clinical practice
Caren G. Solomon, M.D., M.P.H., Editor
This Journal feature begins with a case vignette highlighting a common clinical problem.
Evidence supporting various strategies is then presented, followed by a review of formal guidelines,
when they exist. The article ends with the authors clinical recommendations.
From the Geriatric Research, Education, A 74-year-old woman with hypertension that is well controlled with hydrochlorothia-
and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Medi- zide is brought by her daughter for an evaluation. The daughter states that her mother
cal Center, Tennessee Valley Healthcare
System, and the Center for Cognitive Med- is withdrawn, often tearful, and at times appears to have memory problems but has
icine, Department of Psychiatry, Vander- no history of psychiatric illness. The patient is a retired teacher who is widowed and
bilt University Medical Center both in has lived independently for several years. During the last few months, she has stopped
Nashville. Address reprint requests to
Dr. Taylor at Vanderbilt University, 1601 going to church and visiting friends. The patients symptoms include irritability, an-
23rd Ave. S., Nashville, TN 37212, or at hedonia, fatigue, a 4.5-kg (10-lb) weight loss over a period of 3 months, and diffi-
warren.d.taylor@vanderbilt.edu. culty sleeping. She feels like a burden to her family. How should she be treated?
N Engl J Med 2014;371:1228-36.
DOI: 10.1056/NEJMcp1402180
Copyright 2014 Massachusetts Medical Society.
The Cl inic a l Probl em
drugs on medical conditions and the metabolism intervention include severe or worsening symp-
of other medications. Age-related declines in drug toms, suicidality, and impairment in daily func-
metabolism may also contribute to increased rates tioning. Recommended laboratory tests include
of medication side effects. blood counts to test for anemia and measurement
Coexisting cognitive impairment is common of the glucose level, as well as measurement of
in persons with late-life depression and can in- thyrotropin, since hypothyroidism can mimic de-
volve multiple cognitive domains, including execu- pressive symptoms. Measurement of serum levels
tive function, attention, and memory. Depression of vitamin B12 and folate is also commonly rec-
may be both a risk factor for and a manifestation ommended, because the prevalence of vitamin
of cognitive decline: depression is associated with B12 deficiency increases with age, and low levels
an increased long-term risk of dementia.8 Cogni-
tive deficits may thus be signs of accelerated brain Table 1. DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria for Major Depressive
aging that confers a predisposition to and perpetu- Disorder.*
ates depression.6 Five or more of the following symptoms must be present
nearly every day during a 2-wk period:
S t r ategie s a nd E v idence Core symptoms (1 required for diagnosis)
Depressed mood most of the day
Evaluation
Anhedonia or markedly decreased interest or pleasure
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recom- in almost all activities
mends depression screening if support is in place
Additional symptoms
to ensure accurate diagnosis and appropriate
Clinically significant weight loss or increase or decrease
treatment and follow-up, and annual depression in appetite
screening is now covered by Medicare Part B.
Insomnia or hypersomnia
However, screening without a subsequent confir-
matory evaluation leads to false positive diagno- Psychomotor agitation or retardation
ses and unnecessary treatment.9 To fully evaluate Fatigue or loss of energy
depression, clinicians should use validated mea- Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate
sures, such as the Patient Health Questionnaire 9, guilt
that reflect diagnostic criteria (Table 1). Because Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indeci
siveness
older adults, particularly elderly white men, have
high suicide rates,10 the presence of suicidal Recurrent thoughts of death or suicidal ideation
thoughts should be carefully explored.
* DSM-5 denotes Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Important features of the history are summa- Disorders, fifth edition.
rized in Table 2. Warning signs supporting urgent
of vitamin B12 and folate may contribute to depres- cause depression increases the challenge of ini-
sion. Cognitive screening (e.g., with the Mini tiating lifestyle changes, these recommendations
Mental State Examination) is warranted in per- are generally insufficient in the absence of other
sons reporting memory problems and may reveal interventions, such as pharmacotherapy, psycho-
deficits in visuospatial processing or memory even therapy, or both.
if the total score is in the normal range. Neuropsy-
chological testing may help identify early demen- Pharmacotherapy
tia, but because acute depression negatively af- Owing to their favorable adverse-event profiles
fects performance, testing should be postponed and low cost, selective serotonin-reuptake inhibi-
until depressive symptoms diminish. tors (SSRIs) are first-line treatments for late-life
depression (Table 3). In some randomized, con-
T r e atmen t trolled trials,12,13,15,16 but not others,17-19 SSRIs
such as sertraline, fluoxetine, and paroxetine have
Lifestyle Changes been more effective than placebo in reducing de-
Depressed older adults should be encouraged to pressive symptoms and increasing rates of remis-
increase their physical activity to the extent that sion of depression. Generally, trials that showed
they can. In a meta-analysis of seven randomized, a significant benefit in patients with late-life de-
controlled trials, moderate-intensity exercise re- pression were larger than those that did not; for
duced depressive symptoms.11 Other reasonable example, trials showing a benefit of sertraline
recommendations include improving nutrition included more than 350 participants in each study
and increasing engagement in pleasurable ac- group.12,13 In the largest studies,12,13,15,16 rates of
tivities and social interactions. However, be- SSRI response (defined as 50% reduction in the
Initial
Class and Agent Daily Dose Therapeutic Daily Dose Side Effects
* This table does not provide a comprehensive list of antidepressant drugs (rather, one to two examples per class) or of side effects. Selective
serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are typically used as first-line therapy. Use of sertraline is supported by data from large randomized,
controlled trials12,13; such data are lacking for escitalopram, but it is commonly used owing to a generally favorable adverse-event profile.
Serotoninnorepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) and agents with novel pharmacologic mechanisms are often used as second-line
therapy. Duloxetine use is supported by a large randomized, controlled trial14; data supporting venlafaxine, bupropion, and mirtazapine are
from smaller controlled trials or open-label trials. Owing to their side-effect profiles, tricyclic antidepressants and second-generation antipsy-
chotic agents should be used only for persons who do not have a response to other treatment options. These guidelines are concordant
with recommendations in the American Psychiatric Association Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder,
third edition.
According to the package insert, there is no evidence that doses higher than 60 mg per day confer an additional benefit.
Dosing should target plasma steady-state levels of 80 to 120 ng per milliliter.
Second-generation antipsychotic agents should be used for antidepressant augmentation, not as the sole therapy for depression.
An increased risk of stroke is specifically reported for older patients with dementia-related psychosis. Whether the same risk extends to other
older patients is not known.
severity of depression) ranged from 35 to 60%, as spite occasional clinical use, there have been no
compared with placebo response rates of 26 to large, robust, controlled trials of stimulants in
40%. Although not reported for all studies,12,13 re- depressed older adults.27
mission rates (defined as a minimal level of de- Since their approval for adjunctive use in
pressive symptoms) were 32 to 44% with SSRIs treatment-resistant depression, the second-gen-
versus 19 to 26% with placebo.15,16 SSRIs may eration antipsychotic agents olanzapine and ari
also effectively treat severe depression: although piprazole have been increasingly used in the
a randomized trial did not show a significant treatment of nonpsychotic depression.28 In open-
difference in remission rates between citalopram label studies, 50% of depressed older adults who
and placebo, a post hoc analysis suggested that did not have a full response to an antidepressant
severely depressed patients were more likely to were reported to have a remission with aripipra-
have a remission with citalopram (35% vs. 19%).19 zole augmentation.29,30 However, these trials are
Common adverse effects of SSRIs, which are limited by the lack of blinding and the lack of a
typically mild, include nausea and headache control group. A pooled subgroup analysis in-
(Table 3). Of concern are reports noting a higher corporating data from three placebo-controlled
risk of stroke among persons taking SSRIs than trials involving mostly younger adults showed
among nonusers of antidepressants (annualized that among adults 50 to 67 years of age, remis-
stroke rate of approximately 4 vs. 3 per 1000 sion rates with 6 weeks of aripiprazole augmen-
person-years in one report20). However, a similar tation were higher than with placebo augmenta-
increase in the risk of stroke has been noted with tion (32.5% vs. 17.1%).31 These remission rates
other antidepressant classes, and it is unclear to did not differ significantly from rates among
what extent the increased risk may be explained younger adults. Akathisia was the most common
by the underlying depression or other associ- side effect in this population, occurring in 17%
ated factors. of older patients. Longer-term safety and efficacy
Serotoninnorepinephrine reuptake inhibitors data in older patients are needed.
(SNRIs) are commonly used as second-line agents
when remission is not obtained with SSRIs. In Psychotherapy
small studies, venlafaxine did not show greater Psychotherapies are effective treatments for late-
efficacy than placebo,21,22 but a larger, placebo- life depression and may be considered as first-
controlled trial of duloxetine showed significant line therapy, depending on availability and pa-
improvements in late-life depression (response tient preference. Standardized psychotherapeutic
rate, 37% vs. 19%; remission rate, 27% vs. 15%).14 approaches include a short-term treatment phase,
As observed in trials involving younger adults, consisting of weekly visits over a period of 8 to 12
randomized trials involving older adults have not weeks. Some persons may require a longer peri-
shown significant differences between the ben- od of treatment or may require less frequent ses-
efits of SSRIs and those of SNRIs, although ad- sions after short-term treatment. Although other
verse effects may be more frequent with SNRIs.21,22 therapies may also be effective, the evidence base
Tricyclic antidepressants have efficacy similar for short-term treatment is strongest for cogni-
to that of SSRIs in the treatment of late-life de- tive behavioral therapy and problem-solving ther-
pression23 but are less commonly used owing to apy. However, generalizability is a concern be-
their greater side effects (Table 3). If SSRIs or cause most studies of psychotherapy for late-life
SNRIs are ineffective, tricyclic antidepressants depression have involved cognitively intact, well-
may be considered (either as monotherapy or as educated, white, and relatively young geriatric
augmentation). However, tricyclic antidepressants populations.32
are included in the Beers Criteria list of potentially Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on iden-
inappropriate medications associated with high tifying and reframing negative, dysfunctional
rates of adverse drug events among older adults.24 thoughts while increasing participation in plea-
Open-label and small, controlled trials sup- surable and social activities. A meta-analysis of
port the use of bupropion (response rate, 71%)25 23 randomized, controlled trials showed that
and mirtazapine (response rate, 47%)26 in patients cognitive behavioral therapy was significantly
with late-life depression; however, data from rig- more effective in reducing depressive symptoms
orous placebo-controlled trials are lacking. De- than treatment as usual or placement on a wait
list for treatment but was not more effective than (20%), or interpersonal therapy alone (64%) than
other psychotherapies.33 However, it may have a among persons receiving placebo and no inter-
weaker effect in physically ill or cognitively im- personal therapy (90%)43; the combination of nor-
paired persons.34 More recent trials assessing In- triptyline and interpersonal therapy was signifi-
ternet-based approaches to cognitive behavioral cantly more effective than interpersonal therapy
therapy also show efficacy for depression; how- alone. However, in a similarly designed study in-
ever, older adults are poorly represented in these volving mostly patients with a first episode of
studies and may require help navigating the depression, maintenance treatment with parox-
website or using the computer.35 etine (alone or with interpersonal therapy), but
Problem-solving therapy focuses on the devel- not with interpersonal therapy alone, reduced the
opment of skills to improve the ability to cope risk of relapse at 2 years, as compared with no
with life problems. Randomized trials involving active maintenance therapy.42 Data from long-
older adults have shown that problem-solving term randomized, controlled trials are lacking to
therapy results in greater improvements in de- assess the efficacy of maintenance treatment
pression than usual care or reminiscence thera- with either cognitive behavioral therapy or prob-
py,36 a psychotherapy focusing on the evaluation lem-solving therapy for late-life depression.
and reframing of past life events. Problem-solving
therapy effectively treats depressive symptoms in Brain Stimulation
older adults with cognitive deficits (specifically, Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the most ef-
coexisting executive dysfunction),37 a group that fective treatment for severely depressed patients,
often has a poor response to antidepressant medi- including elderly patients. Although antidepres-
cations.38,39 In a trial involving a cognitively im- sant medication is first-line therapy, ECT should
paired population, problem-solving therapy re- be considered in patients if they are suicidal, have
sulted in higher remission rates than supportive not had a response to antidepressant pharmaco-
therapy (46% vs. 28% at 12 weeks).37 Problem- therapy, have a deteriorating physical condition,
solving therapy also results in greater improvement or have depression-related disability that threat-
in disability than does supportive therapy, with ens their ability to live independently. Available
benefits maintained for at least 24 weeks.40 data from open-label trials, typically involving
Interpersonal therapy for older adults with persons who had not had a response to antide-
depression focuses on role transitions, grief, and pressants, suggest remission rates of 70 to 90%
interpersonal issues. In randomized trials, inter- with ECT, although remission rates in community
personal therapy resulted in significantly greater samples may be lower (30 to 50%).44 Data from
reductions in depressive symptoms than usual high-quality blinded, sham-controlled studies
treatment.41 As with cognitive behavioral thera- using modern ECT techniques are lacking. In ad-
py, persons with coexisting medical conditions dition, randomized trials show high subsequent
or cognitive deficits may not have a good response relapse rates (40 to 50% in the 6 months after
to interpersonal therapy.42 treatment).45 Current ECT protocols are safe, with
few contraindications. Common side effects in-
Maintenance Therapy clude postictal confusion with both anterograde
Longitudinal studies have shown a significant and retrograde amnesia; current administration
benefit of continued treatment after remission. techniques, such as unilateral electrode placement
One study involved older adults with recurrent with a brief pulse, substantially reduce this risk,
depression who had a short-term remission with and cognitive symptoms typically resolve after
nortriptyline and interpersonal therapy over a pe- the completion of ECT. Persons with cardiovas-
riod of 16 weeks. Study participants were ran- cular or neurologic disease are at increased risk
domly assigned to maintenance therapy with for ECT-related memory problems.
nortriptyline or placebo and to monthly mainte- Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a newer
nance psychotherapy (interpersonal therapy) or treatment for depression that uses a focal elec-
no psychotherapy. After 3 years, relapse rates tromagnetic field generated by a coil held over
were significantly lower among persons assigned the scalp, most commonly positioned over the left
to continued treatment with nortriptyline alone prefrontal cortex. Sessions are scheduled five
(43%), nortriptyline and interpersonal therapy times a week over a period of 4 to 6 weeks. In a
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