UNIT:2

IP NETWORKS

TCP/IP was initially designed to meet the data communication needs of the
U.S. Department of Defence (DOD).

In the late 1960s the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, now called
DARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defence began a partnership with U.S.
universities and the corporate research community to design open, standard
protocols and build multi-vendor networks.

Together, the participants planned ARPANET, the first packet switching

network. The first experimental four-node version of ARPANET went into
operation in 1969. These four nodes at three different sites were connected
together via 56 kbit/s circuits, using the Network Control Protocol (NCP). The
experiment was a success, and the trial network ultimately evolved into a useful
operational network, the "ARPA Internet".

In 1974, the design for a new set of core protocols, for the ARPANET, was
proposed in a paper by Vinton G. Cerf and Robert E. Kahn. The official name
for the set of protocols was TCP/IP Internet Protocol Suite, commonly referred
to as TCP/IP, which is taken from the names of the network layer protocol
(Internet protocol [IP]) and one of the transport layer protocols (Transmission
Control Protocol [TCP]).

TCP/IP is a set of network standards that specify the details of how computers
communicate, as well as a set of conventions for interconnecting networks and
routing traffic.

The initial specification went through four early versions, culminating in

version 4 in 1979
2. History of the Internet

By 1985, the ARPANET was heavily used and congested. In response, the National
Science Foundation (NSF) initiated phase one development of the NSFNET. ARPANET
was officially decommissioned in 1989. The NSFNET was composed of multiple
regional networks and peer networks (such as the NASA Science Network) connected to
a major backbone that constituted the core of the overall NSFNET

In its earliest form, in 1986, the NSFNET created a three-tiered network architecture.
The architecture connected campuses and research organisations to regional networks,
which in turn connected to a main backbone linking six nationally funded super-
computer centres. The original links were 56 kbit/s.

The links were upgraded in 1988 to faster T1 (1.544 Mbit/s) links as a result of the NSFNET
1987 competitive solicitation for a faster network service, awarded to Merit Network, Inc.
and its partners MCI, IBM, and the state of Michigan. The NSFNET T1 backbone connected
a total of 13 sites that included Merit, BARRNET, MIDnet, Westnet, NorthWestNet,
SESQUINET, SURANet, NCAR (National Centre of Atmospheric Research), and five NSF
supercomputer centres.
Routing of IP Packets

IP delivers its packets in a connectionless mode. It does not check to see if the
receiving host can accept data. Furthermore it does not keep a copy in case of errors.
IP is therefore said to fire and forget.

When a packet arrives at a router, the router forwards the packet only if it knows a
route to the destination. If it does not know the destination, it drops the packet. In
practice routers rarely drop packets, because they typically have default routes
defined. The router does not send any acknowledgements to the sending device.

A router analyses the checksum. If it is not correct then the packet is dropped. It also
decreases the Time-To-Live (TTL), and if this value is zero then the packet is
dropped. If necessary the router fragments larger packets into smaller ones and ses
flags and Fragment Offset fields accordingly.

IPv6 and Ipv4

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the Internet
Protocol (IP), the communications protocol that provides an identification and
location system for computers on networks and routes traffic across the Internet. IPv6
was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the long-
anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6 is intended to replace IPv4.
Every device on the Internet is assigned a unique IP address for identification and
location definition. With the rapid growth of the Internet after commercialization in
the 1990s, it became evident that far more addresses would be needed to connect
devices than the IPv4 address space had available. By 1998, the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF) had formalized the successor protocol. IPv6 uses a 128-bit
address, theoretically allowing 2128, or approximately 3.41038 addresses. The actual
number is slightly smaller, as multiple ranges are reserved for special use or
completely excluded from use. The total number of possible IPv6 addresses is more
than 7.91028 times as many as IPv4, which uses 32-bit addresses and provides
approximately 4.3 billion addresses. The two protocols are not designed to
be interoperable, complicating the transition to IPv6. However, several IPv6 transition
mechanisms have been devised to permit communication between IPv4 and IPv6
hosts.
IPv6 provides other technical benefits in addition to a larger addressing space. In
particular, it permits hierarchical address allocation methods that facilitate route
aggregation across the Internet, and thus limit the expansion of routing tables. The use
of multicast addressing is expanded and simplified, and provides additional
optimization for the delivery of services. Device mobility, security, and configuration
aspects have been considered in the design of the protocol.
IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits with the
groups being separated by colons, for example
2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334, but methods to abbreviate this full
notation exist.

Contents


Main features

Decomposition of the IPv6 address representation into its binary form

IPv6 is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched internetworking and provides
end-to-end datagram transmission across multiple IP networks, closely adhering to the
design principles developed in the previous version of the protocol, Internet Protocol
Version 4 (IPv4). IPv6 was first formally described in Internet
standard document RFC 2460, published in December 1998.[2]
In addition to offering more addresses, IPv6 also implements features not present in
IPv4. It simplifies aspects of address assignment (stateless address autoconfiguration),
network renumbering, and router announcements when changing network
connectivity providers. It simplifies processing of packets in routers by placing the
responsibility for packet fragmentation into the end points. The IPv6 subnet size is
standardized by fixing the size of the host identifier portion of an address to 64 bits to
facilitate an automatic mechanism for forming the host identifier from link
layer addressing information (MAC address). Network security was a design
requirement of the IPv6 architecture, and included the original specification of IPsec.
IPv6 does not specify interoperability features with IPv4, but essentially creates a
parallel, independent network. Exchanging traffic between the two networks requires
translator gateways employing one of several transition mechanisms, such as NAT64,
or a tunneling protocol like 6to4, 6in4, or Teredo.

Motivation and origin

IPv4

Decomposition of the quad-dotted IPv4 address representation to its binary value

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) was the first publicly used version of the Internet
Protocol. IPv4 was developed as a research project by the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA), a United States Department of Defense agency,
before becoming the foundation for the Internet and the World Wide Web. It is
currently described by IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981), which replaced
an earlier definition (RFC 760, January 1980). IPv4 included an addressing system
that used numerical identifiers consisting of 32 bits. These addresses are typically
displayed in quad-dotted notation as decimal values of four octets, each in the range 0
to 255, or 8 bits per number. Thus, IPv4 provides an addressing capability of 232 or
approximately 4.3 billion addresses. Address exhaustion was not initially a concern in
IPv4 as this version was originally presumed to be a test of DARPA's networking
concepts.[3] During the first decade of operation of the Internet, it became apparent
that methods had to be developed to conserve address space. In the early 1990s, even
after the redesign of the addressing system using a classless network model, it became
clear that this would not suffice to prevent IPv4 address exhaustion, and that further
changes to the Internet infrastructure were needed.[4]
The last unassigned top-level address blocks of 16 million IPv4 addresses were
allocated in February 2011 by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to
the five regional Internet registries (RIRs). However, each RIR still has available
address pools and is expected to continue with standard address allocation policies
until one /8 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) block remains. After that, only
blocks of 1024 addresses (/22) will be provided from the RIRs to a local Internet
registry (LIR). As of September 2015, all of Asia-Pacific Network Information
Centre (APNIC), the Rseaux IP Europens Network Coordination
Centre (RIPE_NCC), Latin America and Caribbean Network Information
Centre (LACNIC), and American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) have
reached this stage.[5][6][7] This leaves African Network Information Center (AFRINIC)
as the sole regional internet registry that is still using the normal protocol for
distributing IPv4 addresses.
Working-group proposals
By the beginning of 1992, several proposals appeared for an expanded Internet
addressing system and by the end of 1992 the IETF announced a call for white
papers.[8] In September 1993, the IETF created a temporary, ad-hoc IP Next
Generation (IPng) area to deal specifically with such issues. The new area was led by
Allison Mankin and Scott Bradner, and had a directorate with 15 engineers from
diverse backgrounds for direction-setting and preliminary document review:[4][9] The
working-group members were J. Allard (Microsoft), Steve Bellovin (AT&T), Jim
Bound (Digital Equipment Corporation), Ross Callon (Wellfleet), Brian
Carpenter (CERN), Dave Clark (MIT), John Curran (NEARNET), Steve
Deering (Xerox), Dino Farinacci (Cisco), Paul Francis (NTT), Eric Fleischmann
(Boeing), Mark Knopper (Ameritech), Greg Minshall (Novell), Rob Ullmann (Lotus),
and Lixia Zhang (Xerox).[10]
The Internet Engineering Task Force adopted the IPng model on 25 July 1994, with
the formation of several IPng working groups.[4] By 1996, a series of RFCs was
released defining Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), starting with RFC 1883. (Version
5 was used by the experimental Internet Stream Protocol.)
It is widely expected that the Internet will use IPv4 alongside IPv6 for the foreseeable
future. Direct communication between the IPv4 and IPv6 network protocols is not
possible; therefore, intermediary trans-protocol systems are needed as a
communication conduit between IPv4 and IPv6 whether on a single device or among
network nodes.

Comparison with IPv4

On the Internet, data is transmitted in the form of network packets. IPv6 specifies a
new packet format, designed to minimize packet header processing by
routers.[2][11] Because the headers of IPv4 packets and IPv6 packets are significantly
different, the two protocols are not interoperable. However, in most respects, IPv6 is
an extension of IPv4. Most transport and application-layer protocols need little or no
change to operate over IPv6; exceptions are application protocols that embed Internet-
layer addresses, such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Network Time
Protocol (NTP), where the new address format may cause conflicts with existing
protocol syntax.
Larger address space
The main advantage of IPv6 over IPv4 is its larger address space. The length of an
IPv6 address is 128 bits, compared with 32 bits in IPv4.[2] The address space therefore
has 2128 or approximately 3.41038 addresses.
In addition, the IPv4 address space is poorly allocated; in 2011, approximately 14% of
all available addresses were utilized. While these numbers are large, it was not the
intent of the designers of the IPv6 address space to assure geographical saturation
with usable addresses. Rather, the longer addresses simplify allocation of addresses,
enable efficient route aggregation, and allow implementation of special addressing
features. In IPv4, complex Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) methods were
developed to make the best use of the small address space. The standard size of a
subnet in IPv6 is 264 addresses, the square of the size of the entire IPv4 address space.
Thus, actual address space utilization rates will be small in IPv6, but network
management and routing efficiency are improved by the large subnet space and
hierarchical route aggregation.
Renumbering an existing network for a new connectivity provider with different
routing prefixes is a major effort with IPv4. With IPv6, however, changing the prefix
announced by a few routers can in principle renumber an entire network, since the
host identifiers (the least-significant 64 bits of an address) can be independently self-
configured by a host.
Multicasting, the transmission of a packet to multiple destinations in a single send
operation, is part of the base specification in IPv6. In IPv4 this is an optional although
commonly implemented feature.] IPv6 multicast addressing shares common features
and protocols with IPv4 multicast, but also provides changes and improvements by
eliminating the need for certain protocols. IPv6 does not implement traditional IP
broadcast, i.e. the transmission of a packet to all hosts on the attached link using a
special broadcast address, and therefore does not define broadcast addresses. In IPv6,
the same result can be achieved by sending a packet to the link-local all
nodes multicast group at address ff02::1, which is analogous to IPv4 multicasting to
address 224.0.0.1. IPv6 also provides for new multicast implementations, including
embedding rendezvous point addresses in an IPv6 multicast group address, which
simplifies the deployment of inter-domain solutions.
In IPv4 it is very difficult for an organization to get even one globally routable
multicast group assignment, and the implementation of inter-domain solutions is
arcane. Unicast address assignments by a local Internet registry for IPv6 have at least
a 64-bit routing prefix, yielding the smallest subnet size available in IPv6 (also 64
bits). With such an assignment it is possible to embed the unicast address prefix into
the IPv6 multicast address format, while still providing a 32-bit block, the least
significant bits of the address, or approximately 4.2 billion multicast group identifiers.
Thus each user of an IPv6 subnet automatically has available a set of globally
routable source-specific multicast groups for multicast applications.
IP Network convergence

: When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance.

Need for Communication A communication service enables the exchange of information

between users at different locations. Communication services & applications are everywhere.
Some examples are given below

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1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves

5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.

PROTOCOLS & STANDARDS

Introduction to Protocol
Protocol is the special set of rules that end points in a telecommunication connection use when
they communicate. Protocols specify interactions between the communicating entities.
To request any service or exchange any information between 2 programs there must be an agreed
set of commands and data formats, this is a protocol. So, for example, the commands and data
sent between a World Wide Web browser and a remote server are a protocol. The browser
(probably) uses the GET command follow by the name of the required file (page), this protocol
is recognised and understood by the web server program which responds appropriately. Similarly
the format of packets sent between Ethernet cards and their drivers are a protocol. The programs
exchanging messages are called peers.

In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is

anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send
bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. Thus, for communication to occur, the
entities must agree on a protocol. Therefore, a protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. A protocol defines: what is communicated, how it is communicated, & when it
is communicated.

There are three elements of a protocol:

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 Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which
they are presented.

Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular
pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation?

Timing: The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast
they can be sent.

Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in
international communication. Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards
creation committees, forums, and government regulatory agencies.

The various standard creation committees are:

International Organization for Standardization (ISO): The ISO is active in developing

cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological, and economic activity.

International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T): By the

early 1970s, a number of countries were defining national standards for telecommunications, but
there was still little international compatibility. The United Nations responded by forming, as
part of its International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a committee, the Consultative
Committee for International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT). This committee was devoted
to the research and establishment of standards for telecommunications in general and for phone
and data systems in particular. On March 1, 1993, the name of this committee was changed to the
International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).

American National Standards Institute (ANSI): Despite its name, the American National
Standards Institute is a completely private, nonprofit corporation not affiliated with the U.S.
federal government. However, all ANSI activities are undertaken with the welfare of the United
States and its citizens occupying primary importance.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers is the largest professional engineering society in the world. International in
scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields of electrical
engineering, electronics, and radio as well as in all related branches of engineering.

Electronic Industries Association (EIA): Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic Industries
Association is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics manufacturing
concerns. Its activities include public awareness education and lobbying efforts in addition to
standards development.

Direction of data flow

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Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex

Simplex

In simplex mode ,the communication is unidirectional. Only one of the devices on a link can
transmit; the other can only receive.

Ex.Keyboards and monitors.

The keyboard can only introduce input.The monitor can only accept output.

Half-duplex

In half-duplex mode ,each station can both transmit and receive but not at the same time. When
one device is sending ,the other can only receive.

The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with two directional traffic. The entire capacity of a
channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.

Ex. Walkie-talkies and CB(citizen band radios.)

Full-duplex

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In full-duplex mode ,both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. It is like a two-way
street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. Signals going in either direction
share the capacity of the link.

The full duplex is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
Signals going in either direction share the capacity of the link.

Ex. Telephone network

When two people are communicating by a telephone line ,both can listen and talk at the same
time.

LAN switching, WAN, WAN technology:

Definition :

An interconnected collection of autonomous computers interconnected able to exchange

information .A set of nodes connected by communication links .A node can be any device
capable of sending &/or receiving data to &/or from other nodes in the network

A connected collection of hardware and software that permits information exchange and resource
sharing information = data, text, audio, video, images, resources such as printers, memory,
link bandwidth

Types of Communication Networks

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Local Area Network (LAN)
It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings
or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot. Personal
computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We can use different
types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.

LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among
each other while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.

LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.

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Applications of LAN

One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining computers
called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the remaining
clients.
Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each
other locally without any internet access.
Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and uses the similar technology as
LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be means to connecting a number of
LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single
private company or a public company.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for the
network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and

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maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links. WAN operates on
low data rates.

Reference Models in Communication Networks

The most important reference models are :

1. OSI reference model.

2. TCP/IP reference model.

Introduction to ISO-OSI Model:

There are many users who use computer network and are located all over the world. To ensure
national and worldwide data communication ISO (ISO stands for International Organization of
Standardization.) developed this model. This is called a model for open system interconnection
(OSI) and is normally called as OSI model.OSI model architecture consists of seven layers. It
defines seven layers or levels in a complete communication system. OSI Reference model is
explained in other chapter.

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Introduction to TCP/IP REFERENCE Model
TCP/IP is transmission control protocol and internet protocol. Protocols are set of rules which
govern every possible communication over the internet. These protocols describe the movement
of data between the host computers or internet and offers simple naming and addressing
schemes.
TCP/IP Reference model is explained in details other chapter.

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ISO/OSI Model in Communication Networks
There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the world. So to
ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems must be developed which are
compatible to communicate with each other. ISO has developed this. ISO stands for International
organization of Standardization. This is called a model for Open System Interconnection (OSI)
and is commonly known as OSI model.
The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system.

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Feature of OSI Model :

1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.

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Functions of Different Layers :
Layer 1: The Physical Layer :

1. It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer :

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical
layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent respectively.
Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame traffic
control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are
full.

Layer 3: The Network Layer :

1. It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.

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3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.

Layer 4: Transport Layer :

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller units
and passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.

Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.

Layer 5: The Session Layer :

1. Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and are
resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data
loss is avoided.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :

1. Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will
understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the
application layer.

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3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this condition
presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

Layer 7: Application Layer :

1. It is the topmost layer.

2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail services,
directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.

Merits of OSI reference model:

1. OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
4. Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

Demerits of OSI reference model:

1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
3. It is just used as a reference model.

PHYSICAL Layer - OSI Model

Physical layer is the lowest layer of all. It is responsible for sending bits from one computer to
another. This layer is not concerned with the meaning of the bits and deals with the physical
connection to the network and with transmission and reception of signals.

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This layer defines electrical and physical details represented as 0 or a 1. How many pins a
network will contain, when the data can be transmitted or not and how the data would be
synchronized.

FUNCTIONS OF PHYSICAL LAYER:

1. Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. The bits must be encoded
into signals for transmission. It defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0s and 1s are changed
to signal.
2. Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the number of bits per second.
3. Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter and receiver. The sender
and receiver are synchronized at bit level.
4. Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface between devices and
transmission medium.
5. Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the medium: Point to Point
configuration and Multipoint configuration.
6. Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies: Mesh, Star, Ring and
Bus.
7. Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.
8. Deals with baseband and broadband transmission.

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DATA LINK Layer - OSI Model
Data link layer is most reliable node to node delivery of data. It forms frames from the packets
that are received from network layer and gives it to physical layer. It also synchronizes the
information which is to be transmitted over the data. Error controlling is easily done. The
encoded data are then passed to physical.
Error detection bits are used by the data link layer. It also corrects the errors. Outgoing messages
are assembled into frames. Then the system waits for the acknowledgements to be received after
the transmission. It is reliable to send message.

FUNCTIONS OF DATA LINK LAYER:

1. Framing: Frames are the streams of bits received from the network layer into manageable
data units. This division of stream of bits is done by Data Link Layer.
2. Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the frame in order to define
physical address of the sender or receiver of the frame, if the frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network.

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3. Flow Control: A flow control mechanism to avoid a fast transmitter from running a slow
receiver by buffering the extra bit is provided by flow control. This prevents traffic jam at the
receiver side.
4. Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a trailer at the end of the frame.
Duplication of frames are also prevented by using this mechanism. Data Link Layers adds
mechanism to prevent duplication of frames.
5. Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the devices has control over the
link at any given time, when two or more devices are connected to the same link.

Network Layer - OSI Model

The main aim of this layer is to deliver packets from source to destination across multiple links
(networks). If two computers (system) are connected on the same link then there is no need for a
network layer. It routes the signal through different channels to the other end and acts as a
network controller.
It also divides the outgoing messages into packets and to assemble incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.

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FUNCTIONS OF NETWORK LAYER:

1. It translates logical network address into physical address. Concerned with circuit, message
or packet switching.
2. Routers and gateways operate in the network layer. Mechanism is provided by Network
Layer for routing the packets to final destination.
3. Connection services are provided including network layer flow control, network layer error
control and packet sequence control.
4. Breaks larger packets into small packets.

Transport Layer - OSI Model

The main aim of transport layer is to be delivered the entire message from source to destination.
Transport layer ensures whole message arrives intact and in order, ensuring both error control
and flow control at the source to destination level. It decides if data transmission should be on
parallel path or single path
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer and ensures that message arrives in order by checking error and
flow control.

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FUNCTIONS OF TRANSPORT LAYER:

1. Service Point Addressing : Transport Layer header includes service point address which is
port address. This layer gets the message to the correct process on the computer unlike
Network Layer, which gets each packet to the correct computer.
2. Segmentation and Reassembling : A message is divided into segments; each segment
contains sequence number, which enables this layer in reassembling the message. Message is
reassembled correctly upon arrival at the destination and replaces packets which were lost in
transmission.
3. Connection Control : It includes 2 types :
o Connectionless Transport Layer : Each segment is considered as an independent packet
and delivered to the transport layer at the destination machine.
o Connection Oriented Transport Layer : Before delivering packets, connection is made
with transport layer at the destination machine.
4. Flow Control : In this layer, flow control is performed end to end.

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5. Error Control : Error Control is performed end to end in this layer to ensure that the complete
message arrives at the receiving transport layer without any error. Error Correction is done
through retransmission.

Session Layer - OSI Model

Session Layer

It deals with the concept of Sessions i.e. when a user logins to a remote server he should
be authenticated before getting access to the files and application programs. Another job of
session layer is to establish and maintain sessions. If during the transfer of data between two
machines the session breaks down, it is the session layer which re-establishes the connection. It
also ensures that the data transfer starts from where it breaks keeping it transparent to the end
user. e.g. In case of a session with a database server, this layer introduces check points at various
places so that in case the connectoin is broken and reestablished, the transition running on the
database is not lost even if the user has not committed. This activity is called Synchronization.
Another function of this layer is Dialogue Control which determines whose turn is it to speak in
a session. It is useful in video conferencing.

Its main aim is to establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction between communicating
systems. Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different
applications. Transfer of data from one destination to another session layer streams of data are
marked and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely
and data loss is avoided.

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FUNCTIONS OF SESSION LAYER:

1. Dialog Control : This layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in
half-duplex or full-duplex.
2. Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into stream of data. Example: If a system is sending a file of 800
pages, adding checkpoints after every 50 pages is recommended. This ensures that 50 page
unit is successfully received and acknowledged. This is beneficial at the time of crash as if a
crash happens at page number 110; there is no need to retransmit 1 to100 pages.

Presentation Layer - OSI Model

This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. In order to
make it possible for computers with different data representations to communicate data structures
to be exchanged can be defined in abstract way alongwith standard encoding. It also manages
these abstract data structres and allows higher level of data structres to be defined an exchange. It
encodes the data in standard agreed way(network format). Suppose there are two machines A
and B one follows 'Big Endian' and other 'Little Endian' for data representation. This layer
ensures that the data transmitted by one gets converted in the form compatibale to othe machine.
This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.In order to
make it possible for computers with different data representations to communicate data structures
to be exchanged canbe defined in abstract way alongwith standard encoding. It also manages
these abstract data structres and allows higher level of data structres to be defined an exchange.
Other functions include compression, encryption etc.
The primary goal of this layer is to take care of the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two communicating systems. Presentation layer takes care that the data is
sent in such a way that the receiver will understand the information (data) and will be able to use
the data. Languages (syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this
condition presentation layer plays a role translator.

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FUNCTIONS OF PRESENTATION LAYER:

1. Translation : Before being transmitted, information in the form of characters and numbers
should be changed to bit streams. The presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between encoding methods as different computers use different encoding methods. It
translates data between the formats the network requires and the format the computer.
2. Encryption : It carries out encryption at the transmitter and decryption at the receiver.
3. Compression : It carries out data compression to reduce the bandwidth of the data to be
transmitted. The primary role of Data compression is to reduce the number of bits to be
0transmitted. It is important in transmitting multimedia such as audio, video, text etc.

Application Layer - OSI Model

The seventh layer contains the application protocols with which the user gains access to the
network. The choice of which specific protocols and their associated functions are to be used at
the application level is up to the individual user. Thus the boundary between the presentation
layer and the application layer represents a separation of the protocols imposed by the network
designers from those being selected and implemented by the network users.For example
commonly used protocols are HTTP(for web browsing), FTP(for file transfer) etc.

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It is the top most layer of OSI Model. Manipulation of data (information) in various ways is done
in this layer which enables user or software to get access to the network. Some services provided
by this layer includes: E-Mail, transferring of files, distributing the results to user, directory
services, network resource etc.

FUNCTIONS OF APPLICATION LAYER:

1. Mail Services : This layer provides the basis for E-mail forwarding and storage.
2. Network Virtual Terminal : It allows a user to log on to a remote host. The application
creates software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. Users computer talks to the
software terminal which in turn talks to the host and vice versa. Then the remote host
believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows user to log on.
3. Directory Services : This layer provides access for global information about various services.
4. File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM) : It is a standard mechanism to access files
and manages it. Users can access files in a remote computer and manage it. They can also
retrieve files from a remote computer.

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The TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used
in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible
communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the
source and destination or the internet. These protocols offer simple naming and addressing
schemes.

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Overview of TCP/IP reference model
TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by
Department of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research
project of network interconnection to connect remote machines.
The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference model
were:

Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and destination
machines were functioning.

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets)
another application running on different computer.

Description of different TCP/IP protocols

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork

layer is called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.

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Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport
layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol
stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.

1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote

machine and run applications on it.
2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic
mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts
connected over a network.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.

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3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

Comparison of OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model

Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference
Model, with diagrammatic comparison below.

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet

Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around
standard, acting as a communication which the Internet has developed. It is a communication
gateway between the network and end user. protocol, which allows connection of hosts over a
network.

2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
guarantees the delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model is
more reliable.

3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.

4. OSI model has a separate Presentation 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or

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layer and Session layer. Session layer.

5. OSI is a reference model around which 5. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI
the networks are built. Generally it is used as model.
a guidance tool.

6. Network layer of OSI model provides 6. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
both connection oriented and connectionless connectionless service.
service.

7. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 7. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.

8. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are 8. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
easily replaced as the technology changes.

9. OSI model defines services, interfaces and 9. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
protocols very clearly and makes clear clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
distinction between them. It is protocol
independent.

10. It has 7 layers 10. It has 4 layers

Global Capacity

History:

Global Capacity, originally known as Global Capacity Group, was founded in Houston, Texas in
2000, as a wholesale broadband trading company. The two founders, John Abraham and David
Walsh, had worked together at Enron's broadband unit and realized the potential demand for a
broadband market trading company.[6] The company began creating individualized

35
communications networks that didn't rely on any one network, allowing the company to offer the
best connections at the cheapest price.
By 2006, the company had expanded its services from broadband delivery to network operations
management and consulting services, creating and building secure, private data and voice
networks for other businesses.
In December 2006, the company was sold to Capital Growth Systems (CGS), and was combined
with two other companies, Centrepath, a provider of network management services, and 20/20
Technologies, a provider of telecommunications quoting and configuration software. 20/20
Technologies, which had been bought by CGS, had earlier acquired software vendor Magenta
NetLogic in 2004. The combined company continued to do business as Global Capacity.
In November 2008, Global Capacity paid $15M to acquire Vanco Direct USA, a network service
provider of consulting services for global corporate networks, and the owner of LATTIS (Local
Area Transport Tariff Information System), an information tool for circuit pricing
In 2009, Global Capacity announced their organization into two groups: Optimization Solutions
and Connectivity Solutions. Optimization Solutions were targeted to improving network
efficiency for clients and offered network pricing, monitoring and engineering services.
Connectivity solutions were targeted at simplifying the network connectivity procurement
process for customers. Also in 2009, Global Capacity launched One MarketplaceTM, a network
connectivity trading platform that combines network capacity from multiple suppliers and uses
telecommunications switching equipment to deploy this capacity toward market demand.

REFRENCE

[1]https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-263j-data-
communication-networks-fall-2002/lecture-notes/Lecture1.pdf

[2]http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/dheeraj/cs425/lec02.html/lec01.html

[3] http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/reference-models

[4]https://www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/computer_network_t
opologies.htm
[5]http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/transmission-mediums

[6] http://fmcet.in/EEE/CS2363_uw.pdf

[7]https://www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/data_communicatio
n_computer_network_tutorial.pdf

36
[8] https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-02-introduction-
to-eecs-ii-digital-communication-systems-fall-2012/readings/MIT6_02F12_chap05.pdf.

[9]http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/cable-modem

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