1.

In your own words, explain the following definitions of abnormality

a. Maladaptiveness of behaviour
b. Deviation from social norms
c. Deviation from statistical norms
d. Personal distress

Introduction
Before explaining the four interrelated concepts, I shall try to make a short incursion into the history of
abnormality and highlight some of the most important instrumental notions which help in my attempt
to defining the abnormality.

Throughout history, philosophers and physicians gave different explanations and classifications for
abnormal behaviour. Suffice it to say that even a bird's-eye view of the basic studies will place us in a
difficult position of finding the right ingredients and defining comprehensively abnormality and
deviance. Human nature seems to firmly obstinate to get encapsulated in our definitions. When it
comes to transfer western classifications and diagnosis across cultures, one can find itself lost as not
only that our tools are inadequate but they do not find any reference, any object to treat the disorders
are missing. The occidental behaviours are not normative and their deviations neither. The lens have to
be changed otherwise we run the risk of being diagnosed as culturally blind. Culture blindness may
not be so far, through its consequences, from the superstitions and supernatural forces ascribed to
mental and behavioural disorders in the ancient times. Throughout history there have been many
theories of the etiology of mental illness: supernatural, somatogenic or psychogenic interpretation
framework coexisted and developed over time. Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna, Paracelsus, J. Weyer,
Ph. Pinel, Benjamin Rush, Emil Kraepelin, Freud, Mesmer, Charcot, Breuer, the classical behavioural
schools and all the modern and postmodern paradigms are the main stops in our voyage through
madness and civilization. We have to stop and pay a visit to their material bodies too, the modern
institutionalised houses, hospitals, asylums where disordered minds, possessed bodies found their cure
or reached the abysses of insanity or complete demonic possession. Religious or magical remedies,
healing rituals, charms and prayers, trephining, hallucinogens, drugs, acupuncture, bloodletting,
talking therapy, incubation in temples, incantations, amulets, exorcism, purification through tortures,
starvation, extreme pain, diets, shocking the possessed person, animal magnetism (Mesmer),
lobotomies, insulin shock therapies, cathartic methods, electro convulsive therapies, psychic
energizers, cognitive behavioural therapies, natural therapy, massages, homeopathy and all the
postmodern therapies are examples of treatments for the troubles of the soma and psych throughout
the history of humanity. If in doubt or to be on the safe side, we can always consult International
Classification of Diseases (ICD) or (DSM) that stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders and the answers, methods, techniques, remedies, cures for casting the evil spirits out of our
imbalanced bodies and neurotic minds are all there.

Maladaptiveness of behaviour

Adaptive behaviour is related to an individuals social competence, that is, to what is appropriate
within a particular context or situation. Adaptive behaviour was defined by AAMR (2002) as the
collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that have been learned by people in order to
function in their everyday lives. As we can see, within this broad construct of social competence.
adaptive behaviour is related to how the social and cultural values of personal independency and social
responsibility are effectively and appropriately accomplished by a particular individual.

Generally, people deviating from the norm are considered "abnormal". Maladaptive behaviours are
related to the incapacity of individual to manage constructively negative emotions, frustrations,
temporary anxiety and to re-adjust to social life by engaging in positive behaviours. Usually
maladaptive behaviours are seen as dysfunctional because they are non-productive in the long run
and provide only short-term relief from anxiety. In the long run they prove to be harmful to himself
and to others around by their outcome. As the main root of the problem leaves unsolved, the individual
finds himself in a trap without many chances of escaping from the dangerous addictions or behaviours.
Some examples of maladaptive behaviours are the addictions (sex addiction, internet addiction,
addiction to exercise etc), substance abuse, anger conversion, attention-seeking behaviour, disordered
eating, self-harm, work-alcoholism etc.
As a means to cope with fear or anxiety, sometimes people use alcohol or other substances that
provide a temporary relief and the illusion of control over the situation. Once dependence is installed,
the individual will lose all control over himself and his will becoming this way the slave of his
addiction. Mentally and behaviourally he will be at the mercy of the consequences of his addiction and
in order to recover he has to engage in a long psychological process and follow specific therapies
accordingly.
Some maladaptive behaviours can be very dangerous not only for the individual but also for others
around as they become the witnesses of the auto-destruction process, the victims of a kind of
emotional abuse. Without entering in any psychological analysis, self-harm, alcoholism, suicide
attempts, substance misuse, self-inflicted destruction etc have a direct negative impact on others as
well as they feel emotionally and socially responsible to help the individual to recover. These kind of
maladaptive behaviours are harmful to one`s self and to family or society as well by their disruptive
consequences at macro-social level. Sometimes there is only a slight boundary between a maladaptive
behaviour with negative consequences for the subject himself and for the others. When these
maladaptive behaviours lead to harming other people, the private sphere ceases and the public
authority will be entitled to manage the disruptive behaviour.

There are other maladaptive behaviours such as sport addiction, internet addiction that even if are
compulsory do not have a negative impact on others or at social level the disruptiveness level is low.

Deviation from social norms

The abnormal behaviour is related this time to deviation from the social norms or conventions
that regulate as an invisible hand the behaviours of individuals in a given society at some
point in time. The social norms existed and exist in all cultures and it is impossible to imagine
one place populated with at least two individuals and without any rules or conventions that
govern their social order. The norms can be formal or informal; can be conventions, rules
without any meaning or legitimacy outside a certain delimited space/ territory or period of
time. Depending on how open or exposed the social group is, the norms can be subject to
influences or changes over time.
Norms impose uniformity of behaviour within a given social group and any small deviation is
frowned upon or severely punished according to the degree of importance of the norm or the
feelings offended.
From their birth, through socialisation process, people are exposed to all kind of norms and
social constrains, more or less explicitly justified, more or less rational. People are expected to
internalise them and to behave accordingly. When fail, the group shall use its punishment
tools in order to restore the social equilibrium and direct the individual on the right path. If the
wrong behaviour persists, the individual is labelled as abnormal and pressures are made in
order to determine the individual to adhere to majority norms.
Deviation is related to cultures, to contexts, to times. Wearing burqa is a must in some Islamic
countries, unusual in other countries, habitual or ignored in others. Labelling an entire culture
as abnormal, in some cases, may be as unfair as labelling a single individual as abnormal
when deviating from the majority rules or failing to meet the "standard deviation units".
There are numerous studies analysing the relationship between intelligence and cultures.
While there is a little consensus on what intelligence really means from one culture to another,
the literature suggests that culture of an individual will determine how intelligence is
conceived. The problem arises when people from one culture will be assessed according to
standards and criteria from another culture and labelled as retarded. It is well known the
example of Japanese students failing to get good scores in their literature assignments while
studying in France. Their way of analysing the texts was not well appreciated by their French
teachers as perceived as beat around the bush, too metaphorical and poetics. The Japanese
students, despite an excellent command of French language, were failing to leave up to the
analytical, rigorous standards of French tradition.

Deviation from statistical norms

Social norms designate a number of cultural phenomena that prescribe and proscribe
behaviours in specific circumstances, according to Hetcher and Opp, 2001. In economy, a
norm is defined by the regularity that can be measured by the mean or median behaviour
within a reference group and any deviation is measured accordingly. Following this paradigm,
in psychology statistical normality/ abnormality assumes there is such a thing as average
behaviour. The difficulties arise when trying to place in fixed categories and measure human
nature according valid indicators. How can we measure the normality for hunger, enthusiasm,
beauty, emotional intelligence etc? How legitimate is to speak about Abnormally beautiful?
Abnormally sick or healthy? Abnormally creative?

Perception on beauty for instance varies significantly from culture to culture and over time we
can see a remarkable diversity of beauty ideals. A curvy women body is seen as image of
beauty and health in Latino or most African countries but as overweight or unhealthy in most
western cultures.
In countries like Mauritania, Nauru , Samoa, Jamaica, Tonga, Tahiti being fat is considered a
sign of prosperity, health and beauty whereas in most occidental countries fat is exactly the
opposite.

Human behaviour can be seen as abnormal if it falls outside a range that is considered
statistically typical.
Apart from all cultural differences or historical times, the statistical norms are relative to the
population that is being measured. For instance, measuring the anxiety would be a difficult
task as there would be necessary to discriminate between children, women, men and all other
categories because trying to apply the same criteria and making the same mean would give us
inappropriate answers.

Thus, one has to be aware of the limits of these statistical norms when analysing human
behaviour and labelling them as normal or abnormal.

Personal distress
A third criterion of abnormal behavior is personal distress. When we engage in abnormal
behavior, the cause (and sometimes, result) of our behavior can be distress. A good example of
this is obsessive-compulsive disorder, where anxiety about something can lead to compulsive
behaviors meant to relieve that distress. The problem with personal distress, though, is that some
people with mental illness do not feel distress, such as people with antisocial personality
disorder who have an underdeveloped conscience
We all suffer from some form of distress but sometimes distress may be indicative of
an underlying psychological problem. Distress therefore becomes the symptom of
psychological disorder and is often used as a way of gauging someone's mental state.

Psychological distress is a general term used to describe unpleasant feelings or

emotions that impact your level of functioning. In other words, it is psychological discomfort
that interferes with your activities of daily living. Psychological distress can result in negative
views of the environment, others, and the self. Sadness, anxiety, distraction, and symptoms of
mental illness are manifestations of psychological distress.

So, no two people experience one event the exact same way. Psychological distress is a
subjective experience. That is, the severity of psychological distress is dependent upon the
situation and how we perceive it. We can think of psychological distress as a continuum with
'mental health' and 'mental illness' at opposing ends. As we continue to experience different
things, we travel back and forth on the continuum at different times throughout our lives.

Traumatic experiences, such as the death of a loved one, are causes of psychological distress.
Psychological distress can be thought of as a maladaptive response to a stressful situation.
Psychological distress occurs when external events or stressors place demands upon us that
we are unable to cope with. For example, we may struggle to accept that a loved one is no
longer with us. As a result, we become sad and have trouble getting out of bed, we are unable
to focus at work, and we lose interest in social activities.
Major life transitions, i.e. moving to a new state or graduating from college, can be a source
of psychological stress if you are unable to cope with the demands that these transitions place
on you or are having difficulty adjusting to the new situation. Sudden unexpected events, such
as a loved one's death of a heart attack or being fired from a job, can also cause psychological
distress.
Even everyday stressors, such as traffic, have the potential to cause psychological distress.
Some other sources of psychological distress include:
Cancer and other medical illness
Divorce
Starting a new job
Being a victim of bullying
Adverse school experiences
Adverse work experiences
Infertility
Mental illness
s we previously stated, psychological distress is a subjective experience. Just as no two people
experience events in the same way, no two people manifest psychological distress in exactly
same way. For example, suppose that you and your mother were in a car accident and both
experienced psychological distress as a result. Yet while you experience sleep disturbances,
fatigue, and sadness, your mother experiences anxiety related to driving and memory
problems and avoids social activities.
Other symptoms of psychological distress include:
Weight gain
Anger management problems
Obsessive thoughts or compulsions
Physical symptoms not explained by a medical condition
 Decreased pleasure in sexual activities
Hallucinations
Delusions
Reckless acts, i.e. excessive shopping sprees
Belief that others can hear your thoughts
Belief that your thoughts are not your own
Strange or unusual behaviors, i.e. wearing your clothing backwards