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Answers to Self-Assignment Questions

Q1. Explain the meaning and significance of a Research Design.

Answer

Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conduction.


It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.

This is done in order that any researcher who embarks on a research project
should have a blueprint of how he is going to undertake scientifically the data
collection process. The framework developed to control the collection of data is
called research design.

it ensures that the data collected is appropriate, economical and accurate. This
also ensures that the research project conducted is effectively and efficiently
done. A sufficiently formulated research design would ensure that the
information gathered is consistent with the study objectives and that the data
are collected by accurate procedures. A sufficiently formulated research design
would ensure that the information gathered is consistent with the study
objectives and that the data are collected by accurate procedures.

The function of the Research design is to provide relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. It provides an outline of what the
researcher is going to do in terms of 1) Framing the hypothesis, 2) its operational
implications and 3) finally data analysis

it ensures that the data collected is appropriate, economical and accurate. This
also ensures that the research project conducted is effectively and efficiently
done. A sufficiently formulated research design would ensure that the
information gathered is consistent with the study objectives and that the data
are collected by accurate procedures. A sufficiently formulated research design
would ensure that the information gathered is consistent with the study
objectives and that the data are collected by accurate procedures.

Q2. 2. Explain the meaning of the following in context of Research


Design.

a. Extraneous variables;
b. Confounded relationship;
c. Research hypothesis;
d. Experimental and Control groups;
e. Treatments.
Answer

a. Extraneous variables;
The independent variable which is not directly related to the purpose of the
study but affects the dependent variable is known as Extraneous variables.
The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent
value is technically known as Experimental Error
A research study or a Research design should always be framed in such a
manner that the influence of Extraneous variables on the
Dependent variable is completely controlled and the influence of
the independent variable is clearly evident.

Extraneous and Conf ounding Variables

An extraneous, often referred to as exogenous variable, is any variable other


than the

independent variable which might have an effect on the dependent variable. If


your

research involves an investigation of the relationship between productivity and

motivation, for example, you may find it difficult to exclude the effect on
productivity of

other factors such as heat wave, a work to rule or domestic problems. A


confounding

variable is one which obscures the effects of another variable such as, the
novelty for

employees of being the centre of attraction by the researcher, or working in an


unfamiliar

place, especially when the research is laboratory based.

b. Confounded relationship;

The relationship between dependent and independent variable is said to be


confounded by an extraneous variables.

c. Research hypothesis;

When the formulated hypothesis is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is


known as Research Hypothesis.

d. Experimental and Control groups;

When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental


hypothesis, research it is control Groups.

When the group is exposed to special or certain new conditions, it is


experimental groups.

e. Treatments.
The different conditions to which the experimental & control groups are
subject to is known as treatments.

Q3. Describe some of the important research designs used in


experimental hypothesis-testing

research study.

Answer

Development of Working Hypothesis: In this stage researcher state in clear


terms the working

hypothesis or hypothesis. Working hypothesis is tentative assumptions made in


order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. Hypothesis
should be very specific, clear and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested.

Preparing the Research Design: In this stage the researcher prepare a research
design i.e. conceptual

structure of the within which research would be conducted. It contains:

Methodology of the research work


Sampling plan
Tools of gathering data
Geographical area is to covered
Scope of the study
Operational definition of the study
Conceptual model of study
Reference period
Budget

Developing Hypothesis : (Development of working Hypothesis)


State in clear terms the working hypothesis (Basic Idea of the Research
problem)
It is a tentative assumption in order to test to logical or empirical
consequences.
Provide the focal point for research.
Hypothesis should be very specific and very well limited to the place of
research in hand because it has to be tested.
Hypothesis guides the researched by limiting the area of Research and keep
him on the right track.
It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on important facets of the
problem.
It indicates the type of data required for the study.
Type of methods of data analysis done.
1) Hypothesis testing Research Design:
Test the hypothesis of causal relationship between two or more variables.
Adopt procedure that not only reduce bias but enhance reliability and
facilitates deriving Inferences (results) about the Research problem.

Q4. 4. Research design in exploratory studies must be flexible but in


descriptive studies, it must
minimize bias and maximize reliability. Discuss.
Answer

2) Exploratory Research Design:


Is a Formulative Research design
Main purpose is the discovery of ideas & insights
Should be flexible enough considering different dimensions of the problem under
study.

3) Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design:


Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual or a group.
Study concerned with narration of facts or characters related to an
individual, group or institution are descriptive research studies.
Diagnostic Research design determines the frequency with which a
variable occurs or its relationship with another variables.
Both the Research designs should be planned carefully.
Research design should be Rigid (No flexibility)

Q 5. Give your understanding of a good research design. Is single


research design suitable in all

research studies? If not, why?

Answer

Characteristics of a Good Research Design

Posses the qualities of being flexible, suitable efficient & economical.

Should minimize bias and maximize reliability of data collection & Analysis.

No experimental error should be allowed

Should yield maximum information

Research problem should be viewed from different angles or dimensions.

The choice of Research design depends on,


Nature of the Research problem

Objectives of the Research problem

Skills / ability of the Researcher

Methods of gathering information

Availability of monetary support

Time schedule

Q 6. Explain and illustrate the following research designs:

a. Two group simple randomized design;

b. Latin square design;

c. Random replications design;

d. Simple factorial design;

e. Informal experimental designs.

Answer

The Latin Square design

The Latin square design is used where the researcher desires to control the
variation in an experiment that is related to rows and columns in the field.

Field marks:

Treatments are assigned at random within rows and columns, with each treatment once
per row and once per column.

There are equal numbers of rows, columns, and treatments.

Useful where the experimenter desires to control variation in two different directions

Sample layout:
Different colors represent different treatments. There are 4 treatments (A-D)
assigned to 4 rows (I-IV) and 4 columns (1-4).

Q 7. Write a short note on Experience Survey explaining fully its utility


in exploratory research

studies.

Answers

Experience Surveys
Ask knowledgeable individuals about a particular research problem - most are
quite willing

Reveal nothing conclusive, they may help define the problem more formally

Why Conduct Exploratory Research?

Diagnose a situation

Screening of alternatives

Discover new ideas

In short, exploratory research is used in

the absence of tried models and definite concepts.

Examples of exploratory

research are:

survey of experts to validate an instrument;

Q 8. What is research design? Discuss the basis of stratification to be


employed in sampling public

opinion on inflation.

Answer

Research design can be thought of as the structure of research -- it is the "glue"


that holds

all of the elements in a research project together. We often describe a design using
a

concise notation that enables us to summarize a complex design structure


efficiently.

What are the "elements" that a design includes? In this unit, you will be able to
answer

this question and become comfortable with issues bordering on research designs.

Research Design:

The most important step after defining the Research problem is preparing the
Research Design

Research design is the conceptual structure within which the research is conducted.

It constitutes the BLUE PRINT for collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Research design provides an answer to the question, what the Researcher is going to
do with regards to framing hypothesis, its operational implications and how to analyse
the data?

Stratified Random sampling: (strata layers)

- Stratified sampling technique is generally used when the population is


heterogeneous.

- The entire population is divided into sub population (sub groups) (i.e. the sub
population being homogenous).

- Items are selected from each stratum.

- This method is more reliable & accurate.

- Eg:50 students of a school having 1000 students on a total were selected &
interviewed on the interest in music.

Q 1. Distinguish between census and sampling.

Answer

Whatever your research question(s) and objectives you will need to consider
whether you need

to use sampling. Occasionally, it may be possible to collect and analyse data from
every possible

case or group member; this is termed a census.

Sampling techniques provide a range of methods that enable you to reduce the
amount

of data you need to collect by considering only data from a sub-group rather than
all possible

cases or elements

A complete enumeration of all items in the population is known as a census


inquiry.

Census: Total no.of items have to be investigated.

Sample: Selected representatives from the total population have to be


investigated.

Q 2. What are the steps involved in the process of sampling?


Q 3. What are the different types of sample designs?

Answer

3.1 Sampling Designs.

By a sample design we mean the procedure(s) in which subjects for a given


sample can

be selected from the population.

A sample design can take either of two types including:

(i) Probabilistic Design

(ii) Non Probabilistic Design

The sampling techniques available to you can be divided into two types:

probability or representative sampling;

non-probability or judgemental sampling.

Q 4. What are the types of probability sampling techniques?

Answer

different types of probability sampling,

1) Simple Random sampling

2) Stratified Random sampling

3) Cluster sampling

4) Systematic sampling

5) Area sampling

6) Multi stage sampling

7) Sampling with probability propotional to size

Q 5. Explain the following:


(a) Process of stratified sampling
(b) Reasons for stratified sampling
Answer

b. Disproportionate Stratified Sampling: The number of sampling units drawn from


each stratum is

based on the analytical consideration, but not in proportion to the population size
of that stratum.

Sampling process is as follows

1. The population to be sampled is divided into groups (stratified)

2. A simple random sample is chosen

Reason for stratified sampling

Sometimes business professionals want information about the component part of


the population.

Assume there are 3 stores. Each store forms a strata and sampling from within
each strata is selected.

The result might be used to plan different promotional activities for each store
strata.

Suppose a researcher wishes to study the retail sale of product such as tea in a
universe of 1000 grocery

stores. The researcher will first divide this universe into say 3 strata based on store
size. This bench

mark for size could be only one of the following (a) Floor space (b) Sales volumes
(c) Variety displayed etc.

Q 6. What are the steps to be followed in the process of cluster


sampling?

The following steps are followed:

1. Population is divided into clusters

2. A simple random sample of few clusters selected

3. All the units in the selected cluster is studied

3) Cluster sampling:

The entire population is sub divided into mutually exclusive groups or clusters

Simple Random sampling is applied and the need clusters are selected for the study.
If all the elements found in the selected cluster is taken for the study, then it is one
stage cluster sampling.

If random sampling is applied in selecting elements found within the clusters, it is two
stage cluster sampling.

Q 7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of multistage


sampling?
Advantage: May reduce cost, if first stage results are enough to stratify or
cluster.
Disadvantage: Increases the cost as more and more stages are included.

Q 8. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of probability sampling


technique?

The advantage of probability Sampling is that:

It is unbiased.

Quantification is possible in probability sampling.

Less knowledge of universe is sufficient

The disadvantages of probability sampling are that:

It takes time.

It is costly

More resources are required to design and execute than non-probability design.

Q 9. What is non-probability sampling technique?

Non Probability sampling:

Each item does not have an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Nonprobability sampling (or non-random sampling) provides a range of


alternative techniques

to select samples based on your subjective judgement.

Non Probabilistic Design.

In non probabilistic design, there is no probabilistic way of estimating the

representative ness of the selected samples. It allows the researcher too much
discretion

in the selection of subjects and as such, it is not advisable to use this design in
research

practices. Additionally, inferences drawn from this research design, as well as the
statistical results, can be misleading and biased.

Non-probability sampling techniques also provide you with the opportunity to


select your

sample purposively and to reach difficult-to-identify members of the population.

Q 10. What are the types of non-probability sampling techniques?

- 3 types of non probability samplings are,

1) Convenience sampling

2) Quota sampling

3) Judgmental sampling

Non probabilistic designs include:

1. Convenience sampling- often referred to as accidental sampling.

2. Judgment sampling - applicable in situations in which the researcher is guided


by

the belief that reference subjects will provide the required information for the
given

research process.

3. Quota sampling - mostly used in cases whereby the characteristics of the


population

of interest can be easily identified. It can ensure representative ness in the


choice of

sample subject and hence it is similar to stratified sampling.

Q 11. What are the merits and demerits of shopping mall intercept
sampling?

The success of this method depends on "How well the sample is chosen".

Merits

1. It has relatively small universe.

2. In most cases, it is expected to give quick results. The purpose of deliberate


sampling has

become a practical method in dealing with economic or practical problems.


3. In studies, where the level of accuracy can vary from the prescribed norms,
this method can be

used.

Demerits

1. Fundamentally, this is not considered a scientific approach, as it allows for


bias.

3. The investigator may start with a preconceived idea and draw samples such
that the units

selected will be subjected to specific judgment of the enumerator.

Q 12. What are the advantages and limitations of quota sampling?

Answer

Quota sampling

The researcher simply assume quotas, with certain restrictions imposed on


how they should be selected.

Eg: Caste basic

Benefits: less expensive, very convenient

Advantages of quota sampling

a. Quota sampling does not require prior knowledge about the cell to which each
population unit

belongs. Therefore this sampling has a distinct advantage over stratified random
sampling,

where every population unit must be placed in the appropriate stratum before
the actual sample

selection.

b. It is simple to administer. Sampling can be done very fast.

c. Researcher going to various Geographical locations is avoided and therefore


cost is reduced.

Limitations of quota sampling

a. It may not be possible to get a "representative" sample within the quota as the
selection depends

entirely on the mood and convenience of the interviewers.

b. Since too much liberty is given to the interviewers, the quality of work
suffers if they are not competent.

Q13. Distinguish probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling: In probability sample, every unit in the population has


equal chances for being

selected as a sample unit.

Nonprobability sampling: In non-probability sampling, units in the population


have unequal or zero

chances for being selected as a sample unit.

Q14. What are the guidelines to determine the sample size of a


population?

The size of sample should neither be

excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is


one which fulfills the

requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.

While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired
precision as also an

acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of population variance
needs to be considered as

in case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of


population must be kept in

view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study
must be kept in
view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs too, dictate the size of sample that
we can draw. As
such, budgetary constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when we
decide the sample size.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ


Q1. What is the meaning of measurement in research? What difference
does it make whether we measure in terms of a nominal, ordinal,
interval or ratio scale? Explain with examples.

Answer

By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to

objects or observations, the level of measurement being a function of the rules


under which the

numbers are assigned

a) Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols


to events in order to
label them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of
basketball players in order to
identify them.
Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people,
objects and events.
have no quantitative value.

(b) Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is
the ordinal scale. The

ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the
intervals of the scale equal in

terms of some rule.

For instance, if Beletes position in his class is 10 and Chalas position is 40, it
cannot be said that Beletes position is four times as good as that of Chala.

(c) Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms
of some rule that has

been established as a basis for making the units equal.

The Fahrenheit scale is an example of an interval scale and shows


similarities in what one can and cannot do with it.

Q2. Do you agree with the following statements? If so, give reasons:

a. Validity is more critical to measurement than reliability.

b. Stability and equivalence aspects of reliability essentially mean the same thing.

c. Content validity is the most difficult type of validity to determine.

d. There is no difference between concept development and concept specification.

e. Reliable measurement is necessarily a valid measurement.


Q3. Point out the possible sources of error in measurement. Describe the
tests of sound measurement.

Answer

The following are the possible sources of error in measurement.

a) Respondent:

(b) Situation:

(c) Measurer:

(d) Instrument:

tests of sound measurement.

Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality. In
fact, these are the

three major considerations one should use in evaluating a measurement tool.


Validity refers to the

extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure. Reliability has
to do with the

accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure ... Practicality is concerned


with a wide range of

factors of economy, convenience, and interpretability ... We briefly take up the


relevant details

concerning these tests of sound measurement.

Q 4. Which of the measurement scales (nominal, ordinal, interval or


ratio) do the following

expressions represent? Explain your answers.

a. Temperatures measured on the Kelvin scale.

b.Military ranks.

c. Social security numbers.

d.Number of passengers on buses from Delhi to Mumbai.

e. Code numbers given to the religion of persons attempting suicide.

Q 5. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of:

a. Rating vs Ranking scales.


Rating scales: The rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited
number of aspects of a

thing or of traits of a person. When we use rating scales (or categorical scales),
we judge an object in

absolute terms against some specified criteria i.e., we judge properties of objects
without reference to

other similar objects.

Ranking scales: Under ranking scales (or comparative scales) we make relative
judgments against

other similar objects. The respondents under this method directly compare two
or more objects and

make choices among them. There are two generally used approaches of ranking
scales viz.

Self-Assessment Question

The following questions are about different methods of data collection.

Answer all based on your understanding of this part of the module.

Q 1. Enumerate the different methods of collecting data.

two types of data viz., primary and secondary. The primary data are those which

are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.

Important ones are: (i) observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) through
questionnaires, (iv)

through schedules, and (v) other methods which include (a) warranty cards; (b)
distributor audits; (c)

pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e) using mechanical devices; (f) through
projective techniques; (g)

depth interviews, and (h) content analysis.


The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been
collected by someone else

and which have already been passed through the statistical process.

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data
which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.

When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then he/she has

to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is
certainly not confronted

with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data.

Secondary data may

either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are


available in: (a)various

publications of the central, state are local governments; (b) various publications
of foreign governments

or of international bodies and their subsidiary organizations; (c) technical and


trade journals; (d) books,

magazines and newspapers; (e) reports and publications of various associations


connected with

business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by
research scholars,

universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g) public records and
statistics, historical

documents, and other sources of published information. The sources of


unpublished data are many;

they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and


autobiographies and also may be

available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labor bureaus
and other public/private

individuals and organizations.

Q 2. Which one is the most suitable for conducting enquiry regarding


family welfare programme in

Ethiopia? Explain its merits and demerits.


Collection of Primary Data

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through
questionnaire, with little

difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of
questions) are being filled

Addis Ababa University School of Commerce in by the enumerators who are


specially appointed for the purpose. These enumerators along with schedules go
to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the
questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the
proforma.

Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the

investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in
understanding the

implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms

This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead
to fairly reliable

results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations


conducted by

governmental agencies or by some big organizations.

But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.

the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate.

there usually remains the difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively

wider area.

the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators can


remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents in correctly understanding
the questions. As a result, the information collected through schedules is
relatively more accurate

in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of
enumerators.

In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of


questionnaire must be

quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be
filled in by enumerators

and not by respondents.


Along with schedules, observation method can also be used

Q 3. It is never safe to take published statistics at their face value


without knowing their meaning

and limitations. Elucidate this statement by enumerating and


explaining the various points

which you would consider before using any published data. Illustrate
your answer by examples

wherever possible.

By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that
they possess following

characteristics:

i. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about
the said data:

(a) Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they
collected by using proper

methods (d) At what time were they collected?(e) Was there any bias of the
compiler?

(f) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?

ii. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not
necessarily be found suitable in

another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they
should not be used by the

researcher. In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinize the
definition of various terms

and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary
source originally.

Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be
studied. If the researcher

finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry
and should not be

used.
iii. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found
inadequate for the purpose of

the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be
used by the researcher.

The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which
may be either narrower

or wider than the area of the present enquiry.

From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available data. The
already available data

should be used by the researcher only when he finds them reliable, suitable and
adequate. But he should

not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from
authentic sources and are also

suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical to spend time
and energy in field

surveys for collecting information. At times, there may be wealth of usable


information in the already

available data which must be used by an intelligent researcher but with due
precaution.

Q 4. Examine the merits and limitations of the observation method in


collecting material. Illustrate

your answer with suitable examples.

There are several merits of the participant type of observation: (i) The researcher
is enabled to record

the natural behavior of the group. (ii) The researcher can even gather
information which could not

easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. (iii) The researcher


can even verify the truth

of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a


schedule. But there are also

certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the observer may lose the
objectivity to the extent he
participates emotionally; the problem of observation-control is not solved; and it
may narrow-down the

researchers range of experience.

The main advantage of this method is

that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately. Secondly, the


information obtained

under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated


by either the past

behavior or future intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of


respondents

willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active


cooperation on the part of

respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire


method. This method is

particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who
are not capable

forgiving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other However,
observation method has

various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly, the information


provided by this

method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with
the observational

task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct
observation creates obstacle for

this method to collect data effectively.


Q 5. Clearly explain the difference between collection of data through
questionnaires and schedules.

But from the

technical point of view there is difference between the two. The important points
of difference are as

under:

1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered


as specified in a

covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The
schedule is generally

filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions
when necessary.

2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since


we have to spend

money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to


respondents.

3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not


respond and many

return the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-
response often remains

indeterminate. As against this, non-response is generally very low in case of


schedules because these

are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all questions. But there
remains the danger of

interviewer bias and cheating.

4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of


schedule the identity

of respondent is known.

5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do


not return the

questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the


information is collected

well in time as they are filled in by enumerators.


6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method
as questionnaires are

sent to respondents by post who also in turn returns the same by post.

But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.

7. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and
cooperative, but in case of

schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen
to be illiterate.

8. Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the


questionnaire method, but

in respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending


enumerators over a relatively

wider area.

9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under


the questionnaire

method, particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly.


But in case of schedules,

the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators can


remove the difficulties,

if any, faced by respondents in correctly understanding the questions. As a


result, the information

collected through schedules is relatively more accurate than that obtained


through questionnaires.

10. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the
questionnaire itself, but in the

case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of


enumerators.

11. In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of


questionnaire must be

quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be
filled in by enumerators

and not by respondents.

12. Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing
is not possible while
collecting data through questionnaires.

Q 6. Discuss the term interview as a technique of data collection.

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal


stimuli and reply in terms

of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews


and, if possible, through

telephone interviews.

Q 7. Write short notes on:

a. Depth interviews;

Semi-structured and in-depth interviews provide you with the opportunity to


probe

answers, where you want your interviewees to explain, or build on, their responses.
This

is important if you are adopting an interpretivist epistemology, where you will be


concerned

to understand the meanings that participants ascribe to various phenomena

(Section 4.2). Interviewees may use words or ideas in a particular way, and the
opportunity

to probe these meanings will add significance and depth to the data you obtain. They

may also lead the discussion into areas that you had not previously considered but
which

are significant for your understanding, and which help you to address your research
question

and objectives, or indeed help you formulate such a question. Interviews also afford

each interviewee an opportunity to hear themself thinking aloud about things they
may

not have previously thought about. The result should be that you are able to collect a
rich
and detailed set of data. However, you need to be aware that the manner in which you

interact with your interviewees and ask questions will impact on the data you collect

b. Important aspects of a questionnaire;

Essentials of a good questionnaire: To be successful, questionnaire should be


comparatively short and

simple i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.
Questions should proceed in

logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions. Personal and
intimate questions should

be left to the end. Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different
interpretations should be

avoided in a questionnaire. Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers),


multiple choice

(alternative answers listed) or open-ended. The latter type of questions is often


difficult to analyze and

hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible. There should


be some control

questions in the questionnaire which indicate the reliability of the respondent.

Q 8. What are the guiding considerations in the construction of


questionnaire? Explain.

4. Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaire/Schedule

The researcher must pay attention to the following points in constructing an


appropriate and effective

questionnaire or a schedule:

i. The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it provides the
starting point for
developing the Questionnaire/Schedule. He must be clear about the various
aspects of his research

problem to be dealt with in the course of his research project.

ii. Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information sought,


the sampled respondents and the kind of analysis intended. The researcher must
decide whether to use closed or open-ended question. Questions should be
simple and must be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a
well thought out tabulation plan. The units of enumeration should also be defined
precisely so that they can ensure accurate and full information.

iii. Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule is prepared, giving due thought to


the appropriate

sequence of putting questions. Questionnaires or schedules previously drafted (if


available) may as well

be looked into at this stage.

iv. Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the
rough draft for a better

one. Technical defects must be minutely scrutinized and removed.

v. Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire. The


questionnaire may be edited

in the light of the results of the pilot study.

vi. Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions for the
respondents so that they

may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.

Q 9. Critically examine the following:

a. Interviews introduce more bias than does the use of questionnaire.

There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the
respondent; there also

remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.

. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.

It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents own
words.
b. Data collection through projective techniques is considered relatively

more reliable.

c. In collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisite and

experience the chief teacher.

Q 10. Distinguish between an experiment and survey. Explain fully the


survey method of research.

Difference between Survey and Experiment

The following points are noteworthy so far as difference between survey and
experiment is concerned:

(i) Surveys are conducted in case of descriptive research studies whereas


experiments are a part of

experimental research studies.

(ii) Survey-type research studies usually have larger samples because the
percentage of responses

generally happens to be low, as low as 20 to 30%, especially in mailed


questionnaire studies. Thus, the

survey method gathers data from a relatively large number of cases at a particular
time; it is essentially

cross-sectional. As against this, experimental studies generally need small


samples.

(iii) Surveys are concerned with describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting
conditions that either

exist or existed. The researcher does not manipulate the variable or arrange for
events to happen.

Surveys are only concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions
that are held, processes

that are going on, effects that are evident or trends that are developing. They are
primarily concerned
with the present but at times do consider past events and influences as they relate
to current conditions.

Thus, in surveys, variables that exist or have already occurred are selected and
observed.

Experimental research provides a systematic and logical method for answering the
question,

What will happen if this is done when certain variables are carefully controlled or
manipulated? In

fact, deliberate manipulation is a part of the experimental method. In an


experiment, the researcher

measures the effects of an experiment which he conducts intentionally.

(iv) Surveys are usually appropriate in case of social and behavioral sciences
(because many types of

behavior that interest the researcher cannot be arranged in a realistic setting)


whereas experiments are

mostly an essential feature of physical and natural sciences.

(v) Surveys are an example of field research whereas experiments generally


constitute an example of

laboratory research.

(vi) Surveys are concerned with hypothesis formulation and testing the analysis of
the relationship

between non-manipulated variables. Experimentation provides a method of


hypothesis testing.

After experimenters define a problem, they propose a hypothesis. They then test
the hypothesis and

confirm or disconfirm it in the light of the controlled variable relationship that they
have observed. The

confirmation or rejection is always stated in terms of probability rather than


certainty. Experimentation,

thus, is the most sophisticated, exacting and powerful method for discovering and
developing an

organized body of knowledge. The ultimate purpose of experimentation is to


generalize the variable
relationships so that they may be applied outside the laboratory to a wider
population of interest.

(vii) Surveys may either be census or sample surveys. They may also be classified
as social surveys,

economic surveys or public opinion surveys. Whatever be their type, the method
of data collection

happens to be either observation, or interview or questionnaire or some projective


technique(s). Case

study method can as well be used. But in case of experiments, data are collected
from several readings

of experiments.

(viii) In case of surveys, research design must be rigid, must make enough
provision for protection

against bias and must maximize reliability as the aim happens to be to obtain
complete and accurate

information. Research design in case of experimental studies, apart reducing bias


and ensuring

reliability, must permit drawing inferences about causality.


(ix) Possible relationships between the data and the unknowns in the universe can be
studied through

surveys whereas experiments are meant to determine such relationships.

(x) Causal analysis is considered relatively more important in experiments where as in


most social and

business surveys our interest lies in understanding and controlling relationships


between variables and

as such correlation analysis is relatively more important in surveys.

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