Answer
This is done in order that any researcher who embarks on a research project
should have a blueprint of how he is going to undertake scientifically the data
collection process. The framework developed to control the collection of data is
called research design.
it ensures that the data collected is appropriate, economical and accurate. This
also ensures that the research project conducted is effectively and efficiently
done. A sufficiently formulated research design would ensure that the
information gathered is consistent with the study objectives and that the data
are collected by accurate procedures. A sufficiently formulated research design
would ensure that the information gathered is consistent with the study
objectives and that the data are collected by accurate procedures.
The function of the Research design is to provide relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. It provides an outline of what the
researcher is going to do in terms of 1) Framing the hypothesis, 2) its operational
implications and 3) finally data analysis
it ensures that the data collected is appropriate, economical and accurate. This
also ensures that the research project conducted is effectively and efficiently
done. A sufficiently formulated research design would ensure that the
information gathered is consistent with the study objectives and that the data
are collected by accurate procedures. A sufficiently formulated research design
would ensure that the information gathered is consistent with the study
objectives and that the data are collected by accurate procedures.
a. Extraneous variables;
b. Confounded relationship;
c. Research hypothesis;
d. Experimental and Control groups;
e. Treatments.
Answer
a. Extraneous variables;
The independent variable which is not directly related to the purpose of the
study but affects the dependent variable is known as Extraneous variables.
The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent
value is technically known as Experimental Error
A research study or a Research design should always be framed in such a
manner that the influence of Extraneous variables on the
Dependent variable is completely controlled and the influence of
the independent variable is clearly evident.
motivation, for example, you may find it difficult to exclude the effect on
productivity of
variable is one which obscures the effects of another variable such as, the
novelty for
b. Confounded relationship;
c. Research hypothesis;
e. Treatments.
The different conditions to which the experimental & control groups are
subject to is known as treatments.
research study.
Answer
Preparing the Research Design: In this stage the researcher prepare a research
design i.e. conceptual
Answer
Should minimize bias and maximize reliability of data collection & Analysis.
Time schedule
Answer
The Latin square design is used where the researcher desires to control the
variation in an experiment that is related to rows and columns in the field.
Field marks:
Treatments are assigned at random within rows and columns, with each treatment once
per row and once per column.
Useful where the experimenter desires to control variation in two different directions
Sample layout:
Different colors represent different treatments. There are 4 treatments (A-D)
assigned to 4 rows (I-IV) and 4 columns (1-4).
studies.
Answers
Experience Surveys
Ask knowledgeable individuals about a particular research problem - most are
quite willing
Reveal nothing conclusive, they may help define the problem more formally
Diagnose a situation
Screening of alternatives
Examples of exploratory
research are:
opinion on inflation.
Answer
all of the elements in a research project together. We often describe a design using
a
What are the "elements" that a design includes? In this unit, you will be able to
answer
this question and become comfortable with issues bordering on research designs.
Research Design:
The most important step after defining the Research problem is preparing the
Research Design
Research design is the conceptual structure within which the research is conducted.
It constitutes the BLUE PRINT for collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Research design provides an answer to the question, what the Researcher is going to
do with regards to framing hypothesis, its operational implications and how to analyse
the data?
- The entire population is divided into sub population (sub groups) (i.e. the sub
population being homogenous).
- Eg:50 students of a school having 1000 students on a total were selected &
interviewed on the interest in music.
Answer
Whatever your research question(s) and objectives you will need to consider
whether you need
to use sampling. Occasionally, it may be possible to collect and analyse data from
every possible
Sampling techniques provide a range of methods that enable you to reduce the
amount
of data you need to collect by considering only data from a sub-group rather than
all possible
cases or elements
Answer
The sampling techniques available to you can be divided into two types:
Answer
3) Cluster sampling
4) Systematic sampling
5) Area sampling
based on the analytical consideration, but not in proportion to the population size
of that stratum.
Assume there are 3 stores. Each store forms a strata and sampling from within
each strata is selected.
The result might be used to plan different promotional activities for each store
strata.
Suppose a researcher wishes to study the retail sale of product such as tea in a
universe of 1000 grocery
stores. The researcher will first divide this universe into say 3 strata based on store
size. This bench
mark for size could be only one of the following (a) Floor space (b) Sales volumes
(c) Variety displayed etc.
3) Cluster sampling:
The entire population is sub divided into mutually exclusive groups or clusters
Simple Random sampling is applied and the need clusters are selected for the study.
If all the elements found in the selected cluster is taken for the study, then it is one
stage cluster sampling.
If random sampling is applied in selecting elements found within the clusters, it is two
stage cluster sampling.
It is unbiased.
It takes time.
It is costly
More resources are required to design and execute than non-probability design.
Each item does not have an equal chance of being included in the sample.
representative ness of the selected samples. It allows the researcher too much
discretion
in the selection of subjects and as such, it is not advisable to use this design in
research
practices. Additionally, inferences drawn from this research design, as well as the
statistical results, can be misleading and biased.
1) Convenience sampling
2) Quota sampling
3) Judgmental sampling
the belief that reference subjects will provide the required information for the
given
research process.
Q 11. What are the merits and demerits of shopping mall intercept
sampling?
The success of this method depends on "How well the sample is chosen".
Merits
used.
Demerits
3. The investigator may start with a preconceived idea and draw samples such
that the units
Answer
Quota sampling
a. Quota sampling does not require prior knowledge about the cell to which each
population unit
belongs. Therefore this sampling has a distinct advantage over stratified random
sampling,
where every population unit must be placed in the appropriate stratum before
the actual sample
selection.
a. It may not be possible to get a "representative" sample within the quota as the
selection depends
b. Since too much liberty is given to the interviewers, the quality of work
suffers if they are not competent.
While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired
precision as also an
acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of population variance
needs to be considered as
view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study
must be kept in
view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs too, dictate the size of sample that
we can draw. As
such, budgetary constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when we
decide the sample size.
Answer
(b) Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is
the ordinal scale. The
ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the
intervals of the scale equal in
For instance, if Beletes position in his class is 10 and Chalas position is 40, it
cannot be said that Beletes position is four times as good as that of Chala.
(c) Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms
of some rule that has
Q2. Do you agree with the following statements? If so, give reasons:
b. Stability and equivalence aspects of reliability essentially mean the same thing.
Answer
a) Respondent:
(b) Situation:
(c) Measurer:
(d) Instrument:
Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality. In
fact, these are the
extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure. Reliability has
to do with the
b.Military ranks.
thing or of traits of a person. When we use rating scales (or categorical scales),
we judge an object in
absolute terms against some specified criteria i.e., we judge properties of objects
without reference to
Ranking scales: Under ranking scales (or comparative scales) we make relative
judgments against
other similar objects. The respondents under this method directly compare two
or more objects and
make choices among them. There are two generally used approaches of ranking
scales viz.
Self-Assessment Question
two types of data viz., primary and secondary. The primary data are those which
are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.
Important ones are: (i) observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) through
questionnaires, (iv)
through schedules, and (v) other methods which include (a) warranty cards; (b)
distributor audits; (c)
pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e) using mechanical devices; (f) through
projective techniques; (g)
and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data
which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is
certainly not confronted
with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data.
publications of the central, state are local governments; (b) various publications
of foreign governments
business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by
research scholars,
universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g) public records and
statistics, historical
available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labor bureaus
and other public/private
This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through
questionnaire, with little
difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of
questions) are being filled
investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in
understanding the
This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead
to fairly reliable
the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate.
wider area.
in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of
enumerators.
quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be
filled in by enumerators
which you would consider before using any published data. Illustrate
your answer by examples
wherever possible.
By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that
they possess following
characteristics:
i. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about
the said data:
(a) Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they
collected by using proper
methods (d) At what time were they collected?(e) Was there any bias of the
compiler?
ii. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not
necessarily be found suitable in
another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they
should not be used by the
researcher. In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinize the
definition of various terms
and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary
source originally.
Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be
studied. If the researcher
finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry
and should not be
used.
iii. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found
inadequate for the purpose of
the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be
used by the researcher.
The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which
may be either narrower
From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available data. The
already available data
should be used by the researcher only when he finds them reliable, suitable and
adequate. But he should
not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from
authentic sources and are also
suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical to spend time
and energy in field
available data which must be used by an intelligent researcher but with due
precaution.
There are several merits of the participant type of observation: (i) The researcher
is enabled to record
the natural behavior of the group. (ii) The researcher can even gather
information which could not
certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the observer may lose the
objectivity to the extent he
participates emotionally; the problem of observation-control is not solved; and it
may narrow-down the
particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who
are not capable
forgiving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other However,
observation method has
method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with
the observational
task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct
observation creates obstacle for
technical point of view there is difference between the two. The important points
of difference are as
under:
covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The
schedule is generally
filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions
when necessary.
return the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-
response often remains
are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all questions. But there
remains the danger of
of respondent is known.
sent to respondents by post who also in turn returns the same by post.
7. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and
cooperative, but in case of
schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen
to be illiterate.
wider area.
10. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the
questionnaire itself, but in the
quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be
filled in by enumerators
12. Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing
is not possible while
collecting data through questionnaires.
telephone interviews.
a. Depth interviews;
answers, where you want your interviewees to explain, or build on, their responses.
This
(Section 4.2). Interviewees may use words or ideas in a particular way, and the
opportunity
to probe these meanings will add significance and depth to the data you obtain. They
may also lead the discussion into areas that you had not previously considered but
which
are significant for your understanding, and which help you to address your research
question
and objectives, or indeed help you formulate such a question. Interviews also afford
each interviewee an opportunity to hear themself thinking aloud about things they
may
not have previously thought about. The result should be that you are able to collect a
rich
and detailed set of data. However, you need to be aware that the manner in which you
interact with your interviewees and ask questions will impact on the data you collect
simple i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.
Questions should proceed in
logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions. Personal and
intimate questions should
be left to the end. Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different
interpretations should be
questionnaire or a schedule:
i. The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it provides the
starting point for
developing the Questionnaire/Schedule. He must be clear about the various
aspects of his research
iv. Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the
rough draft for a better
vi. Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions for the
respondents so that they
There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the
respondent; there also
It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents own
words.
b. Data collection through projective techniques is considered relatively
more reliable.
The following points are noteworthy so far as difference between survey and
experiment is concerned:
(ii) Survey-type research studies usually have larger samples because the
percentage of responses
survey method gathers data from a relatively large number of cases at a particular
time; it is essentially
(iii) Surveys are concerned with describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting
conditions that either
exist or existed. The researcher does not manipulate the variable or arrange for
events to happen.
Surveys are only concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions
that are held, processes
that are going on, effects that are evident or trends that are developing. They are
primarily concerned
with the present but at times do consider past events and influences as they relate
to current conditions.
Thus, in surveys, variables that exist or have already occurred are selected and
observed.
Experimental research provides a systematic and logical method for answering the
question,
What will happen if this is done when certain variables are carefully controlled or
manipulated? In
(iv) Surveys are usually appropriate in case of social and behavioral sciences
(because many types of
laboratory research.
(vi) Surveys are concerned with hypothesis formulation and testing the analysis of
the relationship
After experimenters define a problem, they propose a hypothesis. They then test
the hypothesis and
confirm or disconfirm it in the light of the controlled variable relationship that they
have observed. The
thus, is the most sophisticated, exacting and powerful method for discovering and
developing an
(vii) Surveys may either be census or sample surveys. They may also be classified
as social surveys,
economic surveys or public opinion surveys. Whatever be their type, the method
of data collection
study method can as well be used. But in case of experiments, data are collected
from several readings
of experiments.
(viii) In case of surveys, research design must be rigid, must make enough
provision for protection
against bias and must maximize reliability as the aim happens to be to obtain
complete and accurate