Seminar Nasional Teknologi Peternakan dan Veteriner 2006

LIVESTOCK AND AGROFORESTRY

(Integrasi Peternakan, Pertanian dan Kehutanan)
LAXMAN JOSHI

Ethno-ecologist, ICRAF SE-Asia, Bogor

L.Joshi@cgiar.org

ABSTRAK

Ternak tidak hanya penting sebagai penghasil daging, susu dan telur, tetapi menjadi bagian dari rantai
makanan modern dan sumber protein yang berkualitas tinggi serta banyak lagi fungsi lainnya. Untuk berjuta-
juta petani kecil, tenaga kerja ternak dan siklus nutrien melalui kotoran ternak membantu mempertahankan
produksi yang berkelanjutan dan ramah lingkungan. Ternak sering merupakan modal utama bagi rumah
tangga petani dan sebagai tabungan yang strategis dan menjaga stabilitas sistem pertanian. Untuk alasan-
alasan itu, ternak menjadi bagian integral dalam sistem pertanian pedesaan. Ternak-ternak dalam sistem
subsisten, skala kecil atau skala besar dapat mempunyai peranan yang utama dalam pembangunan pertanian
dan kesejahteraan petani di Indonesia. Makalah ini memberikan gambaran singkat tentang peranan ternak
dalam sistem integrasi peternakan, pertanian dan kehutanan. Makalah disiapkan untuk memulai diskusi
tentang usaha-usaha kolaborasi yang dibutuhkan untuk mengintegrasikan ternak dengan program pertanian
dan kehutanan.
Kata Kunci: Padang Rumput, Perkebunan Karet, Ternak Ruminansia, Indonesia

ABSTRACT

Livestock are not only important as producers of meat, milk and eggs, which are part of the modern food
chain and provide high value protein food, but many other non-food functions. For millions of smallholder
farmers, animal draught power and nutrient recycling through manure compensate for lack of access to
modern inputs such as tractors and fertilizer, and help to maintain the viability and environmental
sustainability of production. Livestock often constitute the main capital reserve of farming households,
serving as a strategic reserve that reduces risk and adds stability to the overall farming system. For these
reasons, livestock remain an integral part of most rural agricultural systems. In Indonesia, however, livestock
in farming context have not yet been fully exploited. Livestock - whether at subsistence, small scale
commercial or larger market oriented levels can take a major role in Indonesian agriculture development
and human welfare. The presentation will provide some relevant examples from elsewhere. There is ample
scope under various tree crops such as rubber, cocoa, coconut as well as timber production systems. The
paper is a brief account of role of livestock in agroforestry, and vice versa. This is prepared to initiate
discussion on what new measures and joint efforts are required for incorporating livestock into an integrated
agroforestry program.
Key Words: Silvopasture, Rubber Agroforestry, Ruminants, Indonesia

INTRODUCTION agriculture environment providing meat, milk,

The role of animals in farming system in
the tropics continues to be debated. While
considered as an essential component of rural
agriculture system, animals are also often
associated with deforestation and
environmental degradation, especially when
animals are poorly managed or maintained in
fragile ecosystem. Cattle, goats, sheep, pig,
chicken and ducks are common in many
eggs and draught power. In many cases,
animals provide the manure that furnishes
many nutrients, especially nitrogen and
phosphorus, need for crop production thus
decreasing the dependence on imported
nutrients (PELL, 1998). If planned and
managed properly, appropriate kinds of
animals can be key components in sustainable
farming systems. Agroforestry systems that
incorporate animals with tree crops can

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 Seminar Nasional Teknologi Peternakan dan Veteriner 2006
enhance important cycles of nature such as
nutrient cycling and balancing of insect
populations while reducing energy intensive
management techniques. The key is to
integrate the natural needs, behaviors, and
products of animals with the environment
provided by the agroforestry system in a way
that maximizes the benefits to the animals and
to the system as a whole.
The economic role of livestock can be quite
substantial in small scale farming in the
tropics. In Ethiopia, animal husbandry
contributed about 40% of gross farm income.
Animals are often tradable savings that can
contribute needed cash for expenses like school
fees or to buy essential food and clothing
during difficult times. From a livelihood
perspective, livestock performs a pivotal role
in many aspects of rural household survival
and development.
AGROFORESTRY WITH ANIMALS
Livestock can play important services to
agroforestry and agriculture farms. They help
biologically control weed by grazing on weeds
and pecking on insect pests. Control of
understorey vegetation by animals, when
managed properly, can also reduce risk of fires
in plantations (RIGUEIRO-RODRGUEZ et al.,
2004). Birds and animals can consume fallen
fruits, nuts and other organic wastes while
loosening the soil by scratching and digging
(pigs, chickens, turkeys). Animal manure
(dung, urine, uneaten feed, bedding, etc.) are
important source of nutrients in many
subsistence farming systems in rural areas.
Likewise, agroforestry also provides
services to animal husbandry. Trees on farms
help create favorable habitat and resting place
for livestock that are essential in extreme
weather conditions. Trees and other agriculture
products and by-products including plants of
medical value form a diverse diet for livestock.
In some ways, agroforestry also help maintain
natural population densities of livestock where
external inputs are limited thus ensuring
sustainability and efficiency at a natural level.
There are disadvantages of livestock
integration in agroforestry too. Animals must
be carefully selected for particular systems to
avoid over-exploitation of resources. Extra
20
labour may be required to tend and manage
animals. In times of food scarcity, food and
water may need to be supplemented and
special health care will be required at times.
Overall, livestock keeping requires a special
set of skills and knowledge and may not be
easy or appropriate for all farmers.
The introduction and management of
animals must be carefully thought out, to
ensure that the right kinds of animals are
introduced to the right place, and at the right
time. Combining the right animals with the
right agroforestry system can create highly
productive systems that require less human
intervention for maintenance and control. In
this way, animal production can be sustainable.
Some environments, like savannas, are
naturally suited for certain types of grazing
animals; in other areas smaller animals and
birds might be more appropriate. For some
very fragile ecosystems, animals may not be
appropriate at all.
EXAMPLES OF AGROFORESTRY
SYSTEMS WITH ANIMALS
Silvopastoralism
Silvopasture is an agroforestry practice that
is specifically designed and managed for the
production of trees, tree products, forage and
livestock. Forage crops are deliberately
introduced or enhanced in a timber production
system, or timber crops are deliberately
introduced or enhanced. The interactions
among timber, forage and livestock are
managed intensively to simultaneously produce
timber commodities, a high quality forage
resource and efficient livestock production.
Essentially, it is an opportunistic activity that
makes beneficial use of forest herbs and shrubs
which would otherwise remain unused. The
effects of interactions among various
components on ecosystems processes, such as
competition and facilitation, determine the
productivity of individual components
(SHARROW, 1999).
Silvopastoralism is by far the most
common form of agroforestry practiced in
developed countries. In the temperate regions,
silvopastures are most common in coniferous
forest regions in the US, New Zealand,
 Seminar Nasional Teknologi Peternakan dan Veteriner 2006
Australia and Europe. These systems usually
consist of conifers, eucalyptus or other
evergreen trees that are unpalatable with anti-
herbivory chemicals, mainly promoted for non-
industrial foresters, farmers and livestock
producers who are often local people using all
tree, pasture and livestock components. The
Dehesas in south-west Spain is a form of
silvopastoralism, characterized by savanna-like
features (VICENTE and FERNANDEZ, 2006).
These Dehesas were devoted to livestock
raising in combination with agriculture and
forestry.
While silvopastoralism offers environmental
advantage, such as reduced erosion, its primary
attractiveness to landowners is economic
benefits higher returns than from
conventional agriculture or forestry options
and also, due to its multi-product nature,
reduced risk of loss due to unfavorable
markets, weather or political decisions
(SHARROW, 1999). Both long-term income
from timber sales and short term regular
income from livestock are obtainable.
Silvopastures are difficult to establish and
manage, and require good understanding of
different components. Complex interactions
between these components (mammals, birds,
insects, plants, soils, climate) must be
understood if management is to be proactive
rather than reactive (SHARROW, 1999). While
large body of knowledge exists for
establishment and management of silvopastures
in temperate regions, knowledge is still scarce
for similar systems in tropical areas.
Furthermore, mature humid forests, because of
their high density both at ground level and
canopy thickness; produce little grazeable
understorey vegetation, making silvopasture
systems practical in plantations in their first
few years before canopy becomes dense, and in
open-canopy systems as in coconut plantations.
Animal production in forest plantation is
transient unless the trees are widely spaced,
permitting ample light penetration to the
pasture.
A range of potential livestock choices exist
- cattle, sheep, goats, horses, turkeys, chickens,
ostriches, or even game animals such as deer.
The selected livestock system must be
compatible with tree, forage, environment and
land use regulations. In general, browsing
animals such as sheep, goats or deer are more
likely to eat trees while large grazing animals
such as cattle or buffalo are more likely to
trample young trees. Younger livestock are
more prone to damage trees than are older,
more experienced animals. Livestock are more
likely to damage broadleaf trees than conifers.
Tree pattern is an important factor for
silvopasture success. Trees can be evenly
distributed over the area to optimize growing
space and light for both trees and forage.
Alternatively, grouping trees into rows or
clusters concentrates their shade and root
effects while providing open spaces for pasture
production. Trees are typically pruned to
increase light penetration and develop high-
quality timber.
A successful silvopasture requires
understanding forage growth characteristics
and managing the timing and duration of
grazing to avoid browsing of young tree
seedlings. Livestock should be excluded from
tree plantings during vulnerable periods.
Improper management of silvopastures can
reduce desirable woody and herbaceous plants
by over-grazing and soil compaction. Thus,
intensive management of livestock grazing is a
key to success. Integrating trees, forage and
livestock creates a land management system to
produce marketable products while
maintaining long-term productivity. Economic
risk is reduced because the system produces
multiple products, most of which have an
established market. Production costs are
reduced and marketing flexibility is enhanced
by distributing management costs between
timber and livestock components.
Grazing can enhance tree growth by
controlling grass competition for moisture,
nutrients and sunlight. Well managed grazing
provides economical control of weeds and
brush without herbicides, maintains fire breaks
and reduces habitat for gnawing rodents.
Fertilizer applied for forage is also used by
trees. In addition, livestock manure recycles
nutrients to trees and forage.
Some forage species tend to be lower in
fiber and more digestible when grown in a tree-
protected environment. Trees that provide
shade or wind protection can have a climate-
stabilizing effect to reduce heat stress and wind
chill of livestock (BYTHE, 1997). Protection
from trees can cut the direct cold effect by 50
percent or more and reduce wind velocity by as
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 Seminar Nasional Teknologi Peternakan dan Veteriner 2006
much as 70 percent. Livestock require less feed
energy, so their performance is improved and
mortality is reduced (KLOPFENSTEIN et al.,
undated).
Silvopastures can help improve wildlife
diversity and improve water quality. The
forage protects the soil from water and wind
erosion, while adding organic matter to
improve soil properties. Silvopastures provide
an attractive landscape and are less likely,
compared to livestock operations, to raise
environmental concerns related to water
quality, odors, dust, noise, disease problems
and animal treatment (KLOPFENSTEIN et al.,
undated).
Horticultural systems
A number of other tree crop species such as
mangoes, kapok, tamarind, cocoa and cashews
have some potential for integration with
livestock as they are usually planted on a wide
spacing that promotes ample light penetration
for young crops. The animal production
potential from these systems would be low
because of the precautions necessary to prevent
damage to the often palatable leaves of the
crop and the low light profile when the trees
reach maturity.
A specialized agrosilvopastoral horticultural
system in Bali is vanilla production under
coconuts-the vanilla orchid is supported and
shaded by the tree legumes Gliricidia sepium
or Erythrina sp. (Gutteridge and Shelton,
undated). The shade level is regulated by
lopping the branches of shade trees which are
fed to livestock.
Livestock and alley farming
The inclusion of livestock into alley
farming systems necessitates that farmers
change their tree management and foliage use
practices. The daily demands of animals for
feed require tree pruning at times. Thus in alley
farming, pruning taken at or near crop planting
are used as mulch for the crop while all or part
of later prunings can be used for animal feed.
At Ibadan in Nigeria, the surplus foliage
from 1 ha of Leucaena leucocephala and
Gliricidia sepium from alley farming could
provide half the daily fodder requirements for
22
29 goats (Gutteridge and Shelton, undated). In
the dry season fallow period, livestock can be
allowed direct access to the cropping area to
graze crop residues and browse the trees. In
Malawi, a 0.25 ha Leucaena alley farm
produced enough leaf material to feed three
dairy cattle 3 kg/DM/head/day during the dry
season. In lowland humid regions of the tropics
where farm size is often small, the amount of
forage generated from alley farming is very
low. However, in semi-arid regions, the
additional forage from both prunings and crop
residues may be the major incentive attracting
farmers to use the alley farming technique.
Trees in cropping systems
In the more intensive agricultural areas of
Asia and Africa where land is scarce and
livestock are raised in small numbers by
smallholder farmers, forage tree legumes are
planted as 'fodder banks' along border or fence
lines, and on rice paddy bunds or in home
gardens. Foliage from these trees is usually
harvested under a 'cut-and-carry' system and is
a principal source of high quality fodder to
supplement low quality fodder such as crop
residues. In China, the leaf of the deciduous
tree Paulownia, grown over an area of 1.8
million ha of cropping land, is collected in
autumn and fed to cattle, sheep and pigs.
In parts of Africa, the incorporation of tree
legumes in cropping areas has been described
as 'the bedrock of traditional agroforestry
systems in Africa'. The trees are occasionally
lopped for feed and are grazed in the dry
season. Animal productivity is generally low.
In the Batangas region of the Philippines, a 2
ha area of Leucaena leucocephala grown in
association with the fruit tree Anonna
squamosa was able to supply the forage
requirements of 20 growing cattle over a 6-
month period (GUTTERIDGE and SHELTON,
undated).
The farmers in the mid-hills of Nepal
generally pursue a mixed farming system
comprising three closely and inseparably
integrated components: crop production,
animal husbandry, and forestry. While various
agroforestry systems can be recognized, the
most common agroforestry practice found in
the area is the use of trees and shrubs on and
 Seminar Nasional Teknologi Peternakan dan Veteriner 2006
around private farmland. The tree species
found most commonly are those selected by
farmers because of their fodder value and a
range of fodder tree species are maintained for
a continued supply of tree fodder during the
long dry season. Farmland tree fodder is
lopped and carried to stall-fed animals. Leaves
and twigs are fed to the animals and branches
are used as fuelwood. More than 75% of the
tree fodder that is fed to livestock is used
during the period November to June when
other feed (grass and crop residue) is in short
supply.
Livestock are an integral component of the
hill farming systems, the land area cultivated
and crop production achieved largely depend
on it. Livestock also provide draught power for
crop production and manure for maintaining
cropland fertility. They are also an important
source of farm income and protein for
household nutrition. In hill farming any
decrease in animal numbers leads to reduction
in the quantity of manure and draught power.
This in turn results in a decline in agricultural
productivity and a loss of farm income with
severe consequences on human nutrition.
In the mid-hills of Nepal farmers use fodder
attributes such as palatability, nutritiousness,
seasonality, season and duration of availability
and ability to satisfy animals to assess
importance of fodder tree species (SINCLAIR
and JOSHI, 2000). Likewise farmers in Kenya
valued palatability, effect on the condition of
animals and drought resistance as the important
farmer criteria in selection of fodder trees
(Roothaert and Franzel, 2001). These studies
have helped prioritize species for further
research and development with the aim of
improving their productivity, management and
availability.
Small ruminants under rubber
As one of the major export commodities,
rubber occupies a key role in the economic
development of many rubber growing
provinces in Sumatra and Kalimantan. While
rubber is a major income source for many
smallholder rubber farmers in Indonesia, there
is a need to diversify income sources to rely
less on a single commodity (JOSHI et al.,
2006), the price of which fluctuates rapidly. In
the mid-eighties numerous efforts, particularly
in East Aceh, North Sumatra and West Java
(Ciburuy near Bogor) have been made to test
the viability of raising goats and sheep under
rubber plantations. Using farm model and
linear programming, AMIR et al. (1986)
concluded that small ruminants are profitable
under rubber plantations with a potential
increase of farm income by 11%. Over 60% of
the nutritional requirements of small ruminants
can be met from undergrowth of rubber
plantations. Furthermore, the return to labour
from small ruminants under rubber in West
Java was reported to be higher than elsewhere
(Garut and Cirebon).
Based on farm data from a case study of on
input-output from Sungai Putih in North
Sumatra in mid-eighties, KARTAMULIA et al.
(1993), sheep rearing under rubber plantations
can increase farm profit significantly (22%
higher) compared to conventional monoculture
plantations. This not only increased the
household income, but also helped reduce the
overtapping problem that is very common in
smallholder plantations. Integrating sheep with
rubber also reduced the need for weeding
between rubber trees.
Another more comprehensive study carried
out by KAROKARO (1996) evaluated the
performance of sheep grazing under rubber
trees, the effect of grazing sheep on rubber
production (Figure 1) and the economic value
of grazing sheep on reducing weeding cost.
The overall conclusion was that grazing sheep
under rubber is good for rubber tree growth
and latex productivity, probably due to more
effective weed control by the grazing sheep.
Weeding cost was reduced by 22.7%. Soil
analysis also indicated no evidence of soil
compaction from grazing in the plantations.
Overall, these earlier studies on integrating
small ruminants under rubber plantations
indicate all possibility of increasing profitability
from an increased income and reduced
weeding costs. For optimum benefits animal
stocking, their management system, appropriate
grazing systems require further studies.
Three strata systems
The three strata forage system is an
integrated agroforestry practice developed in
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 Seminar Nasional Teknologi Peternakan dan Veteriner 2006
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 0
A vros20 3 7 - A vros2 0 3 7 -
G ra ze d U n gra ze d
Figure 1. Latex production under sheep grazing and no-grazing rubber plantation
Source: KAROKARO (1996)
Bali, Indonesia (Gutteridge and Shelton,
undated). It enhances crop and livestock
production through the provision of forage, to
supplement crop residues from the cropping
area, from a combination of pastures, shrubs
and trees. The system comprises three tiers or
strata of forage grown as borders in an upland
cropping system.
The system aims to produce a constant high
quality feed supply throughout the year. The
first stratum of herbaceous grasses and
legumes supplies forage from the early wet to
the early dry season; the second stratum of tree
legumes provides forage for the early dry to the
mid-dry season while the third stratum of taller
trees covers the period mid-dry to early wet.
Results indicated that the three strata
system produced 90% more feed and carried a
29% higher stocking rate in the wet season and
46%, higher stocking in the dry season
compared to the traditional system (Gutteridge
and Shelton, undated). The growth rate of
animals from both systems was similar. While
crop production was affected slightly under the
tree strata system, an economic analysis
indicated that profitability was higher and risk
more widely spread in the three strata system.
DISCUSSION ON POTENTIAL OF
LIVESTOCK-AGROFORESTRY
INTEGRATION IN INDONESIA
There is substantial potential for animal
production in animal-based agroforestry
24
60
k g / h a / ye a r
g m / t r e e /t a p p i n g 50
40
30
20
10
G T 1- G T 1 -G r a z e d
U n gra ze d
systems and a number have been designed
specifically to improve or enhance animal
productivity. High levels of production are
only possible through the use of high quality
fodder-tree legumes when livestock production
is the major economic activity. Further
evaluation of the existing tree legume varieties
will broaden the resource base available and
enable the expansion of these systems into a
wider range of environments.
The animal production potential of forest
and plantation crop grazing systems is
relatively low and improvements in these
systems will come largely from the
identification and selection of herbaceous
forage species tolerant of lower sunlight
conditions. Improvement is also possible
through changes in plantation management
practices such as tree spacing and pruning
regimes. In all systems the service role of the
trees in providing shade and shelter must be
taken into account as this aspect is often
undervalued in assessing the productivity of
agroforestry systems (BLYTH, 1997).
The principal plantation crops where
integration of livestock is possible are rubber,
oil palm and coconuts. All of these are major
crops in Indonesia. While we see some
integration of cattle with coconuts (as in West
Sumatra) and this system has the greatest
potential for further development. The unique
quality of coconuts, compared to most other
plantation crops, is the relatively constant and
bright light environment over the life of the
 Seminar Nasional Teknologi Peternakan dan Veteriner 2006
crop (60 80 years). Consequently, under-
storey pastures can be grazed on a semi-
permanent basis. Live weight gain potential
can be quite high and is influenced by a
number of factors but particularly light level.
Improvement is possible through the use of
shade-tolerant pasture species.
There is increasing interest in the grazing
of sheep in rubber and oil palm plantations.
Sheep are a better animal compared to other
ruminants as sheep are less likely to browse
rubber trees than cattle than goats, do not
disturb latex collection tins; and are easier to
herd and relatively more resistant to scabies
than goats. In Indonesia and Malaysia, the
productivity of sheep under rubber has been
investigated to some extent. Experiments
showed that productivity was moderate under
young rubber (2 5 years) provided palatable
leguminous cover crops were grazed, but low
under mature rubber where light levels had
fallen to < 20% transmission of light. There is
also a potential to increase productivity by
using shade-tolerant forage species and by
altering the conventional rubber planting
system to a hedgerow system. Research
conducted in mid-eighties in Indonesia also
indicate good potential of integrating sheep
with rubber to diversify farmer income,
increase latex productivity, reduce cost of
weeding and reduce dependency on a rubber
alone (AMIR et al., 1986; KARTAMULIA et al.,
1993; KAROKARO, 1996).
Given the complex factors and diverse
situations influencing agricultural and rural
development in Indonesia, no "one-size-fits-
all" strategy will achieve sustainable
development. This applies equally to livestock-
agroforestry integration. Some common
elements are necessary for success anywhere,
including macroeconomic stability, and a
competitive market environment. But beyond
such necessary conditions is the need for
sufficient investment in physical, human,
natural, and social capital as well as
government support to foster such integration
for development and sustenance. Understanding
the potential, comparative advantage and
limitation of areas for different animal-
agroforestry combinations is an important
beginning.
While the debate on the negative impact of
livestock on forest cover and environment
continues, there is mounting evidence that it is
not the animals per se but the lack of proper
management of animals is the problem. Where
appropriately managed, animals form an
important role in maintaining the health of
natural ecosystems. There is ample evidence
that silvopastures can contribute to wildlife
diversity and improve water quality.
Silvopastures also provide an attractive
landscape with an aesthetically pleasing
landscape beauty. These all provide
environmental services and perhaps qualify for
a reward mechanism program that ICRAF is
currently managing. In this RUPES program,
mechanisms are under test to reward or
compensate farmers living in important
watershed or sensitive conservation areas for
their role in the environmental services (such
as hydrology, biodiversity, carbon). While it
may sound counter-intuitive to use livestock as
a reward for these farmers, it is very likely that
the additional benefits such as income,
nutrition, savings, from livestock-agroforestry
integration will actually help ensure the
environmental services from these upland
communities.
To start the discussion at the meeting, we
can start asking research questions such as the
following. Perhaps answers to some are already
available, while for others, more work, some
requiring concerted efforts, will be required.
What are the effects of wide spacing,
pruning, and fertilization on the production
and quality of wood and forage?
What is the efficiency of multi-row and
multi-species tree planting vs. single-row
and single-species plantings for converting
open areas to silvopastures?
How do the tree and forage components
interact to compete for light, water, and
nutrients?
How compatible is silvopasture with rubber,
cocoa, coffee, coconut and other hardwood
species?
What are the yield and quality of forages as
affected by various management regimes
under tree shade?
What are the forage preferences of cattle,
goats, and sheep in a silvopasture practice,
and what is their compatibility with the
trees?
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 Seminar Nasional Teknologi Peternakan dan Veteriner 2006
How do cultural practices such as mowing,
herbicide, and cultivation affect the
establishment and early growth of tree
seedlings planted into existing pasture?
Can other commercially viable specialty
products be produced in silvopasture
systems to enhance biological and economic
diversity?
Can livestock be used as a reward
mechanism to reduce poverty and
environmental degradation in schemes of
payment for environmental services?
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