CHAPTER 10:

Mechanical Waves
(4 Hours)

1
Learning Outcome:
10.1 Waves and energy ( hour)
10.2 Types of waves ( hour)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain the formation of mechanical waves and their
relationship with energy.

Describe
 transverse waves
 longitudinal waves

State the differences between transverse and longitudinal
waves.

2
10.1 Waves and energy

Waves is defined as the propagation of a disturbance that carries
the energy and momentum away from the sources of disturbance.

10.1.1 Mechanical waves

is defined as a disturbance that travels through particles of the

medium to transfer the energy.

The particles oscillate around their equilibrium position but do not
travel.
travel

Examples of the mechanical waves are water waves, sound waves,
waves on a string (rope), waves in a spring and seismic waves
(Earthquake waves).

All mechanical waves require
 some source of disturbance,
disturbance
 a medium that can be disturbed, and
 a mechanism to transfer the disturbance from one point to the
next point along the medium.
medium (shown in Figures 10.1a and 10.1b)

3
Figure 10.1a

Figure 10.1b

4
10.1.2 Electromagnetic waves (e.m.w.)

is defined as the transportation of energy because of the
disturbance in electric and magnetic fields.
fields

It can propagates in empty space (vacuum),
(vacuum) where there is no
medium.

The e.m.w. is produced by the accelerating electric charges.
charges

Examples of the e.m.w. are visible light, ultraviolet (UV) light, radio and
television waves, microwaves, x-rays and radar waves.

The e.m.w. can be represented by the Figure 10.2.

r r
E B
r r
B E
Figure 10.2
5
10.2 Types of waves
10.2.1 Progressive wave

is defined as the one in which the wave profile propagates.
propagates

The progressive waves have a definite speed called the speed of
propagation or wave speed.
speed

The direction of the wave speed is always in the same direction of
the wave propagation .

There are two types of progressive wave,
a. Transverse progressive waves
b. Longitudinal progressive waves.
10.2.2 Transverse waves

is defined as a wave in which the direction of vibrations of the
particle is perpendicular to the direction of the wave
propagation (wave speed) as shown in Figure 10.3.

direction of
vibrations
particle direction of the propagation of
Figure 10.3 wave
6

Examples of the transverse waves are water waves, waves on a string
(rope), e.m.w. and etc

The transverse wave on the string can be shown in Figure 10.4.
r
v
A

10.2.3 Longitudinal waves Figure 10.4

is defined as a wave in which the direction of vibrations of the
particle is parallel to the direction of the wave
propagation (wave speed) as shown in Figure 10.5.

particle
direction of vibrations direction of the propagation
of wave
Figure 10.5
7

Examples of longitudinal waves are sound waves, waves in a spring,
etc

The longitudinal wave on the spring and sound waves can be shown in
Figures 10.6a and 10.6b.

C R C R C R C R C
A
r
v

Figure 10.6a

8
 C R C R C R C RC R C R C R C R C R C R
r
v

Figure 10.6b
 Longitudinal disturbance at particle A resulting periodic pattern of
compressions (C) and rarefactions (R). (R)

9
Learning Outcome:

10.3 Properties of waves ( 2 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Define amplitude, frequency, period, wavelength and wave
number.

Analyze and use equation for progressive wave,

y ( x , t ) = A sin ( t kx )
dy

Distinguish between particle vibrational velocity, vy =
and wave propagation velocity, . dt

v = f
Sketch and interpret the graphs of y-x and y-t.

10
10.3 Properties of waves
10.3.1 Sinusoidal Wave Parameters

Figure 10.7 shows a periodic sinusoidal waveform.

B C

Q
S P T


Figure 10.7

11
Wavelength,

is defined as the distance between two consecutive particles
(points) which have the same phase in a wave.
wave

From the Figure 10.7,

 Particle B is in phase with particle C.

 Particle P is in phase with particle Q
 Particle S is in phase with particle T

The S.I. unit of wavelength is metre (m).

(m)
Period, T

is defined as the time taken for a particle (point) in the wave to
complete one cycle.
cycle

In this period, T the wave profile moves a distance of one
wavelength, . Thus

Period of the Period of the particle on

=
wave the wave

12
 and

1
T =
f

Its unit is second (s).
(s)
Frequency, f

is defined as the number of cycles (wavelength) produced
in one second.
second

Its unit is hertz (Hz) or s1.

Amplitude, A

is defined as the maximum displacement from the equilibrium
position to the crest or trough of the wave motion.
motion

13
Wave speed, v

is defined as the distance travelled by a wave profile per unit time.
time

Figure 10.8 shows a progressive wave profile moving to the right.
r
v

It moves a distance of in time T hence

Figure 10.8

distance 1
v= v= and T=
time T f
v = f
14

The S.I. unit of wave speed is m s1.

The value of wave speed is constant but the velocity of the
particles vibration in wave is varies with time, t
 It is because the particles executes SHM where the equation
of velocity for the particle, vy is

Wave number, k v y = A cos(t + )

is defined as
2
k =


The S.I. unit of wave number is m1.
Displacement, y

is defined as the distance moved by a particle from its equilibrium
position at every point along a wave.
wave

15
 10.3.2 Equation of displacement for sinusoidal
progressive wave

Figure 10.9 shows a progressive wave profile moving to the right.
y (displacement)
r
A v
y
O x (distance from origin)
x P
A
Figure 10.9

From the Figure 10.9, consider x = 0 as a reference particle, hence the

equation of displacement for particle at x = 0 is given by
y (t ) = A sin t

16

Since the wave profile propagates to the right, thus the other particles
will vibrate.

For example, the particles at points O and P.
 The vibration of particle at lags behind the vibration of particle at
O by a phase difference of radian.
 (
Thus the phase of particle at P is t )
 Therefore the equation of displacement for particles vibration at P
is
y (t ) = A sin (t )

Figure 10.10 shows three particles in the wave profile that propagates
to the right.
= 2
=
x
O P Q
Figure 10.10
x=
17

From the Figure 10.10, when increases hence the distance
between two particle, x also increases.
increases Thus

Phase difference distance from the

( ) origin (x)

x
x
=
2
2 2
= x and =k

= kx

18

Therefore the general equation of displacement for sinusoidal
progressive wave is given by
The wave propagates to the right :

y (x, t ) = A sin (t kx )
The wave propagates to the left :

y ( x, t ) = A sin ( t + kx )
where y ( x, t ) : displaceme nt of the particle as a
function of x and t
A : Amplitude of the wave
: angular frequency
k : wave number
x : distance from the origin
t : time
19

Some of the reference books, use other general equations of
displacement for sinusoidal progressive wave:
The wave propagates to the right :

y ( x , t ) = A sin (kx t )
The wave propagates to the left :

y (x, t ) = A sin (kx + t )

20
10.3.3 Displacement graphs of the wave

From the general equation of displacement for a sinusoidal wave,
y = A sin (t kx )
The displacement, y varies with time, t and distance, x.
Graph of displacement, y against distance, x

The graph shows the displacement of all the particles in the wave at
any particular time, t.

For example, consider the equation of the wave is

y = A sin (t kx )
At time, t = 0 , thus
y = A sin ( (0) kx )
y = A sin ( kx )
y = A sin (kx )

21

Thus the graph of displacement, y against distance, x is
y

A
r t = t1 (curve D)
v
t = 0( curve C)
0 x
x1 x1 3 2
A 2 2
 Curve C the displacement of all particles at t = 0 s
 Curve D the displacement of all particles at t = t1 after
the wave propagates by distance x1.

22
Graph of displacement, y against time, t

The graph shows the displacement of any one particle in the wave
at any particular distance, x from the origin.
origin

For example, consider the equation of the wave is

y = A sin (t kx )
 For the particle at x = 0,
0 the equation of the particle is given by
y = A sin (t k (0)) y = A sin (t )
hence the displacement-time graph is
y
A

0 t
T T 3T 2T
A 2 2

23
 For the particle at x = 0.25, the equation of the particle is given
by
2
y = A sin (t k (0.25 )) and k =

2
y = A sin t (0.25 )


y = A sin t
2
hence the displacement-time graph is
y
A

0 t
T T 3T 2T
A 2 2
24
 Example 10.1 :
A progressive wave is represented by the equation

y (x, t ) = 2 sin (t x )
where y and x are in centimetres and t in seconds.
a. Determine the angular frequency, the wavelength, the period,
the frequency and the wave speed.
b. Sketch the displacement against distance graph for progressive
wave above in a range of 0 x at time, t = 0 s.
c. repeat question (b) but for time, t = 0.5T.
d. Sketch the displacement against time graph for the particle
at x = 0 in a range of 0 t T.
e. Sketch the displacement against time graph for the particle
at x = 0.5 in a range of 0 t T.

(ans: = rad s 1 = 2 cm T=2s)

25
Example 10.2 :
y (cm)

0 x (cm)
1.0 2.0
3
Figure 10.11
Figure 10.11shows a displacement, y against distance, x graph after time,
t for the progressive wave which propagates to the right with a speed of 50
cm s1.
a. Determine the wave number and frequency of the wave.
b. Write the expression of displacement as a function of x and t for
the wave above.
(ans: k = 200 m 1 f = 50 Hz
y ( x, t ) = 0.03 sin (100t 200x ) 26
10.3.4 Equation of a particles velocity in wave

By differentiating the displacement equation of the wave, thus
dy
vy = and y = A sin (t kx )
dt
d
v y = ( A sin (t kx ))
dt
v y = A cos(t kx )

where v y : velocity of the particle in the wave

The velocity of the particle, vy varies with time but the wave velocity ,v
is constant thus

vy v
27
10.3.5 Equation of a particles acceleration in wave

By differentiating the equation of particles velocity in the wave, thus

dv y
ay = and v y = A cos(t kx )
dt
d
a y = ( A cos(t kx ))
dt
a y = A 2 sin (t kx )

where a y : acceleration of the particle in the wave

The equation of the particles acceleration also can be written as
2
a y = y The vibration of the particles
in the wave executes SHM.

28
Example 10.3 :

A sinusoidal wave traveling in the +x direction (to the right) has an

amplitude of 15.0 cm, a wavelength of 10.0 cm and a frequency of 20.0
Hz. At t = 0, a particle at x = 0 has a displacement of 15.0 cm.
a. Write an expression for the wave function, y(x,t).
b. Determine the speed and acceleration at t = 0.500 s for the
particle on the wave located at x = 5.0 cm.

Ans:

a) y ( x, t ) = 15.0 sin 40t 0.2x +
2
Where y and x in centimetres and t in seconds

b)
v y = 0 cm s 1
a y = 24000 2 cm s 2

29
Learning Outcome:

10.4 Superposition of waves ( 1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

State the principle of superposition of waves and use it to
explain the constructive and destructive interferences.

Explain the formation of stationary wave.

Use the stationary wave equation :

y = A cos kx sin t

Distinguish between progressive waves and stationary wave.

30
 10.4 Interference of waves
10.4.1 Principle of superposition

states that whenever two or more waves are travelling in the same
region, the resultant displacement at any point is the vector sum
of their individual displacement at that point.
point

For examples,

A A A
r r t =0 r
y1 y2 y1 A
r
2A y2
r r r t = t1 r r r
y = y1 + y2 = A + A = 2 A y = y1 + y2 = A A = 0

A A A
r r t = t2 r
y2 y1 A y1
r
y2 31
10.4.2 Interference

is defined as the interaction (superposition) of two or more wave
motions.
motions
Constructive interference

The resultant displacement is greater than the displacement of the
individual wave.
wave
y r r r
r y = y1 + y2
y2
r
y1
x
0

It occurs when y1 and y2 have the same wavelength, frequency and in

phase each other where

= 0,2 ,4 ,6 ,8 ,... 32
Destructive interference

The resultant displacement is less than the displacement of the
individual wave or equal to zero.
zero
y
r
y2 r r r
y = y1 + y2 = 0
x
0
r
y1

It occurs when y1 and y2 have the same wavelength, frequency and
antiphase (out of phase rad) each other where

= ,3 ,5 ,7 ,9 ,...
33
10.4.3 Stationary (standing) waves

is defined as a form of wave in which the profile of the wave does
not move through the medium.
medium

It is formed when two waves which are travelling in opposite
directions,
directions and which have the same speed, speed frequency and
amplitude are superimposed.
superimposed

For example, consider a string stretched between two supports that is
plucked like a guitar or violin string as shown in Figure 10.16.

N A N A N A N

Figure 10.16
34
  When the string is pluck, the progressive wave is produced and
travel in both directions along the string.
 At the end of the string, the waves will be reflected and travel back in
the opposite direction.
 After that, the incident wave will be superimposed with the reflected
wave and produced the stationary wave with fixed nodes and
antinodes as shown in Figure 10.16.

Node (N) is defined as a point at which the displacement is zero
where the destructive interference occurred.
occurred

Antinode (A) is defined as a point at which the displacement is
maximum where the constructive interference occurred.
occurred
10.4.4 Characteristics of stationary waves

Nodes and antinodes are appear at particular time that is determined
by the equation of the stationary
stationar wave.

35
 N A N A N A N

4
2
Figure 10.17

From the Figure 10.17,

 The distance between adjacent nodes or antinodes is 2

 The distance between a node and an adjacent antinode is 4

 = 2 (the distance between adjacent nodes or
antinodes)

The pattern of the stationary wave is fixed hence the amplitude of
each particles along the medium are different.
different Thus the nodes and
antinodes appear at particular distance and determine by the
equation of the stationary wave.
wave
36
10.4.5 Equation of stationary waves

By considering the wave functions for two progressive waves,
y1 (x, t ) = a sin(t kx)
y2 (x, t ) = a sin(t + kx)
And by applying the principle of superposition hence


r r r
y = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t )
y = a sin (t kx ) + a sin (t + kx )
y = a(sin t cos kx cos t sin kx )
+ a(sin t cos kx + cos t sin kx )
y = 2a sin t cos kx
y = A cos kx sin t and A = 2a
where A : amplitude of the stationary wave
a : amplitude of the progressive wave
37
Explanation for the equation of stationary wave

A cos kx
 Determine the amplitude for any point along the stationary wave.
 It is called the amplitude formula.
formula
 Its value depends on the distance, x

Antinodes
 The point with maximum displacement = A

A cos kx = A
cos kx = 1
kx = cos (1)
1

kx = 0, ,2 ,3 ,...
kx = m where m = 0,1,2,3,...
m 2
x= and k =
k 38
 Therefore
Antinodes are occur when
m 3
x = x = 0, , , ,...

Nodes 2 2 2
 The point with minimum displacement = 0

A cos kx = 0
kx = cos 1 (0)
3 5
kx = , , ,...
2 2 2
n
kx = where n = 1,3,5,...
Therefore
2
n 2
x= and k =
2k
Nodes are occur when
n
x = x=
3 5
, , ,...
4 4 4 4 39

sin t
 Determine the time for antinodes and nodes will occur in the
stationary wave.

Antinodes
 The point with maximum displacement = A

A sin t = A sin t = 1
t = sin 1 (1)
3 5
t = , , ,...
2 2 2
n
t = where n = 1,3,5,...
2
n 2
Therefore t= and =
2 T
Antinodes are occur when the
n
t = T time are T 3T 5T
t= , , ,...
4 4 4 4 40

Nodes
 The point with minimum displacement = 0

A sin t = 0
sin t = 0
t = sin 1 (0 )
t = 0, ,2 ,3 ,...
t = m where m = 0,1,2,3,...
m 2
t= and =
 Therefore
T
Nodes are occur when the time
m are T 3T
t= T t = 0, ,T , ,...
2 2 2

At time , t = 0,
0 all the points in the stationary wave at the equilibrium
position (y = 0).
41
 Graph of displacement-distance (y-x)
y T
t=
4
A T
t = 0, , T
2
0 x
3 5 3 7 2
3T
A 4 2 4 4 2 4 t=
4

A N A N A N A N A

42
 Production of stationary wave

T T 3T
t =0 t= t= t= t =T
4 2 4

43
 10.4.6 Differences between progressive and
stationary waves
Progressive wave

Wave profile move.

All particles vibrate with the
same amplitude.

Neighbouring particles vibrate
with different phases.

All particles vibrate.

Produced by a disturbance in a
medium.

Transmits the energy.
Stationary wave

Wave profile does not move.

Particles between two adjacent
nodes vibrate with different
amplitudes.

Particles between two adjacent
nodes vibrate in phase.

Particles at nodes do not vibrate at
all.

Produced by the superposition of
two waves moving in opposite
direction.

Does not transmit the energy.
44
Example 10.4 :
Two harmonic waves are represented by the equations below
y1 (x, t ) = 3 sin (t + x )
y2 ( x, t ) = 3 sin (t x )
where y1, y2 and x are in centimetres and t in seconds.
a. Write an expression for the new wave when both waves are
superimposed.
b. Determine the amplitude of the new wave.

Ans:
a)
y = 6 cos x sin t
where y and x in centimetres and t in seconds.
b)
Amplitude = 6 cm

45
Example 10.5 :
A stationary wave is represented by the following expression:
y = 5 cos x sin t
where y and x in centimetres and t in seconds. Determine
a. the three smallest value of x (x >0) that corresponds to
i. nodes
ii. antinodes
b. the amplitude of a particle at
i. x = 0.4 cm
ii. x = 1.2 cm
iii. x = 2.3 cm

Ans:
a) i) x = 0.5 cm, 1.5 cm, 2.5 cm ii) x = 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm
b)
Amplitude = 1.55 cm
Amplitude = 4.05 cm
Amplitude = 2.94 cm
46
Example 10.6 :
An equation of a stationary wave is given by the expression
below
y = 8 cos 2x sin t
where y and x are in centimetres and t in seconds. Sketch a
graph of displacement, y against distance, x at t =
0.25T for a range of 0 x .

Ans:

y (cm) 8
0
.
20 .507 .015 0

A N A N A
x(cm)

47