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Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 2011 American Psychological Association
2011, Vol. 16, No. 3, 361389 1076-8998/11/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0022876
On the Costs and Benefits of Emotional Labor:

A Meta-Analysis of Three Decades of Research
Ute R. Hulsheger Anna F. Schewe
Maastricht University Bielefeld University
This article provides a quantitative review of the link of emotional labor (emotionrule disso-
nance, surface acting, and deep acting) with well-being and performance outcomes. The meta-
analysis is based on 494 individual correlations drawn from a final sample of 95 independent
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
studies. Results revealed substantial relationships of emotionrule dissonance and surface acting
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
with indicators of impaired well-being (s between .39 and .48) and job attitudes (s between
.24 and .40) and a small negative relationship with performance outcomes (s between .20
and .05). Overall, deep acting displayed weak relationships with indicators of impaired
well-being and job attitudes but positive relationships with emotional performance and customer
satisfaction (s .18 and .37). A meta-analytic regression analysis provides information on the
unique contribution of emotionrule dissonance, surface acting, and deep acting in statistically
predicting well-being and performance outcomes. Furthermore, a mediation analysis confirms
theoretical models of emotional labor which suggest that surface acting partially mediates the
relationship of emotionrule dissonance with well-being. Implications for future research as well
as pragmatic ramifications for organizational practices are discussed in conclusion.
Keywords: meta-analysis, emotional labor, emotion regulation, well-being, job attitudes, performance
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0022876.supp
Service plays a vital role in todays economies. licly displaying certain emotions while hiding others
Indeed, service activities now account for about 70% (Cote, 2005; Hochschild, 1983). The management of
of the gross domestic product in the United States as emotions has become part of organizational rules and
well as in European countries (Central Intelligence occupational norms because organizational decision
Agency, 2009). Accordingly, more than two thirds of makers as well as employees believe that the expres-
the labor force in the United States and Europe is sion as well as suppression of certain emotions helps
working in the service sector (Central Intelligence influence customers and clients to meet higher-order
Agency, 2009), and this proportion is expected to performance goals (Holman, Martinez-Inigo, Totter-
grow even further in the years to come (Paoli & dell, 2008a; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). Emotional la-
Merllie, 2008). As part of their daily work these bor has consequently become part of many individ-
employees have to interact with others, be it custom- uals daily work despite the potential detrimental
ers, patients, students, or children. During these in- effects for employees psychological health (Hoch-
teractions they have to perform emotional labor, pub- schild, 1983).
Starting with the seminal work by Arlie Russell
Hochschild (1983) and fueled by the developments in
Ute R. Hulsheger, Faculty of Psychology and Neuro- the labor market, research into emotional labor has
science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands;
Anna F. Schewe, Department of Psychology, Bielefeld Uni- been burgeoning in the last three decades (Fisher &
versity, Bielefeld, Germany. Ashkanasy, 2000; Zapf, 2002). However, despite the
Both authors contributed equally to this study. We thank growth of scholarly work on emotional labor, a num-
all researchers providing information about unpublished ber of important questions remain to be answered
studies or study details. Furthermore, we wish to express
our sincere thanks to Gunter W. Maier and Joyce E. Bono (e.g., Bono & Vey, 2005; Fisher & Ashkanasy, 2000;
for helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper and Rubin, Staebler Tardino, Daus, & Munz, 2005). Nu-
Maria Hills for her stylistic advice. merous researchers have investigated the link of
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- emotional labor with well-being and different kinds
dressed to Ute R. Hulsheger, Faculty of Psychology and
Neuroscience, Work- and Social Psychology, Maastricht
of performance outcomes (e.g., task performance,
University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Nether- affective delivery), both theoretically as well as em-
lands. E-mail: ute.hulsheger@maastrichtuniversity.nl pirically. Yet findings are inconsistent regarding the
361
362 LSHEGER AND SCHEWE
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size and direction of effects. This makes it difficult to tially) mediates the relation between emotionrule
draw reliable conclusions about the nature of the dissonance and outcome variables.
relationships and impedes the development of clear
suggestions for management practices. A statistical
integration of extant empirical research by means of Deep Acting, Surface Acting, and
a meta-analysis would consequently benefit this field EmotionRule Dissonance
of research in two important regards. First, a meta-
analysis will help clarify whether the relationships of Extant models of emotional labor conceptualize
emotional labor facets with well-being and perfor- emotion regulationthe process of managing ex-
mance are generalizable across samples and settings pressions and feelings by the two emotional labor
or whether they are situation-specific. Second, it will strategies of surface and deep actingas the core of
allow the estimation of mean effect sizes of the emotional labor (Grandey, 2000; Holman, Martnez-
relationships between emotional labor facets with Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008b; Rubin et al., 2005).
well-being and performance outcomes and convey Deep acting is an antecedent-focused form of emo-
important information on the direction and strength tion regulation that affects the perception and pro-
of relationships. Overall, these findings will help cessing of emotional cues at the onset of an emotion;
evaluate propositions that have been made in models that is, before they elicit behavioral, experiential, or
of emotional labor (Grandey, 2000; Holman, physiological response tendencies (Gross, 1998). An-
Martnez-Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008b; Rubin et al., tecedent-focused emotion regulation occurs before an
2005). Furthermore, they will provide an overview of emotion develops, and it aims at changing the situa-
the benefits and costs of emotional labor and reveal tion or the perception of a situation (Grandey, 2000;
pragmatic ramifications for organizational practices. Gross, 1998). When engaging in deep acting, indi-
In 2005, Bono and Vey provided a first quantita- viduals try to align required and true feelings. To
tive summary of antecedents and consequences of reach this goal, they can direct attention toward plea-
emotional labor. They conducted a bare-bones meta- surable things or thoughts to stir up the required
analysis based on 11 studies and 16 independent emotion (attentional deployment), or reappraise the
samples. The goal of the present study is to build situation to induce the required emotion (cognitive
upon and extend their research in five crucially im- change; Grandey, 2000). Consequently, deep acting
portant regards: First, as Bono and Vey (2005) results in genuine emotional displays of the required
pointed out, the research field was not mature enough emotions.
to compute robust estimates of associations between Surface acting, on the other hand, is a response-
emotional labor and its consequences when they con- focused form of emotion regulation that is applied
ducted their first meta-analysis. Yet research on emo- when the emotion has already developed. It does not
tional labor has been blossoming in recent years, and involve an adjustment of ones actual feelings, but
many studies have been published since 2005. We refers to the management of the emotional expres-
will therefore base our meta-analysis on a consider- sion. Individuals engaging in surface acting put on a
ably enlarged sample of primary studies, which will mask. They adjust the emotional response by sup-
benefit the reliability and stability of meta-analytic pressing, amplifying, or faking emotions. In conse-
estimates (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004). Second, in their quence, the emotional experience and the emotion
bare-bones meta-analysis Bono and Vey corrected expression remain discordant when individuals en-
studies for sampling error only; that is, they estimated gage in surface acting (Grandey, 2000; Gross, 1998;
sample size weighted mean correlations between the Totterdell & Holman, 2003).
variables in question. In addition to sampling error Apart from deep and surface acting, emotional
we will correct for predictor and criterion unreliabil- dissonance is considered in models of emotional la-
ity. Third, we will investigate not only well-being but bor (Holman, Martnez-Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008b;
also performance outcomes and their relationship Rubin et al., 2005). Indeed, many researchers ascribe
with the three central emotional labor facets of emo- emotional dissonance a central role in the emotional
tionrule dissonance, surface acting, and deep acting. labor process (e.g., Cote, 2005; Morris & Feldman,
Fourth, we will conduct a meta-analytic regression 1996; Van Dijk & Kirk, 2006). However, researchers
analysis, testing the unique contribution of each of have used different and sometimes ambiguous con-
the three emotional labor facets in statistically pre- ceptualizations of the concept (cf. Van Dijk & Kirk,
dicting well-being and performance outcomes. Fifth 2006). Early work on emotional labor described emo-
and finally, we will test whether surface acting (par- tional dissonance as the discrepancy between felt
COSTS AND BENEFITS OF EMOTIONAL LABOR 363
emotions and emotions that are expressed to meet Consequences of Emotional Labor
organizational display rules (Hochschild, 1983;
Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). Thus, emotional dissonance Emotional labor is a multifaceted construct which
does involve three different aspects: emotions re- has been argued to have positive as well as negative
quired by display rules, expressed emotions, and felt consequences for individuals and organizations
emotions (Zerbe, 2000). Researchers have used dif- (Cote, 2005; Zapf & Holz, 2006). Emotionrule dis-
ferent combinations of these three aspects to concep- sonance, surface acting, and deep acting are expected
tualize and measure emotional dissonance. Some to relate differentially to well-being and performance
view emotional dissonance as the discrepancy be- outcomes. These differential relationships can be ex-
tween required and felt emotions (e.g., Morris & plained by different mechanisms underlying emo-
Feldman, 1996; Zapf & Holz, 2006), which has also tionrule dissonance, surface, and deep acting and by
been referred to as emotionrule dissonance (Hol- the extent to which these threaten or conserve inter-
man, Martnez-Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008b), others nal resources (Hobfoll, 1989; Holman, Martnez-
conceptualize it as the discrepancy between ex- Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008b). In deriving our hypoth-
pressed and felt emotions (Cote, 2005; Van Dijk & eses about the link of these three central aspects of
Kirk, 2006), which has been circumscribed as fake emotional labor with well-being and performance
emotion display by Holman and colleagues. These outcomes we draw on established theoretical models
of emotional labor (Grandey, 2000; Holman,
differences in conceptualizations of emotional disso-
Martnez-Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008b; Rubin et al.,
nance have important implications for the role as-
2005). An overview of our theoretical framework is
cribed to emotional dissonance in the emotional labor
depicted in Figure 1.
process. While emotionrule dissonance is an ante-
cedent to emotion regulation in terms of deep and
surface acting, fake emotion display is a consequence The Relation of Surface Acting and Deep
of emotion regulation (Holman, Martnez-Inigo, & Acting With Well-Being and Performance
Totterdell, 2008; Cote, 2005). Although different
Various mechanisms may be put forth explaining
points of view exist regarding the conceptualization
the relationships of surface and deep acting with
of emotional dissonance, the majority of research
well-being and performance outcomes.
assesses emotional dissonance as emotionrule dis-
Ego-depletion. According to Baumeister and
sonance (Dormann & Kaiser, 2002; Holman, Chiss-
colleagues, purposeful self control and regulatory
ick, & Totterdell, 2002; Zapf & Holz, 2006). This is
processes are effortful and deplete mental resources
also in line with theoretical models of emotional
(Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998;
labor defining emotional dissonance as an antecedent Muraven, Tice, & Baumeister, 1998). Surface acting
to surface and deep acting (Holman, Martnez-Inigo, involves the constant monitoring of actual and de-
& Totterdell, 2008b; Rubin et al., 2005). In the fol- sired emotions. Consequently, regulating emotions
lowing we will therefore focus on emotional disso- by surface acting is an effortful process that can be
nance in terms of emotionrule dissonance. expected to drain mental resources. Indeed, funda-
Emotionrule dissonance is a form of person-role mental research on emotion regulation has revealed
conflict (Abraham, 1999; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987) that regulating emotions by faking, suppression, or
stemming from the incongruence between emotions exaggeration impairs subsequent performance on di-
that are actually felt and emotions that are required verse tasks, such as hand-grip or anagram tasks
by display rules (Abraham, 1999; Brotheridge & (Baumeister et al., 1998; Muraven, Tice, & Baumeis-
Grandey, 2002; Morris & Feldman, 1996; Morris & ter, 1998; Schmeichel, Demaree, Robinson, & Pu,
Feldman, 1997; Van Dijk & Kirk, 2006) and result- 2006; Schmeichel, Vohs, & Baumeister, 2003). Re-
ing in an unpleasant state of tension. Although there searchers have also contrasted the depleting effects of
are conceptual and empirical relations between emo- response-focused and antecedent-focused emotion
tionrule dissonance and surface acting, the concepts regulation. Their studies revealed that in contrast to
are to be carefully differentiated. While emotionrule antecedent-focused emotion regulation, response-
dissonance describes a state of being (p. 97; focused emotion regulation was effortful and led to
Grandey, 2000), surface acting describes the effortful impaired mental performance, for instance on mem-
process of managing ones emotions. Thus, emotion ory and complex decision-making tasks (Richards &
rule dissonance is an emotional state, while surface Gross, 1999; Richards & Gross, 2000; Zyphur, War-
acting is the active process of managing emotions. ren, Landis, & Thoresen, 2007). It has therefore been
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Figure 1. Model based on Grandey (2000), Holman et al. (2008b), and Rubin et al. (2005).
argued that surface acting, a response-focused form tion) and motivational (e.g., drive, resilience) re-
of emotion regulation, requires considerable mental sources invested is considerably lower for deep act-
effort. When employees engage in surface acting, ing than for surface acting (Sideman Goldberg &
actual and desired emotions need to be constantly Grandey, 2007; Totterdell & Holman, 2003). How-
monitored and the individual needs to invest contin- ever, recently, this assumption has been challenged
uous effort to change the emotional expression. This by Liu and colleagues (Liu, Prati, Perrewe, & Ferris,
continuous effort drains mental resources and thereby 2008) who argued that the suppression and reap-
enhances strain and diminishes well-being (Cote, praisal mechanisms investigated in laboratory set-
2005; Grandey, 2003; Martnez-Inigo, Totterdell, tings cannot be compared with the workplace where
Alcover, & Holman, 2007). Moreover, it has been employees need to regulate their emotions. They
argued that, to the extent that surface acting draws on suggest that in contrast to the reappraisal manipula-
a limited reservoir of mental resources (Sideman tions in typical laboratory studies, actual deep acting
Goldberg & Grandey, 2007; Zyphur et al., 2007), might require a great deal of mental energy in the
these resources are lacking for the performance of form of motivation, engagement, and role internal-
other job-related tasks that involve executive func- ization (p. 2416) and might therefore be even more
tioning. Surface acting can therefore be expected to psychologically demanding than surface acting. Be-
impair not only employee well-being but also perfor- cause no study has examined the actual cognitive and
mance. motivational energy demand of deep and surface
In contrast, building on Gross and colleagues re- acting directly, the question whether deep acting con-
search on the cognitive costs of suppression and sumes more or less mental resources than surface
reappraisal (Gross, 1998; Richards & Gross, 1999, acting cannot be answered yet. Nevertheless, it can
2000) researchers have argued that deep acting re- be concluded that deep acting is an effortful regula-
quires less cognitive resources than surface acting tory process that drains mental resources to a cer-
(Totterdell & Holman, 2003). This contention rests tain extent.
on two assumptions, namely that deep acting is sim- Felt inauthenticity. People strive toward au-
ilar to reappraisal and that the reappraisal processes thenticity and self-expressive behavior, but display
involved in deep acting diminish mental resources rules might impede an employees genuine experi-
only at the onset of an emotion. It has consequently ence and expression (Hochschild, 1983). Especially
been argued that the amount of cognitive (e.g., atten- surface acting may constrain personal authenticity,
because employees emotional expressions and ac- 2005a; Hennig-Thurau, Groth, Paul, & Gremler,
tual feelings are at odds (Brotheridge & Lee, 2002). 2006). Fundamental as well as applied experimental
Empirical studies illustrated that the suppression of research revealed that authentic smiles elicit favor-
negative feelings and the simulation of positive emo- able reactions from interaction partners as opposed to
tions lead to lower self-authenticity (Brotheridge & inauthentic smiles (Frank, Ekman, & Friesen, 1993;
Lee, 2002; Erickson & Ritter, 2001; Simpson & Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006). Evoking positive emo-
Stroh, 2004). Inauthenticity, in turn, is associated tions in customers helps building up a strong employee
with depressed mood and stress (Erickson & customer rapport which is central to performance in
Wharton, 1997; Sheldon, Ryan, Rawsthorne, & terms of customer satisfaction and future loyalty in-
Ilardi, 1997). In contrast to surface acting, there is no tentions (Grandey, 2003; Hennig-Thurau et al.,
discrepancy between felt and displayed emotions 2006). Surface acting is associated with inauthentic
when employees engage in deep acting. When em- emotional expressions, while deep acting involves
ployees use deep acting strategies their sense of au- the authentic expression of emotions. These lines of
thenticity is consequently not compromised. These arguments suggest surface acting to be negatively
theoretical arguments and empirical findings suggest and deep acting to be positively related to perfor-
a negative relationship between surface acting and mance outcomes, especially emotional performance
well-being but not between deep acting and well- and customer satisfaction.
being. Enhancement versus impairment of social in-
Authenticity of the emotion display. Satisfy- teractions. With his social interaction model of
ing organizational display rules is an important ele- emotional labor, Cote (2005) drew attention to inter-
ment of performance in jobs involving interactions personal processes that may explain how emotional
with clients. A customer service representative who labor relates to well-being. Cotes model builds upon
is cheerful and friendly, a judge who has a neutral a transactions framework (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987),
demeanor, a debt collector who displays anger, and a taking both interaction partners, that is, the employee
doctor who shows sympathy, they all adapt their and the customer, into account. The model suggests
emotional displays to job- and organization-specific that the employees emotional display is appraised
display rules to fulfill their job roles. Display rules by the customer who in turn responds accordingly
exist because it is assumed that displaying these and thereby reaffects the employee and his or her
specific emotions will influence clients and custom- emotional and psychological state of health. As men-
ers in a particular way: The customer service repre- tioned earlier, interaction partners are able to differ-
sentative is friendly because he wants an angry cus- entiate between authentic and inauthentic emotional
tomer to calm down and abide by the organization, displays (Grandey et al., 2005a), and they react more
the debt collector expresses anger because he wants unfavorably to inauthentic compared with authentic
the debtor to pay her bill, and the doctor wants to give displays of emotions (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006).
her patients hope and confidence. This is in line with Surface acting involves inauthentic emotional dis-
the Emotion as Social Information Model positing plays and thereby hinders positive interactions and
that emotional displays provide observers with im- evokes negative reactions from interaction partners.
portant information and influence their behavior (Van These negative reactions, for instance anger, disap-
Kleef, 2009; see also Keltner & Haidt, 1999). Yet pointment, or disrespect, are stressors that reaffect
emotional displays differ in the extent to which they the employee and impair his or her well-being.
are authentic or faked, and individuals are able to In contrast to surface acting, amplifying positive
differentiate between genuine and fake emotional emotions through deep acting should result in favor-
displays (Ekman, Friesen, & OSullivan, 1988). Only able responses by the interaction partner (Cote,
authentic emotional expressions entail the relevant 2005). As clients or customers perceive authentic
cues that serve important social functions and have emotional displays, they respond favorably and ex-
the desired effects on other individuals. A debt col- press positive emotions toward the employee. The
lector can only achieve his goal of enforcing a debt if result is an overall positive, satisfying interaction
the expressed anger is perceived as authentic by the between employees and clients that is experienced as
debtor. Similar lines of argument apply when orga- rewarding and provides the employee with a feeling
nizations prescribe the display of positive emotions. of efficacy and personal accomplishment (Brother-
Positive emotional displays evoke positive reactions idge & Lee, 2002). According to the conservation of
only to the extent that others perceive them as au- resources theory (Hobfoll, 1989), experiencing re-
thentic (Grandey, Fisk, Mattila, Jansen, & Sideman, warding social relationships at work is a resource that
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serves as a buffer against stress and enhances favor- and lack of personal accomplishment; psychological
able job attitudes. These lines of arguments suggest strain; and psychosomatic complaints.
surface acting to be negatively and deep acting to be
positively related to well-being. Hypothesis 1: Surface acting displays a positive
The power of positive and negative emotions. relationship with indicators of personal ill-
Surface acting alters the facial and bodily expression being, that is, (a) emotional exhaustion, (b) de-
while leaving the felt emotion intact. The individual personalization, (c) lack of personal accom-
therefore still feels the original inner emotion that is plishment, (d) psychological strain, and (e)
only suppressed and disguised by a faked outer ex- psychosomatic complaints.
pression. As emotional labor usually involves the
suppression of negative emotions, the individual will Furthermore, we consider job-related aspects of
continue to experience this very negative emotion well-being, specifically job satisfaction, and organi-
which remains unresolved beneath the masked face zational attachment. Job satisfaction describes the
and thus continuing to negatively affect the individ- extent to which employees evaluate their job and job
ual and his or her psychological well-being (Gross & situation in a positive or negative way (Weiss, 2002)
John, 2003). while organizational attachment refers to an employ-
In contrast, deep acting truly alters the inner emo- ees psychological and behavioral involvement in
tional state and turns the negative emotion into a and identification with an organization (Tsui, Egan,
positive one. This makes the individual actually ex- & OReilly, 1992). Organizational attachment sub-
perience positive emotions which should lead to fur- sumes organizational commitment and intentions to
ther increases of positive affect and happiness. In her stay with the organization (Gonzales & Denisi,
broaden-and-build theory, Fredrickson (1998) pos- 2009). Job satisfaction and organizational attachment
ited that positive emotions are not only pleasurable in reflect the degree to which individuals feel that their
the present but that they trigger upward spirals, jobs and organizations allow them to satisfy their
thereby leading to higher future levels of well-being needs and act in accordance with their values
(Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002). Positive emotions cre- (Hochwarter, Perrewe, Ferris, & Brymer, 1999;
ate a positive mind-set, broaden attention and cogni- Riketta & van Dick, 2005). Affective events theory
tion, and thereby build up personal resources and (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) suggests that affective
coping mechanisms (Fredrickson, 1998; Fredrickson experiences at work influence employees evaluative
& Joiner, 2002). Having a positive look on unpleas- judgments about their jobs. Indeed, research has
ant events and finding benefits in adverse circum- shown that the experience of positive and negative
stances has been shown to predict decreases in dis- emotions at work is related to employees overall job
tress even after such tragic events as losing a family satisfaction (Fisher, 2002). The mechanisms dis-
member (Davis, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Larson, 1998). cussed above suggest that surface acting is a source
Following these lines of arguments, actively inducing of negative affective events at work in that it depletes
positive emotions in oneself by means of deep acting employees mental resources, undermines their sense
can thus buffer employees against stress induced by of authenticity, promotes the experience of negative
emotional job demands. emotions, and hinders the creation of rewarding so-
Summing up, surface acting depletes mental re- cial relationships. The repeated experience of nega-
sources, compromises employees sense of authen- tive events at work impedes the satisfaction of em-
ticity, and leads to unpleasant social relationships ployees needs and may thereby negatively affect
with customers and to a prolonged experience of their job satisfaction and organizational attachment.
negative emotions. These four mechanisms are the
key reasons to expect a negative relationship between Hypothesis 2: Surface acting displays a negative
surface acting and well-being. In our meta-analysis relationship with indicators of job-related well-
we will differentiate between two distinct aspects of being, that is, (a) job satisfaction and (b) orga-
well-being, namely more general indicators of per- nizational attachment.
sonal ill-being and job-related aspects of well-being.
Addressing personal aspects of ill-being, we will Regarding deep acting, the picture is more com-
consider various indicators that have been investi- plex. On the one hand, deep acting is an effortful
gated in primary studies into emotional labor and that regulatory process that involves mental effort and
tab different aspects of the construct: The burnout drains cognitive resources (although possibly to a
facets of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, lower extent than surface acting). Building upon
Hobfolls (1989) conservation of resources model, influence their behavior and attitudes (Van Kleef,
one could argue that deep acting results in a resource 2009; Keltner & Haidt, 1999). Research has shown
loss and could therefore be expected to be positively that displaying authentic positive emotions in cus-
related to indicators of personal ill-being, such as tomer service interactions elicits favorable reactions
emotional exhaustion and psychological strain. Yet, from customers, helps establishing a strong employee-
on the other hand, deep acting helps create rewarding customer rapport, and favors positive customer eval-
social interactions with customers. Furthermore, in uations (Grandey et al., 2005a; Hennig-Thurau et al.,
the case of positive display rules, individuals engag- 2006). We therefore expect deep acting to be posi-
ing in deep acting elicit and actually experience pos- tively related to performance outcomes, especially
itive emotions. These two mechanisms should help emotional performance and customer satisfaction.
building up and restoring resources. Deep acting thus Because affective delivery is a central component of
involves opponent processes leading to a resource task performance in most jobs involving interac-
loss and gain at the same time, resulting in no net tions with clients and customers, we also expect
gain or loss (cf. Grandey, 2003; Hulsheger, Lang, & deep acting to be positively related to task perfor-
Maier, 2010; Martnez-Inigo et al., 2007). In conse- mance.
quence, we do not hypothesize to find a relationship
between deep acting and indicators of personal ill- Hypothesis 4: Deep acting displays a positive
being or job-related well-being. Yet, for exploratory relationship with performance outcomes, that is,
reasons, we will analyze these relationships meta- (a) task performance, (b) emotional perfor-
analytically. mance, and (c) customer satisfaction.
With regard to performance outcomes, arguments
presented above suggest a negative link with surface The Relationship of EmotionRule
acting. First, surface acting depletes mental re- Dissonance With Well-Being
sources, which are lacking for the execution of other and Performance
job-related tasks and may thereby impair employees
task performance (Sideman, Goldberg, & Grandey, Rafaeli and Sutton (1987) suggested that emotion
2007; Zyphur et al., 2007). Second, surface acting rule dissonance is a form of person-role conflict, a
involves inauthentic emotional displays, which elicit mismatch between an individuals personal values
less positive reactions from interaction partners than and needs and specific organizational or job role
authentic emotional displays (Frank, Ekman, & Fri- requirements (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, &
esen, 1993; Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006). Surface Rosenthal, 1964). The personrole conflict inherent
acting thereby impairs employees emotional perfor- in emotionrule dissonance impairs employees well-
mance and disturbs the employee-customer rapport being by putting them in a double bind situation.
which is central to customer satisfaction (Hennig- Employees can either overrule their own values, ad-
Thurau et al., 2006). Third, surface acting may neg- here to organizational display rules and thereby
atively affect performance, especially task perfor- threaten their sense of authenticity, or they can hold
mance, by impairing job-related well-being, on to their personal aspirations, disregarding their
specifically job attitudes such as job satisfaction and professional duties and running the risk of dissatis-
organizational commitment, which have previously fying customers and supervisors (Abraham, 1999).
been shown to be related to job performance (Judge, This avoidance conflict induces stress and threatens
Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001; Riketta, 2002, employees resources. Drawing on Lazarus and
2008). Follkmans (1984) transactional stress theory,
LePine, Podsakoff, and LePine (2005) considered
Hypothesis 3: Surface acting displays a negative role conflict a hindrance stressor that is appraised as
relationship with performance outcomes, that is, jeopardizing employees personal growth and that
(a) task performance, (b) emotional perfor- provokes negative emotions and the adoption of pas-
mance, and (c) customer satisfaction. sive coping styles. In support of this notion, several
meta-analyses have revealed substantial negative re-
In contrast to surface acting, deep acting yields lationships of role conflict with personal and job-
authentic emotional displays which should facilitate related well-being (Brown & Peterson, 1993; Jackson
social interactions and benefit performance. Display- & Schuler, 1985; Lee & Ashforth, 1996). Following
ing authentic emotions helps employees to convey these lines of arguments, emotionrule dissonance
important social information to customers and to can be conceived as a hindrance stressor that displays
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a positive relationship with personal ill-being and a al., 2005; Zerbe, 2000). Thus, when individuals find
negative relationship with job-related well-being. themselves in situations in which the emotions they
In a similar vein, personrole conflict may ex- feel do not coincide naturally with display rules they
plain how emotionrule dissonance relates to per- have three different options. They can either dis-
formance outcomes. Combining Lazarus and play their true feelings and neglect organizational
Follkmans (1984) transactional stress theory with display ruleswhich has been referred to as emo-
Vrooms (1964) expectancy theory, LePine and tional deviance (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987) or they can
colleagues (2005) argued that hindrance stressors abide by display rules and regulate their emotions by
impair motivation and thereby performance. When either surface or deep acting. In light of our previous
facing hindrance stressors, individuals believe that arguments suggesting a link between surface acting,
they do not have the necessary resources and cop- well-being, and performance, it can be expected that
ing mechanisms to meet the demands no matter the negative association of emotionrule dissonance
how much effort they invest. This leads to a lack of with well-being and performance outcomes is par-
motivation and thereby impairs performance. In
tially mediated through surface acting. Given our
support of this assumption, LePine and colleagues
previous arguments suggesting that emotionrule dis-
showed that hindrance stressors are negatively re-
sonance is a form of person-role conflict that directly
lated to motivation and performance and that mo-
affects employee well-being and performance, only
tivation mediates the relationship between hin-
partial mediation is expected.
drance stressors and performance. Thus, when
Because we expect deep acting to be unrelated to
employees face a hindrance stressor such as emo-
tionrule dissonance they may conclude that given personal ill-being and job-related well-being we do
their actual feelings and personal values they do not suggest deep acting to mediate the relationship
not have enough resources and capabilities to dis- between emotionrule dissonance and well-being
play the required emotions. This may impair their outcomes. Furthermore, we do not expect deep acting
motivation and consequently their performance. In to mediate the relationship between emotionrule
light of these arguments we expect a negative dissonance and performance. Deep acting is a strat-
association of emotionrule dissonance with well- egy in which felt emotions are aligned with required
being and performance outcomes. emotions. Any discrepancies between required and
felt emotions are thus quickly resolved and feelings
Hypothesis 5: Emotionrule dissonance displays of dissonance will disappear. Deep acting is therefore
a positive relationship with indicators of per- expected to disrupt rather than mediate the link of
sonal ill-being, that is, (a) emotional exhaustion emotionrule dissonance with performance out-
(b) depersonalization, (c) lack of personal ac- comes.
complishment, (d) psychological strain, and (e)
psychosomatic complaints. Hypothesis 8: The link between emotionrule
dissonance and indicators of personal ill-being,
Hypothesis 6: Emotionrule dissonance displays that is, (a) emotional exhaustion (b) depersonal-
a negative relationship with indicators of job- ization, (c) lack of personal accomplishment, (d)
related well-being, that is, (a) job satisfaction psychological strain, and (e) psychosomatic
and (b) organizational attachment. complaints, is partially mediated by surface act-
ing.
Hypothesis 7: Emotionrule dissonance displays
a negative relationship with performance out-
Hypothesis 9: The link between emotionrule
comes, that is, (a) task performance, (b) emo-
dissonance and indicators of job-related well-
tional performance, and (c) customer satisfac-
being, that is, (a) job satisfaction and (b) orga-
tion.
nizational attachment, is partially mediated by
surface acting.
A Mediated Process Model of
Emotional Labor Hypothesis 10: The link between emotionrule
dissonance and performance indicators, that is,
Theories of emotional labor consider emotionrule (a) task performance, (b) emotional perfor-
dissonance an antecedent to emotion regulation (Hol- mance, and (c) customer satisfaction is partially
man, Martnez-Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008b; Rubin et mediated by surface acting.
Potential Moderating Influences deep acting. Similarly, emotionrule dissonance may

be less detrimental in service relationships than in
The principal goal of the present study is to inves- encounters, because employees might feel that they
tigate main relationships between emotional labor can express their true emotions more openly toward
and its presumed consequences. However, because long-term clients with whom they have established a
these main relationships may be influenced by mod- personal and trustful relationship.
erator variables, these shall also be considered. In Lastly, we investigate culture as a moderator be-
meta-analyses, moderators can exist at different lev- cause research suggests that cultural differences may
els of analysis, at the study level, sample level, and at influence emotional labor and its relationship with
the cultural level (Van Hemert, 2003). We therefore well-being and performance outcomes (Bozionelos &
consider moderators at each level. Kiamou, 2008; Fischbach, 2008; Grandey, Fisk, &
At the study level, publication status may moder- Steiner, 2005b). Fundamental emotion research doc-
ate observed relationships. Publication status is fre- uments that although many emotion-related pro-
quently investigated in meta-analyses to test whether cesses are universal, there are also a number of cul-
there are systematic differences in the size of re- tural differences regarding antecedents of emotions,
ported relationships between published and unpub- appraisal propensities, regulation processes, attention
lished studies (e.g., De Dreu, Weingart, & Kwon, to physiological reactions, and behavioral response
2000; Judge, Colbert, & Ilies, 2004; Kish-Gephart, tendencies (Mesquita & Frijda, 1992). Furthermore,
Harrison, & Trevino, 2010). Specifically, it has been cross-cultural research has revealed that countries
argued that because of editorial preferences, stronger differ regarding their work-related attitudes and val-
relationships might be reported in published com- ues. Cultural clusters can be formed based on the
pared with unpublished studies (Smyth, 1998). degree to which countries share these cultural atti-
At the sample level, we consider the type of inter- tudes and values (e.g., Anglo, Germanic, Latin Eu-
action that is typically faced by employees. Previous ropean, Latin American; Hofstede, 1980; Ronen &
theoretical and empirical work has demonstrated the Shenkar, 1985). Previous research suggests that cul-
importance of differentiating between service rela- ture has an impact on organizational phenomena such
tionships and service encounters (Grandey & Dia- as leadership practices and their relationships with
mond, 2010; Gutek, 1999; Gutek, Bhappu, & Liao- work-related outcomes (Brodbeck et al., 2000; Dick-
Troth, 1999). Service relationships are characterized son, Den Hartog, & Mitchelson, 2003). Building on
by repeated interactions: The service provider and the these lines of research we therefore investigate
client have a history of shared interaction, they ex- whether relationships of emotional labor with well-
pect to interact again in the future, and they identify being and performance outcomes vary between cul-
with one another. In contrast, the customer and the tures.
service provider in a service encounter interact only
once, they do not expect to interact again in the Method
future, and no identification takes place (Gutek,
1999; Gutek, Bhappu, & Liao-Troth, 1999). It has To integrate research findings on emotional la-
been argued that the greater familiarity in service bor and its consequences statistically in the form of
relationships is associated with a number of benefits, a meta-analysis, we conducted an exhaustive liter-
such as greater customer satisfaction, more social ature search and then coded all studies that met
support, empathy, and commitment, while encoun- inclusion criteria. We assumed a random-effects
ters may be associated with lower intrinsic motiva- model and followed the process described by
tion and more customer incivility (Grandey & Dia- Hunter and Schmidt (2004) to integrate effect sizes
mond, 2010; Gutek, Bhappu, & Liao-Troth, 1999). statistically.
The strength of associations between emotional labor
facets and well-being as well as performance out- Literature Search
comes may depend on the type of interaction employ-
ees typically face. For instance, deep acting may be Making use of different search strategies, a com-
more positively related to well-being in service rela- prehensive and systematic literature search was con-
tionships than in encounters. In long-term relation- ducted. Studies were included that could be retrieved
ships, deep acting may pay off and lead to customer until August, 2010. First, a computer-based search
loyalty, friendliness, and social support, and these was carried out covering various international data-
benefits may compensate for the depleting effects of bases in social, economic, and medical sciences
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(PsycARTICLES, PsycBooks, PsycINFO, Schaubroeck & Jones, 2000). If studies reported in-
PSYNDEXplus, Social Sciences Citation Index, complete correlation tables or correlations were not
medline, EconLit, ERIC). In so doing we used key- indicated although the data was obviously available,
words such as emotional labor, emotional labour, we contacted the authors to receive the missing in-
emotion work, emotion regulation, emotional formation.
dissonance, surface acting, deep acting. Fur- Second, all variables had to be assessed on the
thermore we made every effort to retrieve studies individual level. Studies that operationalized emo-
published in languages other than English and in- tional labor based on the occupations classification
cluded studies published in, for example, German or in the ONet database (e.g., Glomb, Kammeyer-
Dutch. Second, a host of international journals that Mueller, & Rotundo, 2004), were not included. How-
publish studies on emotional labor were searched ever, studies using a diary, event-, or experience-
manually issue by issue: Academy of Management sampling design and assessing dependent or
Journal, Academy of Management Review, European independent variables once or several times a day
Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, were included in the meta-analysis (e.g., Judge,
Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Manage- Woolf, & Hurst, 2009; Totterdell & Holman, 2003).
rial Psychology, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Third, the setting of the primary study had to
Journal of Organizational Health Psychology, Jour- comply with definitions of emotional labor and assess
nal of Vocational Behavior. Third, conference pro- the extent of emotion regulation in a work context.
ceedings and conference Web pages were examined Studies assessing emotion regulation strategies in a
for contributions on emotional labor presented in the clinical setting or in romantic relationships were not
last eight years: Conference of the Society for Indus- included. However, studies assessing emotional labor
trial and Organizational Psychology, European Con- in an experimental set-up simulating typical work-
gress of Work and Organizational Psychology, and place interactions were included (e.g., Sideman Gold-
the Conference of the Work and Organizational Psy- berg & Grandey, 2007). In contrast, experimental
chology section of the German Psychological Soci- studies assessing emotion regulation lacking an eco-
ety. Fourth, 11 scientists with recent active research logically valid workplace environment were not in-
on or expertise in emotional labor were addressed via cluded (e.g., Wallace, Edwards, Shull, & Finch,
e-mail with the request to provide us with unpub- 2009).
lished studies on emotional labor. Fifth, a request for Applying these inclusion criteria, the final data-
unpublished studies on emotional labor was sent to base resulted in 95 articles and 105 independent
more than 800 scholars interested in research on samples, subsuming a total n of 23,574. The mean n
emotions in organizations via EMONET. of primary studies averages 225 with the smallest
sample consisting of 16, the largest sample of 1,975
Inclusion Criteria participants (mean standard deviation 230). To pre-
vent file drawer effects (Sharpe, 1997) we explicitly
Following these strategies, a preliminary database searched for unpublished studies. As a result, we
of published and unpublished studies was established were able to include 35 unpublished papers (37%).
for further inspection. This database was narrowed The sample consisted predominantly of recent stud-
down by the following criteria: ies: 60% of the studies were conducted or published
First, studies had to report at least one effect size from 2007 to 2010.
between emotionrule dissonance, surface acting, or
deep acting and one or several outcome measures Coding of Studies
(personal ill-being, job-related well-being, perfor-
mance). Only studies that were closely in line with Variables investigated in primary studies were
established definitions of emotionrule dissonance, coded into predefined construct categories. Regard-
surface acting, and deep acting (Grandey, 2000; Hol- ing emotional labor, these were surface acting, deep
man, Martnez-Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008b; Zapf, acting, and emotionrule dissonance. The vast ma-
2002) were included. We excluded studies that used jority of studies used Brotheridge and Lees (2003)
general measures of emotional labor (e.g., Pugliesi, and related measures (Diefendorff, Croyle, & Gos-
1999), measures of emotion regulation without dif- serand, 2005; Grandey, 2003) to assess surface acting
ferentiation between surface and deep acting (e.g., and deep acting. Emotionrule dissonance was fre-
Cote & Morgan, 2002), or studies measuring emo- quently assessed with the Frankfurt Emotion Work
tional job requirements and display rules (e.g., Scale (Zapf, Vogt, Seifert, Mertini, & Isic, 1999).
Regarding consequences of emotional labor we dif- pervisors, peers, trained observers, or customers.
ferentiated three broad outcome areas, personal ill- Only one study used a self-rating of emotional per-
being, job-related well-being, and performance. As to formance. Finally, criteria such as customer satisfac-
personal ill-being we differentiated the three burnout tion with transactions, encounter satisfaction
dimensions of emotional exhaustion, depersonaliza- (Grandey et al., 2005a; Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006),
tion, and personal accomplishment (Maslach & Jack- and the amount of received tips (Hulsheger, Lang,
son, 1981; Schaufeli, Leiter, Maslach, & Jackson, Meeuwenoord, Schewe, & Zijlstra, 2011; Meeuwe-
1996). In addition, we assessed psychosomatic com- noord, 2009) were coded in the customer satisfaction
plaints and psychological strain. Psychosomatic com- category. All studies in this category used indepen-
plaints subsumed physical symptoms (e.g., Schau- dent sources to measure customer satisfaction. Most
broeck & Jones, 2000) and psychosomatic studies assessed customer satisfaction by asking cus-
complaints (e.g., Montgomery, Panagopolou, de tomers themselves, one study used an objective mea-
Wildt, & Meenks, 2006). The category of psycholog- sure, namely the amount of tips an employee re-
ical strain assessed experienced stress and reduced ceived.
well-being as captured in concepts such as irritation To code studies that used a diary, event-, or expe-
(Mohr, Muller, Rigotti, Aycan, & Tschan, 2006; used rience-sampling design, we coded correlations be-
e.g., in Grebner et al., 2003), distress (Langner, 1962; tween study variables reported at the person level
as used e.g., in Pugliesi, 1999), or depressed mood (i.e., day-level variables have been aggregated to the
(Quinn & Shepard, 1974; used e.g., in Prati, 2004). person-level before calculating the correlation). If
As to job-related well-being we differentiated be- results based on the same sample were reported in
tween job satisfaction and organizational attachment multiple publications we coded only the most com-
[subsuming organizational commitment as measured prehensive dataset.
by Wong, Wong, & Law (2005) and turnover inten- To categorize individual studies into cultural clus-
tions as assessed by Chau, Dahling, Levy, & Diefen- ters we used Ronen and Shenkars (1985) classifica-
dorff (2009)]. Regarding performance measures we tion of cultural clusters, which largely coincides with
differentiated between task performance, emotional classifications used in cross-cultural leadership stud-
performance, and customer satisfaction measures. ies (GLOBE study; Brodbeck et al., 2000). Accord-
Criteria were coded as task performance when they ingly, every study providing unequivocal information
assessed the degree to which an employee performs on the country of origin was assigned to one of nine
primary job tasks and cognitive tasks successfully. clusters. Because Ronen and Shenkar provide no
Accordingly, task effectiveness (Bono & Vey, 2007), information on the categorization of the Netherlands,
in-role-performance (Goodman & Svyantek, 1999 we followed Gupta and Hanges (2004) procedures
used e.g., in Bakker & Heuven, 2006), and overall and categorized studies from the Netherlands in the
job performance measures (Hulsheger, Anderson, & Germanic cluster. Because not all potential countries
Salgado, 2009) were coded as task performance. Five were represented in the sample of primary studies, a
studies falling into this category used self-ratings of number of clusters do not appear in our moderator
performance, three studies used objective measures, analysis, for example, the Arab and the Latin Amer-
such as the amount of task errors made, and four ican cluster. Clusters were included in subgroup anal-
studies used independent ratings, such as ratings pro- yses when at least two studies were available for a
vided by supervisors, peers, or trained observers. given cluster. Specifically, the Anglo cluster con-
Criteria were coded as emotional performance when tained studies from the United States, Canada, Aus-
they referred to the degree to which employees fulfill tralia, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and South Af-
organizational display rules and display appropriate rica. The Germanic cluster included studies from
emotions in interactions with customers. Accord- Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and the Netherlands,
ingly, criteria such as affective delivery (McLellan, and the Latin European cluster included studies from
Amundson, & Blake, 2010 used e.g., in Grandey, France, Belgium, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. To con-
2003), ratings of emotional displays (Diefendorff & duct the moderator analysis by service interaction
Richard, 2003), emotional performance (concept and type, sample descriptions of primary studies were
use in Bono & Vey, 2007), and satisfaction with scrutinized as to whether the sample is characterized
empathy (Stauss, 1995 used in e.g., Dormann & predominantly by service encounters or service rela-
Kaiser, 2002) were coded as emotional performance. tionships. For instance, call center employees, em-
Almost all studies in this category used independent ployees in retail stores, employees in billing offices,
sources to rate emotional performance, such as su- cabin crew members, telesales agents, restaurant
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staff, coffee store employees, hotel frontline workers, coefficients by contacting the authors, missing reli-
bus drivers, and police officers fell into the service ability coefficients were substituted by the measures
encounter category. Teachers, college instructors, average reliability found in primary studies included
nurses, childcare workers, practitioners, massage in the particular submeta-analysis. In accordance
therapists, cheerleading instructors, social workers, with other meta-analyses (e.g., Riketta, 2008), we set
kindergarten teachers, and priests were coded in the the reliability of single-item measures at .70 (Wanous
service relationship category. Studies that could not & Hudy, 2001). To correct for measurement error in
be attributed unequivocally to one of the two cate- performance measures we used different strategies
gories were omitted from the moderator analysis. depending on the kind of performance measure. To
All studies included in the meta-analysis were correct self-ratings of performance for measurement
coded by the second author. To determine the reli- error, intrarater reliabilities were used (see also Hul-
ability of the coding process, the first author double- sheger, Anderson, & Salgado, 2009; Thomas, Whit-
coded 25% of the entire sample of studies. Intraclass- man, & Viswesvaran, 2010). Similarly, we used in-
coefficients (ICC 2,1) were computed for variables at trarater reliabilities to correct measurement error in
ratio level: effect size r (.98), emotional labor facet customer ratings of customer satisfaction. One study
reliability (1.0), reliability of dependent variable (Sideman Goldberg & Grandey, 2007) measured per-
(.98), and sample size (1.0). For categorical variables formance objectively by coding the number of task
Cohens Kappa was computed, assessing congruence errors. Because no reliability measure was indicated
in the raters classifications of emotional labor facets in this particular primary study, we used the meta-
(1.0), dependent variables (.98), and service interac- analytic estimate of the testretest reliability of ob-
tion type (.86). Overall, these analyses revealed very jective task performance measures indicated by Stur-
good interrater reliability. man, Cheramie, and Cashen (2005; .61 for low
According to Hunter and Schmidt (2004), each complexity jobs) to correct for measurement error
sample contributed only one effect size to each rela- (see also Ng & Feldman, 2008; Ng & Feldman,
tionship (between a specific emotional labor facet 2009). Regarding supervisor or peer ratings of per-
and a specific consequence). If a primary study re- formance, researchers have typically used interrater
ported multiple indicators of a given construct (e.g., reliabilities to correct for imperfect measurement
self- and supervisor-ratings of job performance) they (e.g., Judge et al., 2001; Salgado et al., 2003). Be-
were combined by computing composite correlations cause interrater reliabilities are rarely reported in
(Hunter & Schmidt, 2004). Mosiers (1943) formula primary studies, researchers have frequently adopted
was used to calculate reliabilities of these composite meta-analytic estimates of interrater reliabilities
measures. (Viswesvaran, Ones, & Schmidt, 1996) to substitute
missing values. Accordingly, we used the interrater
Meta-Analytic Procedure reliabilities of performance ratings when these were
indicated in primary studies. If no interrater reliabil-
In conducting our meta-analysis we assumed a ity coefficient was reported in primary studies we
random-effects model. Thereby we followed a rec- used the meta-analytic estimates of interrater reli-
ommendation of the National Research Council abilities reported by Viswesvaran and colleagues (.52
(1992) of the United States to a priori assume vari- for supervisor ratings and .42 for peer ratings;
ation between true population parameters in primary Viswesvaran et al., 1996).
studies attributable to random study characteristics For each meta-analysis we report the number of
(e.g., researcher, place, instruments). Following the studies included (k), the total sample size (N), the
procedures described by Hunter and Schmidt (2004), sample size weighted observed average correlation
observed correlations were corrected for sampling (r), its variance (S2r), the average corrected correla-
error as well as for measurement error in predictor tion (), its variance (S2), the variance accounted for
and criterion. As information on predictor and crite- by artifacts, that is, sampling error, predictor and
rion reliability was available for almost all primary criterion (un)reliability, (%VE), the 95% confidence
studies, effect sizes were corrected individually for interval (CI), and the 80% credibility interval (CRI).
measurement error. To do so we used measures of The amount of variance accounted for by artifacts
intrarater reliability, that is, alpha coefficients or in- points to the homogeneity between primary studies.
ternal consistency measures, for all predictor and If less than 75% of the variance is explained by
criterion variables other than performance measures. artifacts, studies cannot be considered to be homoge-
When we were unable to obtain unreported reliability neous and moderators should be considered (75%
rule; Hunter & Schmidt, 2004). The 95% confidence complaints ( .175) and between deep acting and
interval provides information on the accuracy of the personal accomplishment ( .269).
mean of the population parameter and can be read as Results provided some support for Hypotheses 3
a significance test of the mean estimated effect size. and 4. Surface acting displayed small negative rela-
The mean corrected correlation can be considered tionships with task performance ( .114), emo-
significant when the confidence interval does not tional performance ( .140), and customer sat-
include zero. The 80% lower and upper bound of the isfaction ( .048). However, credibility intervals
credibility interval indicates that 80% of the values in included 0, indicating that the direction of relationships
the distribution fall within this interval. As a mea- cannot be generalized. Deep acting, in contrast, dis-
sure of variability of individual effect sizes, the CRI played positive relationships with emotional perfor-
can be used to address the question of generalizabil- mance ( .175) and customer satisfaction ( .370).
ity. A positive or negative relation can be generalized The relationship with task performance, however, was
if the CRI does not include zero. Additionally, the about 0 ( .007). In support of Hypotheses 5 and 6
width of the interval indicates whether generalization positive relationships of emotionrule dissonance
of the calculated effect size is appropriate. If effect emerged with emotional exhaustion ( .404), deper-
sizes in primary studies vary strongly, the interval sonalization ( .440), psychological strain ( .393),
will be large; moderator analyses should then be used and psychosomatic complaints ( .393), while rela-
to investigate heterogeneous subgroups (Hunter & tionships with personal accomplishment ( .107),
Schmidt, 2004; Whitener, 1990). job satisfaction ( .400), and organizational attach-
ment ( .243) were negative. With the exception of
personal accomplishment credibility intervals did not
Results include zero, indicating that the directions of the rela-
tionships were generalizable. Because fewer than two
Emotional Labor, Well-Being, studies were available on the relationship between emo-
and Performance tionrule dissonance and emotional performance/
customer satisfaction, Hypothesis 7 could only be tested
As suggested in Hypotheses 1 and 2 we expected with regard to task performance. As expected, the rela-
positive relationships of surface acting with indica- tionship was negative ( .200).
tors of personal ill-being (emotional exhaustion, de- An inspection of credibility intervals and of the
personalization, lack of personal accomplishment, amount of variance explained by artifacts provides
psychological strain, and psychosomatic complaints) information on the heterogeneity and consequently of
and job-related well-being (job satisfaction and orga- the generalizability of effect sizes. Artifacts ex-
nizational attachment). Results are displayed in Table plained fewer than 75% of the variance for a number
1. Overall, Hypotheses 1 and 2 were widely sup- of relationships, indicating that corrected correlations
ported: Surface acting showed strong, positive asso- were heterogeneous and varied across samples,
ciations with emotional exhaustion ( .439), dep- which points to the presence of moderator variables.
ersonalization ( .481), psychological strain ( However, with only a few exceptions, credibility
.424), psychosomatic complaints ( .435), and intervals did not include zero, indicating that direc-
negative relationships with job satisfaction ( tions of relationships were indeed generalizable.
.327), and organizational attachment ( .310).
One exception was the relationship with personal Multivariate and Mediation Analyses
accomplishment that was rather weak ( .095)
and not generalizable (credibility interval included To investigate multivariate relationships between
0). Hypothesis 1c could thus not be supported. surface acting, deep acting, emotionrule dissonance,
Relationships between deep acting and personal and outcome variables and to test Hypotheses 8, 9,
ill-being and job-related well-being were analyzed and 10, a series of regression analyses was con-
without specific predefined hypotheses (see Table 1). ducted. In doing so, we followed approaches de-
With two exceptions, associations between deep act- scribed by Viswesvaran and Ones (1995) and Baron
ing and personal ill-being and job-related well-being, and Kenny (1986). First, a correlation matrix was
respectively, were about zero and credibility intervals formed, which consisted of the meta-analytic esti-
included zero, indicating that the relationship was not mates for the relationships of surface acting, deep
generalizable. Small but positive relationships acting, and emotionrule dissonance with outcome
emerged between deep acting and psychosomatic variables (taken from Table 1). Furthermore, meta-
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Table 1
Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Emotional Labor and Outcome Variables
k N r S2r S2 %VE 80% CRI 95% CI
Surface acting
Personal ill-being
Emotional exhaustion 47 11,913 .374 .008 .439 .008 33.61 .325; .553 .408; .470
Depersonalization 15 3,056 .352 .007 .481 .011 38.78 .346; .615 .413; .549
Personal accomplishment 12 2,778 .072 .005 .095 .009 44.54 .217; .028 .167; .022
Psychological strain 12 2,112 .353 .008 .424 .011 35.63 .287; .560 .348; .499
Psychosomatic complaints 6 2,724 .368 .000 .435 .002 100 .435; .435 .400; .470
Job-related well-being
Job satisfaction 30 8,672 .274 .009 .327 .011 27.51 .461; .193 .371; .283
Organizational attachment 18 3,228 .247 .010 .310 .013 25.84 .454; .166 .370; .250
Performance
Task performance 10 1,177 .095 .012 .114 .026 38.05 .322; .094 .242; .014
Emotional performance 8 1,310 .107 .007 .140 .019 38.73 .319; .038 .264; .017
Customer satisfaction 2 315 .041 0 .048 0 100 .048; .048 .090; .007
Deep acting
Personal ill-being
Psychological strain 7 1,569 .010 .003 .004 .004 60.22 .089; .080 .080; .073
Psychosomatic complaints 5 2,674 .138 .001 .175 .001 82.65 .144; .207 .123; .230
Performance
Task performance 9 998 .009 .000 .007 .001 96.91 .036; .022 .092; .078
Emotional performance 11 1,734 .124 .019 .175 .035 24.98 .065; .415 .047; .303
Customer satisfaction 5 716 .298 .020 .370 .042 18.62 .108; .633 .171; .569
Emotion-rule dissonance
Personal ill-being
Psychological strain 9 1,955 .337 0 .393 0 100 .393; .393 .352; .435
Psychosomatic complaints 6 1,168 .322 .073 .393 0 100 .393; .393 .342; .444
Performance
Task performance 2 209 .148 0 .200 0 100 .200; .200 .319; .081
Note. k number of studies; N total sample size for all studies combined; r sample size weighted average observed
correlation; S2r sample size weighted observed variance of correlations; average corrected correlation (corrected for
sampling and measurement error in the predictor and criterion); S2 variance of ; %VE variance accounted for by
artifacts; 80% CRI 10% lower and 90% upper limits of 80% credibility interval; 95% CI 2.5% lower and 97.5% upper
limits of 95% confidence interval. Studies included in the personal accomplishment category were coded such that high
values indicate that individuals experience a lot of personal accomplishment.
analytic intercorrelations between surface acting, face acting, deep acting, and emotionrule disso-
deep acting, and emotionrule dissonance were cal- nance with outcome variables. Given the empirical
culated (see Table 2). For regression analyses involv- relation between emotionrule dissonance and sur-
ing various predictor variables, harmonic means were face acting ( .428) as well as between surface
used for the sample sizes in each cell to obtain a acting and deep acting ( .219), a multivariate
conservative sample size for the matrix. investigation of the three emotional labor facets and
The lower part of Table 3 (Regression #2) provides their relations with outcome variables is important. It
information on the multivariate relationships of sur- informs us (a) about the amount of variance emotion
Table 2
Meta-Analysis of the Intercorrelations Between Emotion-Rule Dissonance, Surface, and Deep Acting
k N r S 2r S2 %VE 80% CRI 95% CI
Surface acting deep acting 52 13,092 .181 .030 .219 .043 11.26 .046; .484 .159; .279
Emotion-rule dissonance surface acting 2 826 .365 0 .428 0 100 .428; .428 .364; .492
Emotion-rule dissonance deep acting 2 826 0 .001 .001 .002 69.2 .050; .052 .099; .101
Note. k number of studies; N total sample size for all studies combined; r sample size weighted average observed
correlation; S2r sample size weighted observed variance of correlations; average corrected correlation (corrected for
sampling and measurement error in the predictor and criterion); S2 variance of ; %VE variance accounted for by
artifacts; 80% CRI 10% lower and 90% upper limits of 80% credibility interval; 95% CI 2.5% lower and 97.5% upper
limits of 95% confidence interval.

regulation strategies and emotionrule dissonance dictor in this regression analysis, beta-weights are
explain in outcome variables when considered identical to the corrected correlations depicted in
jointly, and (b) about the unique contribution of each Table 1. With the exception of personal accomplish-
emotional labor facet in statistically predicting out- ment and task performance, relationships of emo-
come variables. Beta-weights for all predictor vari- tionrule dissonance with indicators of individual
ables in Regression #2 (see Table 3) are taken from ill-being and job-related well-being were substantial,
the last step in the regression analysis. They conse- lying mostly in the .40s. As can be seen from Table
quently indicate the unique contribution of emotion 2, the second condition was also met. Emotionrule
rule dissonance, surface, and deep acting. Overall, dissonance displayed a substantial relationship (
results mirror the meta-analytic zero-order correla- .428) with surface acting. Results concerning the
tions: Overall, surface acting and emotionrule dis- third and fourth condition are displayed in the lower
sonance are stronger predictors of outcome variables part of Table 3. Controlling for emotionrule disso-
than deep acting. Notable exceptions from this gen- nance and deep acting, surface acting was signifi-
eral pattern are results for personal accomplishment, cantly and substantially related to indicators of per-
emotional performance, and customer satisfaction for sonal ill-being and job-related well-being.
which deep acting is a better predictor than surface Furthermore, beta-weights for emotionrule disso-
acting. An inspection of the total amount of variance nance dropped considerably when it was entered in
explained in outcome variables reveals that up to the second step after controlling for surface and deep
30% of variance in outcome variables can be ex- acting. A Sobel test further corroborated that the
plained by emotion regulation strategies and emo- reduction of the statistical effects of emotionrule
tionrule dissonance. Overall, the amount of variance dissonance on outcome variables was substantial,
explained by the three emotional labor facets was indicating partial mediation except for task perfor-
highest for indicators of personal ill-being and com- mance. Results thus confirmed Hypotheses 8 and 9.
parably lower for job-related well-being and perfor- Hypothesis 10 could only be tested with regard to
mance outcomes. task performance. The mediation hypothesis was not
To test Hypotheses 8, 9, and 10 we followed the supported, because surface acting displayed no rela-
approach described by Baron and Kenny (1986). tionship with task performance (Baron & Kennys
Accordingly, a partial mediation effect is present third condition).
when (1) the predictor is related to the criterion, (2)
the predictor is related to the mediator, (3) the me-
diator is related to the criterion, and (4) the effect of Moderator Analyses
the predictor variable on the criterion variable is
reduced when controlling for the mediator. To further Because the amount of variance explained by ar-
test the statistical significance of the last step, a Sobel tifacts and the width of credibility intervals indicated
test (Sobel, 1982) was conducted. To test the first that moderators are likely to influence main relation-
condition, emotionrule dissonance was regressed on ships, we examined the influence of three potential
each outcome variable individually. Results are indi- moderator variables (cultural cluster, interaction
cated in the first part of Table 3 (Regression #1). type, and publication status) by conducting subgroup
Because emotionrule dissonance was the only pre- analyses. In conducting the moderator analyses we
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Table 3
Hierarchical Regression of Emotion-Rule Dissonance, Surface, and Deep Acting on Outcome Variables
and Mediation Analysis
Emotional Personal Psychological
exhaustion Depersonalization accomplishment strain
R2 R2 R2 R2
Regression #1
N 12,111 4,037 2,882 1,955
Emotion-rule dissonance .163 .404 .194 .440 .011 .107 .154 .393
Regression #2
Harmonic N 2,083 1,765 1,761 1,456

Block 1 .191 .234 .097 .190

Surface acting .298 .366
.140
.334
Deep acting .022 .029 .300 .077
Block 2 .079 .065 .002 .051
Emotion-rule dissonance .312 .283 .047 .250
R2 total .270 .299 .099 .240
Sobel test (SE) 11.57 (.010) 12.67 (.013) 3.43 (.004) 10.11 (.013)
Note. Emotion-rule dissonance could not be included in the regression analyses for emotional performance and customer
satisfaction because fewer than two studies were available and thus a meta-analysis could not be conducted.
focused on emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction. overlapped considerably. In contrast, the relationship
These two outcome variables represent the two main of surface acting with job satisfaction and emotional
outcome areas of personal ill-being and job-related exhaustion differed significantly between cultural
well-being. Furthermore, for these two variables a clusters. Surface acting was more strongly related to
sufficient amount of primary studies (k between 16 emotional exhaustion in the Anglo cluster compared
and 48) was available to conduct moderator analyses. with the Latin European cluster. Similarly, surface
Results are presented in Figure 2. Because some acting was more strongly related to job satisfaction
subgroups are represented by only a few studies, the in the Germanic compared to the Latin European
respective results may be biased by nonrepresentative cluster.
findings and should therefore be interpreted with caution.
To test whether effect sizes differed significantly
between subgroups we conducted a z test suggested Discussion
by Hunter and Schmidt (2004; p. 438 see also Cohen
The goal of the present study was to shed light on
& Gattiker, 1994; Riketta, 2002; Rotundo, Nguyen,
the benefits and costs of emotional labor by statisti-
& Sackett, 2001). Figure 2 displays main and sub-
cally integrating findings on the relationship of emo-
group relationships between emotionrule disso-
tionrule dissonance, surface acting, and deep acting
nance, deep acting, and surface acting with emotional
with well-being and performance outcomes by means
exhaustion and job satisfaction. The vertical line in-
of a comprehensive, theory-driven meta-analysis.
dicates the corrected correlation of the main relation-
Models of emotional labor (Grandey, 2000; Holman,
ship between an emotional labor facet and an out-
Martnez-Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008a; Rubin et al.,
come variable. The boxes indicate to what extent
2005) provided the overarching framework, guiding
mean corrected correlations in subgroups differ from
us in deriving theoretical hypotheses and in the se-
that line and hence from main relationships. The size
lection and categorization of outcome variables.
of boxes depends on the aggregated sample size of
included studies in that subgroup (N). Horizontal
lines around the boxes display confidence intervals. Emotional Labor, Well-Being,
Interaction type and publication status did not and Performance
moderate relationships of emotional labor facets with
emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction. Z tests We expected positive relationships of surface act-
yielded insignificant results, and confidence intervals ing and emotionrule dissonance with indicators of
Psychosomatic Organizational Task Emotional Customer

complaints Job satisfaction attachment performance performance satisfaction
R2 R2 R2 R2 R2 R2
1,168 3,219 2,532 209

.154 .393 .154 .400 .059 .243 .04 .200
1,465 1,893 1,758 657 2,118 645

.196 .136 .112 .013 .064 .155

.297 .240 .238
.035 .188 .138
.110 .107 .116 .001 .216 .400
.057 .297 .012 .028
.266 .297 .122 .185
.253 .207 .124 .041 .064 .155

9.37 (.001) 9.15 (.01) 7.72 (.008) 0.79 (.009)
personal ill-being and negative relationships with emotionrule dissonance were still substantially re-
job-related well-being. With the exception of the lated to well-being outcomes. This suggests that they
burnout facet personal accomplishment, these hy- are in fact distinct constructs that are associated with
potheses were fully supported. Surface acting and different parts of the variance in outcome variables.
emotionrule dissonance displayed substantial posi- Furthermore, the finding that surface acting and emo-
tive relationships with emotional exhaustion, deper- tionrule dissonance are independently associated
sonalization, psychological strain, and psychoso- with well-being outcomes corroborates our theoreti-
matic complaints and negative relationships with job cal model of emotional labor, suggesting that the link
satisfaction and organizational attachment. Confi- of both emotional labor facets with well-being is at
dence intervals and credibility intervals did not in- least partly based on different underlying mecha-
clude zero, suggesting that the relationships were nisms. As proposed in the introduction, the direct link
significant and generalizable across samples and set- between emotionrule dissonance and well-being
tings. Applying Cohens (1992) rules of thumb, the may be explained by person-role conflict. In contrast,
size of the relationships is to be evaluated as medium ego depletion, the experience of inauthenticity, the
to large. In fact, effect sizes found for emotionrule ongoing experience of negative emotions, and the
dissonance and surface acting are sizable when com- impairment of social interactions may be the mech-
pared with other meta-analytic findings. For instance, anisms driving the link between surface acting and
the relationships with emotional exhaustion and de- well-being outcomes.
personalization (corrected correlations between .404 It has previously been argued that the strong asso-
and .481) exceed effect sizes of other potential ciations between surface acting and emotionrule
antecedents of burnout to a considerable extent (cor- dissonance on the one and well-being outcomes on
rected correlation between job demands and burnout the other hand may be spurious and caused by un-
.27; Crawford, LePine, & Rich, 2010). Given the derlying third variables (Bono & Vey, 2005). For
strong conceptual and empirical relationship between instance, the personality traits of positive and nega-
emotionrule dissonance and surface acting, the re- tive affectivity (or extraversion and neuroticism) may
gression analysis is an important means to shed light each function as a third variable that causes spurious
on the unique contribution of both aspects of emo- correlations between surface acting and well-being
tional labor in explaining variance in outcome vari- outcomes (Bono & Vey, 2005). Research has docu-
ables. Results revealed that controlling for one an- mented that employees high in negative affectivity
other and for deep acting, surface acting and (or neuroticism) tend to face emotionrule disso-
378
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Figure 2 (opposite).
LSHEGER AND SCHEWE
nance more frequently (Zapf & Holz, 2006) and tend Holz, 2006). Consequently, it might be argued that
to engage more often in surface acting while employ- the experience of stressful encounters rather than
ees high in positive affectivity (or extraversion) tend emotional labor accounts for the relationship of emo-
to engage less often in surface acting (Brotheridge & tional labor with well-being and performance. Al-
Grandey, 2002; Brotheridge & Lee, 2003; Diefen- though this issue has not yet been investigated ex-
dorff, Croyle, & Gosserand, 2005; Gosserand & Die- haustively, a study by Dormann and Zapf (2004)
fendorff, 2005). Furthermore, it is well established suggests that emotionrule dissonance displays a sig-
that negative affectivity (or neuroticism) and positive nificant relationship with the burnout dimension of
affectivity (or extraversion) are related to personal depersonalization when controlling for customer re-
ill-being and job-related well-being (e.g., Alarcon, lated social stressors. Despite this initial evidence,
Eschleman, & Bowling, 2009; Judge, Heller, & the systematic investigation of potential third vari-
Mount, 2002; Watson & Walker, 1996). In conse- able phenomena certainly is an important area of
quence, the strong associations between emotional future research. In addition, longitudinal and experi-
labor and well-being outcomes might be artificial and mental studies will be vital to rule out third variable
in fact caused by positive and negative affectivity. phenomena and to gain a deeper understanding of the
However, a handful of studies that controlled for causal mechanisms involved in emotional labor.
positive and negative affectivity or extraversion and Regarding performance outcomes, we expected
neuroticism suggest that the link between surface negative relationships of surface acting and emotion
acting or emotionrule dissonance and well-being rule dissonance with task performance, emotional
outcomes is not spurious. For instance, in a recently performance, and customer satisfaction. By and
published diary study, surface acting was positively large, these hypotheses were supported. Surface act-
related to negative affect and emotional exhaustion ing and emotionrule dissonance displayed negative
and negatively to job satisfaction in the evening after associations with task performance, and surface act-
controlling for trait positive and negative affect ing was negatively related to emotional performance.
(Judge et al., 2009). Moreover, emotionrule disso- The size of these effects was small (Cohen, 1992).
nance was significantly related to emotional exhaus- Results thus confirm that surface acting is a rather
tion and depersonalization in a cross-sectional mul- ineffective emotion regulation strategy both for em-
tisample study after controlling for neuroticism (Zapf ployees and organizations in that it is associated with
& Holz, 2006). impaired psychological health and lower perfor-
Similarly, customer-related social stressors and mance.
negative emotions caused by unpleasant interactions Findings clearly show the benefit of carefully dif-
may account for the relations of emotional labor with ferentiating between emotional labor constructs.
well-being and performance outcomes. Emotionrule Whereas surface acting and emotionrule dissonance
dissonance and surface acting occur predominantly were negatively related to employee well-being, deep
when employees find themselves in difficult situa- acting seemed to bear mostly weak and nongeneral-
tions and when they experience negative emotions izable relations with well-being outcomes while dis-
(e.g., Grandey, Dickter, & Sin, 2004). Emotionrule playing positive associations with performance out-
dissonance and surface acting may thus be indicators comes. In the introduction we argued that different
of customer related social stressors and of the nega- mechanisms are active when employees engage in
tive emotions that arise in unpleasant interactions deep acting, some of which drain (mental effort and
with customers (Dormann & Zapf, 2004; Zapf & ego depletion) while others restore resources (re-
Figure 2 (opposite). Figure 2 displays results of meta-analytic subgroup analyses. The x-axis displays rho, the corrected
mean correlation. Results for the main analyses are displayed above the results of the corresponding subgroup analyses for
each emotional labor facet outcome relationship. The position of the boxes indicates to what extent mean corrected
correlations in subgroups differ from main relationships. For every analysis, (the average corrected correlation), S2
(variance of ) and k (number of studies in a given subgroup analysis) is indicated. The size of the black boxes indicates
N (total sample size in a given subgroup analysis) and the length of the whiskers indicates the width of the confidence
intervals. The z test indicates whether mean corrected correlations differ significantly between subgroups. When the z-value
reached 1.96 we marked the z-value with an asterisk indicating that it is significant at p .05 (double sided).
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warding social interactions). This may explain why played no generalizable relationships with indicators
findings have been mixed and why deep acting seems of impaired well-being, it displayed a significant pos-
to be unrelated to most indicators of personal ill- itive association with personal accomplishment.
being and job-related well-being. Testing this specu- These findings are in accordance with Leiters (1993)
lation would require disentangling the various pro- model of burnout suggesting that emotional exhaus-
cesses involved in deep acting and their respective tion and personal accomplishment develop indepen-
impact on different aspects of psychological func- dently of one another and are reactions to different
tioning and employee well-being. An alternative ex- aspects of the work environment (p. 246). Specifi-
planation for these findings may be that global mea- cally, it has been suggested that job demands are
sures of deep acting are not well suited to assess the more strongly related to emotional exhaustion
construct and its specific relations with different as- whereas job resources are more strongly related to
pects of personal ill-being and job-related well-being personal accomplishment (Lee & Ashforth, 1996;
(see section on directions for future research). Leiter, 1993). As described in the introduction, sur-
Contrary to what was expected, no positive rela- face acting and emotionrule dissonance drain em-
tionship between deep acting and task performance ployees resources through various pathways and
was found. However, deep acting displayed positive may therefore be perceived as job demands. This may
relationships with emotional performance and cus- explain why emotionrule dissonance and surface
tomer satisfaction. The regression analysis corrobo- acting display weaker links with personal accom-
rated this finding: Holding surface acting constant, plishment (which is rather insensitive to job de-
deep acting was positively related to emotional per- mands) than to the other burnout facets. In contrast,
formance and customer satisfaction. Different perfor- deep acting does not only deplete but also replenishes
mance aspects thus appear to be differentially related resources and may therefore be seen as a job re-
to deep acting, and this might be explained by the source. It fosters the experience of rewarding social
different processes involved in deep acting. While interactions and helps in successfully accomplishing
emotional performance and customer satisfaction is ones job tasks. This might increase peoples sense of
dependent on employees emotional displays and af- personal efficacy (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002),
fective delivery, task performance describes other, which has been argued to be an antecedent of per-
primarily cognitive performance aspects. The cogni- sonal accomplishment (Leiter, 1993).
tive costs of deep acting might thus have a negative
effect on task performance without impairing emo- Support for a Mediated Process Model
tional performance and customer satisfaction. In con-
trast, the benefits of an authentic emotional display With our meta-analytic mediation analysis we
might benefit emotional performance and customer tested a central proposition that has been made in
satisfaction more than task performance. conceptual models of emotional-labor (Holman,
Applying Cohens (1992) standards, the size of the Martnez-Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008b; Rubin et al.,
relationships of deep acting with emotional perfor- 2005), namely that the link of emotionrule disso-
mance and customer satisfaction may be evaluated as nance with well-being and performance is mediated
small to medium. Notably, effect sizes are compara- by emotion regulation strategies. Overall, our results
ble to or even exceed effect sizes found for other confirm this proposition, but they also help refine it.
constructs that are frequently considered valid pre- First, the mediation hypothesis was confirmed for
dictors of performance, such as job satisfaction, or- indicators of personal ill-being and job-related well-
ganizational commitment, or conscientiousness (Bar- being but not for task performance. Second, these
rick, Mount, & Judge, 2001; Judge et al., 2001; models conceptualize emotionrule dissonance as an
Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002; antecedent to emotion regulation which, in turn, is
Ones, Dilchert, Viswesvaran, & Judge, 2007). seen as a proximal predictor of well-being and per-
Interestingly, Hypotheses 1 and 5 were not sup- formance outcomes. They do, however, not specify
ported with regard to personal accomplishment. Al- which emotion regulation strategy actually carries the
though surface acting and emotionrule dissonance weight in mediating the relationship between emo-
were substantially related to the burnout facets of tionrule dissonance and outcome variables. Our re-
emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and to sults show that surface acting is the central mediating
other indicators of impaired well-being, they dis- variable. Deep acting did not qualify as a mediator
played no or only weak relationships with personal for different reasons: First, deep acting was unrelated
accomplishment. Similarly, although deep acting dis- to indicators of impaired personal well-being and
job-related well-being. Second, deep acting was un- This finding is in line with Grandey and colleagues
related to emotionrule dissonance. Although this is (2005b) argumentation about the influence of cultural
an interesting finding, we warrant caution in drawing differences on emotional labor. According to socio-
conclusions given that the result was based on only logical emotion research (Gordon, 1989) cultures can
two studies. The finding that emotionrule disso- be differentiated into institutionally oriented and im-
nance bears a stronger positive relationship with sur- pulsively oriented cultures: The United States and
face than with deep acting (see Table 2) is, however, North American cultures have rather explicit and
in line with previous research. Grandey and col- strong norms about the expression and regulation of
leagues (2004) revealed that employees are (a) more emotions and are therefore more institutionally ori-
likely to engage in surface acting in high stress rather ented. In contrast, Latin European countries put more
than low stress situations and (b) are more likely to value on the expression of spontaneous, unregulated
engage in surface acting than in deep acting in situ- emotions and are therefore considered to be impul-
ations which they appraise as stressful. Stressful in- sively oriented. According to Grandey and col-
teractions with customers are likely to be associated leagues, impulsively oriented cultures experience
with high emotionrule dissonance, and this might more personal control over their emotion expressions
explain why the relationship of emotionrule disso- and their choice of regulation strategies than institu-
nance is stronger with surface than with deep acting. tionally oriented cultures, and this buffers them
The fact that we were able to locate only two studies against the negative effects of surface acting on
on the link between emotionrule dissonance and strain.
deep acting shows that this relationship warrants Interestingly, service interaction type did not
more attention in future research. emerge as a moderator in the current analyses, al-
With regard to surface acting, results revealed par- though it has repeatedly been suggested that the type
tial as opposed to full mediation. This finding sup- of service interactions should be considered as a
ports our proposition that, apart from an indirect potential moderator in emotional labor research
association, emotionrule dissonance does also have (Grandey & Diamond, 2010). Despite our meta-
a direct relationship with outcome variables. Whether analytic findings, the potential moderating role of
this direct relationship may be explained by induced service interaction type should not, however, be dis-
person-role conflict, as we suggested, remains to be carded prematurely. First, moderator analyses were
tested in future research. based on a comparatively small sample of primary
studies, and these might not be representative of the
The Search for Moderators population of samples. Second, it might very well be
that a differentiation by occupation or job title does
Results confirmed that surface acting and emo- not clearly capture the differences between service
tionrule dissonance but not deep acting are nega- encounters and relationships. Grandey and Diamond
tively related to well-being and performance out- (2010) illustrated this, arguing that a hairdresser at a
comes. Even though these effects and their direction designer salon might have service relationships while
displayed validity generalization, for some of the a hairdresser at a walk-in store might be confronted
investigated relationships there was still considerable with service encounters. Furthermore, some jobs
variability in effect sizes after correcting for sam- might involve both, service relationships and service
pling and measurement error. We therefore con- encounters, to different degrees. Future research
ducted an exploratory moderator analysis considering might therefore benefit from conceptualizing rela-
relationships of surface acting, emotionrule disso- tionship type as a continuous rather than a categorical
nance, and deep acting with emotional exhaustion variable and assess it as such in primary studies of
and job satisfaction. In doing so, we considered mod- emotional labor.
erator variables at the study, the sample, and the
cultural level.
Results revealed that culture had a moderating Limitations and Directions for
effect on relationships of surface acting with job Future Research
satisfaction and emotional exhaustion. Specifically,
effect sizes were smaller in the Latin European clus- We believe that the current meta-analysis provides
ter compared with the Germanic or Anglo cluster important insights into the benefits and costs of emo-
suggesting that surface acting has less detrimental tional labor. However, our study certainly is not
effects on employees in Latin European countries. without its limitations, and these should be consid-
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ered when drawing conclusions from our findings. Future research endeavors may aim at investigat-
For some outcome variables (e.g., psychosomatic ing other types of emotion regulation that may be
complaints, task performance, customer satisfaction) more beneficial for both employees and organizations
only a small number of studies was available, and this than surface acting and deep acting. Surface and deep
might affect the accuracy of meta-analytic estimates. acting are conscious emotion regulation strategies
However, as Schmidt and colleagues pointed out, which individuals adopt when there is a mismatch
even small meta-analyses provide meaningful and between spontaneously felt emotions and emotions
reliable insights into the relationship between vari- prescribed by display rules (Holman, Martnez-Inigo,
ables and are worthwhile being conducted (Schmidt, & Totterdell, 2008a). They consequently require de-
Hunter, Pearlman, & Hirsh, 1985; see also Valentine, liberate processing and attentional resources (Mauss,
Pigott, & Rothstein, 2010). Another shortcoming Bunge, & Gross, 2008). However, there are also
may be that the studies combined in the respective instances in which felt emotions naturally coincide
performance categories used different measures of with required emotions. This situation has been re-
performance, namely objective measures, indepen- ferred to as automatic regulation, passive deep acting
dent ratings (supervisor, peer, customer, or observer (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Martnez-Inigo et al.,
ratings), and self-ratings. The number of studies that 2007; Zapf, 2002) or naturally felt emotions (Diefen-
fell into each category was, however, too small to dorff, Croyle, & Gosserand, 2005). Automatic regu-
allow a moderator analysis differentiating between lation occurs unconsciously and without effort
different performance measures. Because self-reports (Mikolajczak, Tran, Brotheridge, & Gross, 2009).
have been criticized to be affected by a number of Mauss and colleagues (2008) define automatic emo-
biases like common-method and self-serving bias tion regulation as changes (either increases or de-
creases) to any aspect of ones emotion without mak-
(Conway & Huffcutt, 1997; Harris & Schaubroeck,
ing a conscious decision to do so, without paying
1988), it is a noteworthy strength of the current
attention to the process of regulating ones emotions,
meta-analysis that the majority of studies (80%) used
and without engaging in deliberate control (p. 43).
independent ratings or objective measures of perfor-
Recently, researchers have started dedicating more
mance.
attention to automatic regulation (Ashforth & Hum-
Because the majority of primary studies included
phrey, 1993; Diefendorff, Croyle, & Gosserand,
in the current meta-analysis was cross-sectional, our
2005; Martnez-Inigo et al., 2007; Zapf, 2002). Re-
findings do not allow making causal inferences or
search documents that automatic regulation is distinct
testing the processes and causal pathways suggested
from surface and deep acting (Diefendorff, Croyle, &
in current models of emotional labor (Grandey, 2000;
Gosserand, 2005; Martnez-Inigo et al., 2007). How-
Holman, Martnez-Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008a; Rubin ever, only a few studies have investigated the link of
et al., 2005). As Hulsheger and colleagues (2010) automatic regulation with well-being (e.g., Martnez-
argued, the association between emotional labor, Inigo et al., 2007; Prati, 2004), and the consequences
well-being, and performance found in cross-sectional of automatic regulation in the work context are not
studies may not only be explained by causal effects yet well understood. Furthermore, no applied field
of emotional labor on well-being and performance study has, to our knowledge, investigated the link
but also by reverse effects of well-being and perfor- between automatic regulation and performance out-
mance on emotional labor. Similarly, it may be ar- comes. However, a series of experimental studies
gued that job satisfaction is an antecedent to emo- using a cognitive paradigm suggests that automatic
tional labor (Grandey, 2003), although theoretical regulation is indeed related to performance (Moon &
models of emotional labor conceptualize job satisfac- Lord, 2006). Quick and automatic emotion regulation
tion as an outcome variable (Grandey, 2000; Rubin et is apparently beneficial to successful task perfor-
al., 2005). Testing reciprocal relationships in a lon- mance because it prevents inappropriate emotions to
gitudinal panel study, Hulsheger and colleagues enter consciousness and thereby require working
(2010) were able to show that causal pathways led memory and interfere with other cognitive tasks.
from emotional labor to strain and performance Future research might use Moon and Lords (2006)
rather than vice versa. More longitudinal investiga- distractor suppression task to assess individuals au-
tions are certainly needed to corroborate these find- tomatic emotion regulation abilities in addition to
ings and to extend them to other outcome variables, traditional self-report measures and to assess its va-
such as job satisfaction and organizational attach- lidity to predict work-related performance outcomes.
ment. In sum, automatic regulation might benefit both, or-
ganizations and individuals, in that it is similar to regulation strategies on leadership success, or on

deep acting without being effortful and draining men- followers well-being and job attitudes.
tal resources. It can therefore be expected that auto-
matic regulation displays stronger positive links with Conclusion and Practical Implications
performance outcomes and well-being than deep act-
ing. We therefore believe that the consideration of Summing up, results of the present quantitative
automatic regulation in addition to surface and deep review suggest that emotionrule dissonance and sur-
acting will advance our knowledge of the role of face acting are detrimental to both well-being and
emotion regulation at work. performance outcomes. In comparison, deep acting
Furthermore, future research might benefit from seems to be the better alternative. It is largely unre-
assessing deep and surface acting in a more fine- lated to well-being and even displays positive asso-
grained manner, because deep acting and surface ciations with performance. Findings consequently
acting might both be used to amplify and suppress suggest that emotional labor does not necessarily
positive or negative emotions (Holman, Martnez- need to harm employees. Whether or not individuals
Inigo, & Totterdell, 2008a). A differentiated assess- will be at risk of developing burnout and suffering
ment of emotion regulation might help explain pre- from psychological health impairments rather de-
vious inconsistent findings. Possibly, deep acting by pends on the emotion regulation strategy individuals
amplification has different effects on psychological adopt. Clearly, organizations active in the service
strain than deep acting by suppression. Furthermore, sector should therefore try to prevent employees from
amplifying positive emotions through deep acting engaging in surface acting and promote deep acting
might be more beneficial than amplifying negative instead. As a first step this would require identifying
emotions through deep acting. In a similar vein, deep which employees have a tendency to engage in sur-
acting can be accomplished by a number of different face rather than in deep acting and which specific
emotion regulation strategies, such as situation mod- situations trigger the use of surface acting. Targeted
ification, distraction, positive reappraisal, acceptance, interventions could aim at training employees in
and blaming others (for a detailed description see more healthy emotion regulation strategies and facil-
Mikolajczak et al., 2009). Some of these may be itate their day-to-day use (cf. Berking, Meier, &
conducive while others may be obstructive to em- Wupperman, 2010; Totterdell & Parkinson, 1999;
ployee well-being and performance (Mikolajczak et Richard, 2003). Another fruitful way to foster healthy
al., 2009). Studies differentiating between two as- emotion regulation at work would be to create more
pects of deep acting, namely positive refocus and opportunities to experience authentic positive emo-
perspective taking, have revealed that employees use tions during work. Furthermore, the person
them to different extents in different situations and organization fit literature has recently been extended
that both strategies are differentially related to out- to include emotional demandsabilities fit, describing
come measures, such as proactive customer help the perceived match between the emotional de-
(Grandey, Dickter, & Sin, 2004; Totterdell & Hol- mands of a job and a persons abilities to meet those
man, 2003). Extent research on deep acting has relied demands (p. 3; Diefendorff & Greguras, 2010). Die-
predominantly on global measures of deep acting fendorff and Greguras research shows that congru-
(Brotheridge & Lee, 2003) without differentiating ence between emotional job demands and employ-
individual regulation strategies. This might explain ees individual abilities is associated with job
why research has failed to find significant relation- satisfaction, burnout, and performance even after
ships between deep acting and well-being. controlling for traditional person environment fit
Lastly, extant research on emotional labor has fo- measures. Complying with organizational display
cused on interactions between employees and the rules might thus be easier and less detrimental to
public. However, emotional labor might not only take those employees whose emotional abilities match
place between employees and clients or customers emotional job demands. Organizations might also
but also between coworkers as well as between lead- consider adapting their personnel selection strategies
ers and followers (Bono, Foldes, Vinson, & Muros, to the requirements of emotional labor occupations
2007; Gardner, Fischer, & Hunt, 2009). Extending and select employees that, because of their personal-
emotional labor research to these relationships offers ity dispositions and emotion regulation competen-
a variety of pathways for future research, such as cies, tend to naturally feel the emotions they have to
investigating the link between emotion regulation show as part of their job. They will most likely be
strategies and leadership styles, the effect of emotion able to perform their work well without having to
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suffer from the negative side effects of effortful emo- nizational Psychology, 73, 129. doi:10.1348/
tion regulation. 096317900166859
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Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 2011 American Psychological Association

2011, Vol. 16, No. 3, 361389 1076-8998/11/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0022876

On the Costs and Benefits of Emotional Labor:

Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0022876.supp

Potential Moderating Influences deep acting. Similarly, emotionrule dissonance may

limits of 95% confidence interval.

Harmonic N 2,083 1,765 1,761 1,456

Block 1 .191 .234 .097 .190

Psychosomatic Organizational Task Emotional Customer

1,168 3,219 2,532 209

1,465 1,893 1,758 657 2,118 645

.196 .136 .112 .013 .064 .155

ganizations and individuals, in that it is similar to regulation strategies on leadership success, or on

13594320244000166 Surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emo-

CA: University of California Press. Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational stress: Studies

Schmeichel, B. J., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003). 579. doi:10.2307/2393472

Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 15,

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