1: Statistical parameters of logistic regression model (Equation 5.3) of white mica probability using
different band ratios as predictors.
Band ratio Constant Coefficient Wald value p-value Overall classification percentage
2240/2205 -68.767 72.703 8.499 0.003 82.40
2171/2187* -70.984 66.072 6.872 0.009 79.40
2008/2082* -12.770 31.276 1.211 0.271 72.10
2136/2187 -33.289 26.846 4.336 0.003 72.1
2136/2205 -30.441 23.665 4.775 0.029 76.5
2136/2223 -15.813 11.950 1.507 0.220 70.6
2153/2187 -39.123 33.820 4.839 0.028 76.5
2187/2205 -83.002 79.354 2.648 0.104 73.5
2223/2205 -110.35 109.377 8.651 0.003 75.0
2356/2257 -4.361 5.648 0.420 0.517 72.1
2100/2187 -19.056 14.900 2.419 0.120 70.6
2136/2205** -31.401 24.413 5.405 0.020 73.90
*Band ratios and parameters used by Van Ruitenbeek et al. (2006).
**Band ratio and parameters used in validation subset.
The white mica probability map was visually compared with the hydrothermally altered zones
indicated in the geological map (Figure 2.2). Most white mica probability values greater than 0.5 plots
within the hydrothermal zones. However, these values also plot around the rims of the gabbroic units
(Figure 2.2). Figure 5.4E clearly shows that white mica probability values are higher around the rims
than within the gabbroic intrusion units. This may be due to metamorphic alteration of the
surrounding rock units by the heat of the late gabbroic intrusions (Preussinger, 1990). It is not only
that relatively high values of white mica probability plot around the gabbroic units but also that the
probability of white micas towards the centre of the gabbroic units is very low. This shows that the
model (Equation 5.3) adequately predicts the probability of absence or presence of white micas.
40
536894 538894 540894 542894

B

580290 0 580 Meters

7395032
7395032

C E

D

Legend
7393032
7393032
Alteration_Zones
Probability
Value
High : 0.999898
A
Low : 0.000000
536894 538894 540894 542894

542 161 542361 542561 542 761 542961 540 986 541186 541386 541586 541786 541 986

7395683
7395683
110 55 0 110 Meters

7394846
7394846
140 70 0 140 Meters

7394646
7394646
7395483
7395483

7394446
7394446

7395283
7395283

7394246
7394246

C
7395083
7395083
B
542 161 542361 542561 542 761 542961 540 986 541186 541386 541586 541786 541 986
538647 539047 539447 539847 540247 540647 542178 542678
260 130 0 260 Meters

7394275
7394275

7393875
7393875
7395008
7395008

Metagabbro
7393475
7393475

D E
7393075
7393075
Meters
0 65 130 260
538647 539047 539447 539847 540247 540647
542178 542678
Figure 5.4: White mica probability estimated using logistic regression model in Equation 5.3. Boxes labelled as
B, C, D and E represent areas enlarged images for visual clarity. High probability values (reddish brown color)
represent white micas; and northeast southwest-elongated magenta colours indicate metagabbro rock units and
areas that have low white mica probability values.
41
Chapter 5
1.0
(A)
Measured white mica probability in field spectra
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 R Sq Linear = 0.597
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Predicted white mica probability from airborne spectra
1.0
(B)
Measured white mica probability in field spectra
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
R Sq Linear = 0.642
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Figure 5.5: Plot of white mica probability measured in field spectra versus white mica probability predicted from
airborne spectra for prediction subset (A) and validation subset (B).
42
5.2.2. Variation in absorption wavelength of white micas

Multiple linear regression technique is used for the prediction of continuous variables based on
values of a set of predictor variables. Linear regression (Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2006) was used for the
estimation of absorption wavelengths of white micas from a set of airborne band ratios:
yi = co + c j xij + + cn xin (Equation 5.4)
where:
yi is the estimated absorption wavelength of the pixel that spatially coincides with the ith rock
sample;
xij is the jth predictor (airborne band ratio) value of the pixel that spatially coincides with the ith rock
sample;
cj is the jth regression coefficient, j = 1, .,n;
n is the number of predictors.
Least squares method was used to estimate the coefficient of the linear regression model so that
the difference between measured absorption wavelengths in rock samples and estimated absorption
wavelengths in spatially coinciding airborne pixels is minimized.
Analysis of field samples reflectance spectra obtained with the field spectrometer indicate that
absorption wavelengths of white micas in the rock samples vary from 2195 nm to 2219 nm. The
absorption wavelength of white mica in a rock sample was modelled with the following regression
equation:
absorption wavelengh = 2634.351 404.168(L2171nm / L2187nm ) (Equation 5.5)
where:
Lu is the radiance value of the airborne spectral band with centre wavelength u of the pixel that
spatially coincides with the rock sample
For the regression model in Equation 5.5, R2 is 0.436, and adjusted R2 is 0.422; t-value for the
predictor variable is: -5.558 and p-value is 0.000. These statistical parameters indicate the band ratios
used contribute significantly to estimating the absorption wavelength of white mica (SPSS, 2005).
The negative regression coefficient for the band ratio in Equation 5.5 indicates that airborne band
ratio L2171 nm to L 2187 nm is correlated negatively with the absorption wavelength of white mica
(Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2006). This in turn, indicates that the higher the ratio the steeper the slope and
the shorter the absorption wavelength (Figure 4.11).
Measured absorption wavelength from field spectra versus the estimated absorption wavelength of
white micas using the model (Equation 5.5) is plotted in Figure 5.6. For white micas having DAlOH
0.02, the predicted absorption wavelengths from the airborne spectra range from 2194 nm to 2209 nm,
whereas the measured absorption wavelengths from field spectra range from 2195 nm to 2208 nm
(Figure 5.6) .
43
Chapter 5
Absorption wavelength prediction from airborne spectra (nm)
2210
2205
2200
2195
2194 2196 2198 2200 2202 2204 2206 2208

Absorption wavelength measured from field spectra (nm)
Figure 5.6: Absorption wavelength of white micas measured from field spectra versus absorption wavelengths of
white micas predicted using the multiple regression model (Equation 5.5).
The regression model for absorption wavelength of white mica (Equation 5.5) does not relate
presence or absence of white micas. In order to determine the prediction success of the model
(Equation 5.5), pixels that contain white mica larger than 0.5 in the probability values (Equation 5.3)
were masked. Absorption wavelength predicted from airborne spectra versus white mica probability
predicted from airborne spectra was plotted (see Figure 5.7A and 5.7B). The majority of the samples
that do not contain white mica (determined from analysis of the field spectra samples, Equation 4.2)
have low values (0.5) of predicted white mica probability (Figure 5.7). Absence of white micas
having probability values higher than 0.5 in Figures 5.7C and 5.7D demonstrates that airborne-derived
predicted white mica probability value was an effective mask for absence of white mica.
44
(A) White mica (B) White mica

1.0
Absent Absent
Present Present
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
2190 2200 2210 2220 2190 2200 2210 2220
Predicted absorption wavelength from Predicted absorption wavelength from

airborne spectra (nm) airborne spectra (nm)
0.5
(C) White mica
(D)
Absent
White mica Present
Absent 0.8
Present
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.0
2190 2200 2210 2220

2190 2200 2210 2220
Predicted absorption wavelength from
Predicted absorption wavelength from
airborne spectra (nm)
airborne spectra (nm)
Figure 5.7: Plots of white mica absorption wavelength predicted from airborne spectra versus white mica
probability predicted from airborne data. A represents for training samples, B for validation subsets, C after
masking out probability values 0.5 from the training subset and D after masking out probability values 0.5
from the validation subset. Triangles indicate absence of white mica and circles indicate presence of white mica.
The presence/absence of white micas was determined from analysis of the field spectral data (Equation 4.2).
45
Chapter 5
Figure 5.8: Top panel shows white mica absorption wavelengths estimated from the airborne data using the
model (Equation 5.5). Bottom panel is an enlarged image of the northeastern part of the top image.
46
5.3. Validation of results
Surface compositional mapping (section 5.1.1) and presence or absence of white micas determined
using the model developed in section 5.2.1 (probability of white mica occurrence) showed a good
match in spatial distribution of hydrothermal alteration minerals in the study area. However, this
spatial coincidence must be validated using ground truth in the study area. Therefore, in this chapter
ground geological map, field spectral data and mineral deposits were used for validations of analyses
results of this research.
5.3.1. Validation against geological map

The hydrothermal alteration maps derived from the HyMap data of the study area as described in
the previous chapters, in general, were in spatial agreement with the detailed geological map (Figure
2.2). This geological map was used to validate the hydrothermal alteration zones delineated (mapped)
in the previous chapters. The pre-metamorphic alteration zones and magnetite-quartzite and quartiz
muscovite rock units of the geological map coincide with the alteration zones delineated (see Figure
5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4). There are few areas that were mapped as halloysites in the field spectra data
(Figure 5.3B). Halloysites might be newly formed minerals as a result of weathering of chlorites while
white mica persisted (Ehara Suryantini et al., 2005).
5.3.2. Validation against field spectra

The dominant alteration minerals in the study area, according to Preussinger, H., (1990), were
chlorites and micas. White micas and chlorites interpreted from the field spectra data by the TSG
software were extracted and plotted (Figure 5.9) on the hydrothermally altered zones delineated in the
previous chapters. There was a good match between the images produced and the field spectra data
(Figure 5.9). Field spectra data plotted (see Figure 5.9) are only white micas (illite, muscovite and
paragonite) and chlorites that were a subset of all the field spectra data of the study area. Most of
these samples are plotted on pixels classified as SM1, SM2, SM3, SM4, SM5, SC1, SC2 and SC3 (see
section 4.5, Figure 4.13 and Figure 5.9).
5.3.3. Validation against location of known VMS deposit occurrences

Base metal deposits such as copper are located with close proximity of the hydrothermal alteration
zones delineated, in this research, using integrated analysis of field spectral and hyperspectral data
around Gorob (Figure 2.2). Copper mines of Gorob, Vendome, Luigi and Bruna (see Figure 5.9) are
the mineral commodities distributed northeast-southwest direction of the study area following
elongated patterns of the hydrothermal alteration zones in the same northeast-southwest direction.
Gorob, Vendome and Luigi mines are located on the structurally hanging wall of the ore bodies.
Bruna is located on the footwall of the ore body. The position of these mines in relation to the
hydrothermal alteration zones was revealed by Preussinger (1990). He pointed out that due to the
stratigraphic inversion hydrothermal alteration zones positioned in the hanging wall side of the ore
bodies except at Bruna where hydrothermal alteration zones are located at the footwall of the ore
bodies. Therefore, the spatial distribution of these mines validated the results of integrated analysis of
available datasets to develop a model for prediction of presence or absence of white micas and surface
compositional mapping of hydorothermally altered zones in this research.
47
Chapter 5
537041 539041 541041 543041
B

7395225
7395225

C

D
A

7393225
7393225
E

1 0.5 0 1 Kilometers
537041 539041 541041 543041

541974 542374 542774 543174 541134 541534 541934

210 105 0 210 Meters

7395624
7395624

B

7394527
7394527

7395224
7395224

C

7394127
160 80 0 160 Meters
541974 542374 542774 543174

541134 541534 541934
538904 539304 539704 536725 537125

7394047
7394047

7393647
7393647
D

7392911
7392911

E

140 70 0 140 Meters 100 50 0 100 Meters
538904 539304 539704 536725 537125
SM1 SC2 SC1
SM2 SC3 SO3
SM3 SC4 unclassified
SM4 SO1 Mines
SM5 SO2 White micas and chlorites
Hydrothermal alteration zone
Figure 5.9:Image output of SAM classification using endmembers derived from HyMap band ratios (Figure 4.13)
overlain by mineral deposits and white micas and chlorites. Boxes labelled as B, C, D and E enlarged images
from Box A for visual clarity. Red circle with dark colour at the centre in box B, C, D and E represent Gorob,
Vendome, Lungui and Bruna copper deposits, respectively.
48
5.4. Discussion
The analyses results of the field spectra data, airborne imagery data and the results of the models
for the estimation of the absence or presence of white micas for the hydrothermal minerals showed
good distribution of spatial coincidence. These results were integrated by overlaying them on the
ArcMap environment in order to evaluate spatial coincidence of the classification results of the
analyses. Most of the endmembers having wavelength absorption at 2.2050 m (SM1, SM2, SM3,
SM4 and SM5) collected from airborne imagery; illite, muscovite and halloysite from the field
spectra; and white micas that had high probability value (> 0.5) were mapped (see blocks B and C in
Figure 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4) within the hydrothermal zone mapped in the detail ground geological map
(Figure 2.2). Few areas were mapped as halloysites in surface compositional mapping (Figure 5.3B)
using the field spectral data. Halloysites might be newly formed minerals as a result of weathering of
chlorites while white micas persisted (Ehara Suryantini et al., 2005).
On the other hand, the analyses results showed that most of the white micas that were mapped
around Gorob and Vendome (Figure 2.2) in all the analyses were not mapped around Luigi (Figure
2.2). Around Luigi (Figure 5.1D, 5.2D, 5.3D and 5.4D) most of chlorites in the field spectra
endmembers, SM2 (see section 4.5) in the airborne imagery endmembers and very low probability
value of the presence of white micas estimated by the model (Equation 5.3) were mapped. Figures 5.1,
5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 showed these spatial distributions of the analyses results of the field spectra data,
airborne spectra and the model developed (Equation 5.3).
In addition to the spatial coincidence of the results of field spectral data, airborne imagery and the
white mica probability map produced using the model (Equation 5.3), absorption wavelengths of
white micas were estimated using the white mica absorption wavelength model (Equation 5.5). Unlike
for the estimation of probability of absence or presence of white micas in section 5.2.1, samples for
estimation of white mica absorption wavelengths were not enough to split into training and validation
sets. Therefore, all samples were used to develop the model (Equation 5.3). The result of estimation of
absorption wavelength of white micas is plotted in Figure 5.7 and Figure 5.8. White micas having
high probability values are with low absorption wavelength range (Figure 5.7).
49
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1. Conclusions
1. Geological mapping using remotely sensed data is very important for pre-field geological
mapping of an area, especially where it is not easily accessible. Remote sensing data used for
this thesis are either freely available or with minimal cost. Therefore, pre-field geological
mapping using these data sets has enormous advantage in reducing exploration cost, time and
human labour. If the satellite images are well enhanced, different surface matters will be
pronounced and it will be very easy to plan where to collect and give attention before going to
the field. It is possible to draw traverse lines and record the point locations where there are
variations in the produced images before going to the field.
2. It was possible to identify and delineate hydrothermal alteration zones in VMS deposits using
band ratios of the airborne radiance image (Hyperspectral image) in the study area. Using
endmembers from the airborne imagery itself for surface compositional mapping will
minimize the problem of spectral fitting of mapping using endmemebers from field spectral
data and public libraries such as USGS and JPL on top of applying atmospheric corrections of
HyMap iamges.
3. In addition to #1 and #2 above, the objectives of this research were achieved; and the
following equations raised at the beginning of this thesis were addressed as follows:
Are mineralized lenses and hydrothermal alteration patterns associated with VMS
deposits in the Gorob-Hope area (Namibia) identifiable/mappable by using multispectral
and/or hyperspectral data?
It was possible to identify/map hydothermal alteration zones using image analyses such as colour
combination, band ratio and principal component analysis of multi-spectral images. Moreover,
integrated analysis of field spectra and airborne data resulted in identifying of VMS deposit lenses
and their patterns in the study area.
Are spectral features (absorption) in HyMap data useful in hydrothermal alteration
mapping in the Gorob-Hope area?
Several band ratios were calculated in SWIR region of the HyMap in order to obtain distinctive zones
that, in turn, assisted in selecting spectra of different absorptions within SWIR regions. The spectra
selected, then used as endmembers for surface compositional mapping and delineating the
hydrothermal zones in the study area. Therefore, spectral features (absorption) in HyMap data were
very useful in hydrothermal alteration mapping in Gorob area.
Is spectral variability of hydrothermal alteration minerals useful in identification of
mineral zonations associated with VMS deposits?
Absorption depth and wavelength of white micas and chlorites were studied to calculate their
alteration index using TSG and SPSS software in this research. The result of this analysis resulted in a
satisfactory outputs of classified images that indicated where those minerals were spatially distributed
in relation to their spectral variability such as absorption depth and absorptionwavelength position.
WMAI calculated based on absorption depth of spectra of white micas and chlorites clearly showed
the spatial destitution of white micas in relation to hydrothermal zones and massive sulphide ores in
the study area.
50
6.2. Recommendations
1. Thin section, whole rock geochemical and isotope analyses results should be used to
validate/support spectral identification results of minerals by TSG software.
2. In order to prove the usefulness of the spectral evidences obtained from illite for identification of
ore deposit vectors, samples should be collected traverse to hydrothermal zonations.
3. In spite of structural complexity of the study area, if field spectral data is collected along and
across hydrothermal zones, it may be possible to delineate spatial distribution of white micas in
both horizontal and vertical mineral zonations.
4. It may also be possible to identify discharge and recharge vents of volcanic massive sulfide
deposits if more field spectral samples are collected systematically (vertical and horizontal
hydrothermal alteration mineral zones).
51
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Spectral Remote Sensing of

Hydrothermal Alteration associated with

Sisay Ayalew Amera

Sisay Ayalew Amera

Thesis Assessment Board

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION

This document describes work undertaken as part of a programme of study at the

Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1

Table 1.1: Research activities, datasets, and outputs. ............................................................................. 5

1.1. Research background

1.2. Research problem definition

1.4. Study area

Figure 1.1: Location map of the study area.

1.5. Research Objectives

1.6. Research questions

1.7. Research hypotheses

1.8. Research methodology

1.9. Thesis organization

o Chapter 5. Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMap data-this chapter

Table 1.1: Research activities, datasets, and outputs.

Chapter 2: Description of the Study Area

2.1. Overview of the geology

522198 530198 538198 546198

amphibolite;amphibole schist;metagabbro;ultramafic schist

mica schist (migmatitic)

2.2. Local geology

2.2.1.3. Pre-metamorphic alteration zones

2.2.1.4. Magnetite-quartzite and quartzite-muscovite schists

2.3. Structure, mineralization and stratigraphy

2.4. Implication for remote sensing

Chapter 3: Hydrothermal alteration mapping with

Figure 3.1: Wavelength coverage of Landsat ETM+ and ASTER bands.

3.2. Pre-processing of the multispectral datasets

3.3. Colour composites

3.4. Band ratios

524148 530148 536148 542148

3.5. Principal components analysis

3.5.1. PCA of Landsat data

Table 3.1: Principal components analysis on six TM bands, Gorob-Hope area.

3.5.2. PCA of ASTER data

3.6. Discussion and conclusions

Chapter 4: Alteration mineral abundance and zonations

537065 539065 541065 543065

537065 539065 541065 543065

4.3.2. HyMap imagery

4.4. Analysis of field spectral data

4.4.1. White mica alteration index

White mica dominant

Illite IntChlor. MgChlori. Muscovit. Paragoni.

Chlorite dominant White mica dominant

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

4.4.2. Spectral variability of illite

Spectra of illite-bearing samples:absorption depth near 2200 nm

4.5. Analysis of spectral endmembers from HyMap data

4.6. Discussion and conclusion

Chapter 5: Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMap

5.1. Mapping spatial distribution of hydrothermal minerals

538235 541235 544235

542349 542849 541198 541698

539167 539667 540167 540667 536907 537107

539167 539667 540167 540667 536907 537107

SM1 SC2 SC1

SM2 SC3 SO3

SM5 SO2 WMAI < 1

110 55 0 110 Meters

yi = co + c j xij + + cn xin (Equation 5.4)