36

CHAPTER 4

PID CONTROLLER BASED SPEED CONTROL

OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Now a day, a number of different controllers are used in the

industry and in many other fields. In a quite general way those controllers can
be divided into two main groups:

a) Conventional controllers

b) Non-conventional controllers

Under the conventional controllers it is possible to count the

controllers known for years now, such as P, PI, PD, PID, Otto-Smith, all their
different types and realizations, and other controller types. It is a
characteristic of all conventional controllers that one has to know a
mathematical model of the system in order to design a controller.
Unconventional controllers utilize a new approach to the controller design in
which knowledge of a mathematical model of a process is not required.
Examples of unconventional controller are a fuzzy controller and Neuro or
Neuro-fuzzy controllers. Many industrial processes are nonlinear and thus
complicate to describe mathematically. However, it is known that a good
many nonlinear processes can satisfactorily controlled using PID controllers
 37

providing that controller parameters are tuned well. Practical experience

shows that this type of control has a lot of sense since it is simple and based
on 3 basic behavior types: proportional (P), integrative (I) and derivative (D).
Instead of using a small number of complex controllers, a larger number of
simple PID controllers are used to control simpler processes in an industrial
assembly in order to automate the certain more complex process. PID
controller and its different types such as P, PI and PD controllers are the basic
building blocks in the control of various processes. In spite their simplicity;
they can be used to solve even a very complex control problems, especially
when combined with different functional blocks, filters (compensators or
correction blocks), selectors etc. A continuous development of new control
algorithms insures that the time of PID controller has not passed and that this
basic algorithm will have its part to play in process control in foreseeable
future. It can be expected that it will be a backbone of many complex control
systems. In this chapter mathematical modeling and PID controller based
induction motor speed control are discussed.

4.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF THREE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR.

In the control of any power electronics drive system to start with a

mathematical model of the plant is important. To design any type of controller
to control the process of the plant, the mathematical model is required.
Lashok Kusagur, Kodad & Sankar ram (2009) have analyzed the
mathematical modeling of induction motor. The equivalent circuit used for
obtaining the mathematical model of the induction motor is shown in the
Figure 4.1.
 38

(a) d-axis

(b) q-axis

Figure 4.1 Equivalent circuit of induction motor in d-q frame

The induction motor model is established using d, q field reference

concept. The Motor parameters are given in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Motor parameters

Parameters Value
Power 0.5 HP
Voltage 415 V
Current 0.9 A
Frequency 50Hz
Speed 1440 RPM
Stator resistance Rs 6.03
Rotor resistance Rr 6.085
Stator inductance Ls 489.3e-3 H
Rotor inductance Lr 489.3e-3 H
Poles 4
 39

An induction motor model is then used to predict the voltage

required to drive the flux and torque to the demanded values within a fixed
time period. This calculated voltage is then synthesized using the space vector
modulation. Direct axes and quadrature axes stator and rotor voltages are
given in Equations (4.1), (4.2), (4.3) and (4.4).

(4.1)

(4.2)

(4.3)

(4.4)

Vsd and Vsq, Vrd and Vrq are the direct axes & quadrature axes stator and
rotor voltages. The flux linkages to the currents are given by the
Equation (4.5)

(4.5)

The electrical part of an induction motor can thus be described, by

combining the above equations the Equation (4.6) is obtained.
 40

(4.6)

Where A is given by the Equation (4.7)

(4.7)

The instantaneous torque produced is given by the Equation (4.8)

(4.8)

The electromagnetic torque expressed in terms of inductances is

given by the Equation (4.9)

(4.9)

The mechanical part of the motor is modeled by the Equation (4.10)

(4.10)
 41

D and Q blocks are shown in Figure 4.2. The mathematical

modeling of three phase induction motor is shown in Figure 4.3.

(a) D block

(b) Q block

Figure 4.2 D-Q blocks

 42

Figure 4.3 Three phase induction motor mathematical modeling

This induction motor model is further used to design a controller

using fuzzy control strategy.

4.3 PID CONTROLLER

A Proportional integral derivative controller (PID controller) is a

generic control loop feedback mechanism (controller) widely used in
industrial control systems. The PID is the most commonly used feedback
controller. A PID controller calculates an "error" value as the difference
between a measured process variable and a desired set point. The controller
attempts to minimize the error by adjusting the process control inputs. The
PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate constant
parameters, and is accordingly sometimes called three-term control:
Proportional, Integral and Derivative values, denoted P, I, and D.
 43

Heuristically, these values can be interpreted in terms of time: P depends on

the present error, I on the accumulation of past errors, and D is a prediction of
future errors, based on current rate of change. The weighted sum of these
three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the
position of a control valve, or the power supplied to a heating element. In the
absence of knowledge of the underlying process, a PID controller is the best
controller. By tuning the three parameters in the PID controller algorithm, the
controller can provide control action designed for specific process
requirements. The response of the controller can be described in terms of the
responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the controller
overshoots the set point and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use
of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal control of the
system or system stability. Some applications may require using only one or
two actions to provide the appropriate system control. This is achieved by
setting the other parameters to zero. A PID controller will be called as PI, PD,
P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI controllers
are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to measurement noise,
whereas the absence of an integral term may prevent the system from
reaching its target value due to the control action.

4.3.1 Control Loop Basics

A familiar example of a control loop is the action taken when

adjusting hot and cold faucets (valves) to maintain the water at a desired
temperature. This typically involves the mixing of two process streams, the
hot and cold water. The person touches the water to sense or measure its
temperature. Based on this feedback they perform a control action to adjust
the hot and cold water valves until the process temperature stabilizes at the
desired value. The sensed water temperature is the process variable or process
value (PV). The desired temperature is called the set point (SP). The input to
 44

the process (the water valve position) is called the manipulated variable
(MV). The difference between the temperature measurement and the set point
is the error(e) and quantifies whether the water is too hot or too cold and by
how much.

After measuring the temperature (PV), and then calculating the

error, the controller decides when to change the tap position (MV) and by
how much. When the controller first turns the valve on, it may turn the hot
valve only slightly if warm water is desired, or it may open the valve all the
way if very hot water is desired. This is an example of a simple proportional
control. In the event that hot water does not arrive quickly, the controller may
try to speed-up the process by opening up the hot water valve more and more
as time goes by. This is an example of an integral control. Making a change
that is too large when the error is small is equivalent to a high gain controller
and it will lead to overshoot. If the controller were to repeatedly make
changes that were too large and repeatedly overshoot the target, the output
would oscillate around the set point in a constant, growing, or decaying
sinusoid. If the oscillations increase with time, then the system is unstable,
whereas if they decrease the system is stable. If the oscillations remain at a
constant magnitude the system is marginally stable. In the interest of
achieving a gradual convergence at the desired temperature (SP), the
controller may wish to damp the anticipated future oscillations. So in order to
compensate this effect, the controller may elect to temper their adjustments.
This can be thought of as a derivative control method. If a controller starts
from a stable state at zero error (PV = SP), then further changes by the
controller will be in response to the changes in other measured or unmeasured
inputs to the process that impact on the process, and hence on the PV.
Variables impact on the process, other than the MV is known as disturbances.
Generally controllers are used to reject disturbances and / or implement set
point changes. The variations in feed water temperature constitute a
 45

disturbance to the faucet temperature control process. In theory, a controller

can be used to control any process which has a measurable output (PV), a
known ideal value for that output (SP) and an input to the process (MV) that
will affect the relevant PV. Controllers are used in the industry to regulate
temperature, pressure, flow rate, chemical composition, speed and practically
every other variable for which a measurement exists.

4.3.2 PID Controller Theory

The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms,
whose sum constitutes the manipulated variable (MV). The proportional,
integral, and derivative terms are summed to calculate the output of the PID
controller. Defining u (t) as the controller output, the final form of the PID
algorithm is:

(4.11)

Where

Kp : Proportional gain, a tuning parameter

Ki : Integral gain, a tuning parameter

Kd : Derivative gain, a tuning parameter

e : Error = SP PV

t : Time or instantaneous time (the present)

 46

Figure 4.4 shows the PID controller.

Figure 4.4 PID controller

4.3.2.1 Proportional term

Figure 4.5 Process variables for different Kp values

Process variables for different Kp values (Ki and Kd held constant)

are shown in Figure 4.5. The proportional term makes a change to the output
that is proportional to the current error value. The proportional response can
be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp, called the proportional
gain.
 47

The proportional term is given by the Equation (4.12)

(4.12)

A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for

a given change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can
become unstable (see the section on loop tuning). In contrast, a small gain
results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive
or less sensitive controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control
action may be too small when responding to system disturbances. Tuning
theory and industrial practice indicate that the proportional term should
contribute the bulk of the output change. A pure proportional controller will
not always settle at its target value, but may retain a steady-state error.
Specifically, drift in the absence of control, such as cooling of a furnace
towards room temperature, biases a pure proportional controller. If the drift is
downwards, as in cooling, then the bias will be below the set point, hence the
term "droop. Droop is proportional to the process gain and inversely
proportional to proportional gain. Specifically the steady-state error is given
by the Equation (4.13)

e = G / Kp (4.13)

Droop is an inherent defect of purely proportional control. Droop

may be mitigated by adding a compensating bias term (setting the set point
above the true desired value), or corrected by adding an integral term.

4.3.2.2 Integral term

Process variables for different Ki values (Kp and Kd held constant)

are shown in figure 4.6. The contribution of the integral term is proportional
to both the magnitude of the error and the duration of the error. The integral in
 48

a PID controller is the sum of the instantaneous error over time and gives the
accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously.

Figure 4.6 Process variables for different Ki values

The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain (Ki)

and added to the controller output.

The integral term is given by the Equation (4.14)

(4.14)

The integral term accelerates the movement of the process towards

set point and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a pure
proportional controller. However, since the integral term responds to
accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot
the set point.
 49

4.3.2.3 Derivative term

Process variables for different Kd values (Ki and Kp held constant)

are shown in Figure 4.7. The derivative of the process error is calculated by
determining the slope of the error over time and multiplying this rate of
change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the
derivative term to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain Kd.

Figure 4.7 Process variable for different Kd values

The derivative term is given by the Equation (4.15)

(4.15)

The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller

output. Derivative control is used to reduce the magnitude of the overshoot
produced by the integral component and improve the combined controller-
process stability. However, the derivative term slows the transient response of
the controller. Also, the differentiation of a signal, amplifies noise and thus
this term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the error term, and can
cause a process to become unstable if the noise and the derivative gain are
 50

sufficiently large. Hence an approximation to a differentiator with a limited

bandwidth is more commonly used. Such a circuit is known as a phase-lead
compensator.

4.3.2.4 Overview of methods

There are several methods for tuning a PID loop. Controller tuning
methods with its advantages and disadvantages are given in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Tuning methods

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Manual No math required. Online method Requires experienced
Tuning personnel
Ziegler Proven Method. Online method Process upset, some trial-
Nichols and-error, very aggressive
tuning
Software Consistent tuning. Online or offline Some cost and training
Tools method. May include valve and involved
sensor analysis. Allow simulation
before downloading. Can support
Non-Steady State (NSS) Tuning
Cohen- Good process models Some math. Offline
Coon method. Only good for
first order processes

The most effective methods generally involve in the development

of some form of the process model, and then choosing P, I, and D based on
the dynamic model parameters. Manual tuning methods can be relatively
inefficient, particularly if the loops have response times on the order of
minutes or longer. The choice of method will depend largely on whether or
 51

not the loop can be taken "offline" for tuning, and the response time of the
system. If the system can be taken offline, the best tuning method often
involves subjecting the system to a step change in input, measuring the output
as a function of time, and using this response to determine the control
parameters.

4.3.2.5 Manual tuning

If the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set
Ki and Kd values to zero. Increase the Kp until the output of the loop
oscillates, then the Kp should be set to approximately half of that value for a
"quarter amplitude decay" type response. Then increase Ki until any offset is
corrected in sufficient time for the process. However, too much Ki will cause
instability. Finally, increase Kd, if required, until the loop is acceptably quick
to reach its reference after a load disturbance. However, too much Kd will
cause excessive response and overshoot.

Table 4.3 Effects of increasing a tuning parameter

Parameter Rise time Overshoot Settling Steady-state Stability

time error
Kp Decrease Increase Small Decrease Degrade
change
Ki Decrease Increase Increase Decrease Degrade
significantly
Kd Minor Minor Minor No effect in Improve if
decrease decrease decrease theory Kd small

A fast PID loop tuning usually overshoots slightly to reach the set
point more quickly; however, some systems cannot accept overshoot, in
which case an over-damped closed-loop system is required, which will
 52

require a Kp setting significantly less than half that of the KP setting causing
oscillation. The effects of increasing a tuning parameters KP, Kd and Ki is
given in Table 4.3.

4.3.2.6 ZieglerNichols method

For more details on this topic, see ZieglerNichols method.

Another heuristic tuning method is formally known as the ZieglerNichols
method, introduced by John G. Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols in the 1940s.
As in the method above, the Ki and Kd gains are first set to zero. The P gain is
increased until it reaches the ultimate gain, Ku, at which the output of the loop
starts to oscillate. Ku and the oscillation period Pu are used to set the gains.
The formulas to calculate tuning parameters in P, PI, and PID controllers are
given in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 ZieglerNichols method

Control Type Kp Ki Kd
P 0.50Ku - -
PI 0.45Ku 1.2Kp / Pu -
PID 0.60Ku 2Kp / Pu KpPu / 8

These gains apply to the ideal, parallel form of the PID controller.
When applied to the standard PID form, the integral and derivative time
parameters Ti and Td are only dependent on the oscillation period Pu.

4.3.3 Limitations of PID Control

While PID controllers are applicable to many control problems, and

often perform satisfactorily without any improvements or even tuning, they
can perform poorly in some applications, and do not in general provide
 53

optimal control. The fundamental difficulty with PID control is that a

feedback system, with constant parameters, and no direct knowledge of the
process, and thus overall performance is reactive and a compromise while
PID control is the best controller with no model of the process, better
performance can be obtained by incorporating a model of the process. The
most significant improvement is to incorporate feed-forward control with
knowledge about the system, and using the PID only to control error.
Alternatively, PIDs can be modified in more minor ways, such as by changing
the parameters (either gain scheduling in different use cases or adaptively
modifying them based on performance), improving measurement (higher
sampling rate, precision, and accuracy, and low-pass filtering if necessary), or
cascading multiple PID controllers.

PID controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when
the PID loop gains must be reduced so that the control system does not
overshoot, oscillate or hunt about the control set point value. They also have
difficulties in the presence of non-linearities, may trade-off regulation versus
response time, do not react to changing process behavior and lag in
responding to large disturbances. Another problem faced with PID controllers
is that they are linear, and in particular symmetric. So, the performance of
PID controllers in non-linear systems (such as HVAC systems) is varies. For
example, in temperature control, a common use case is active heating (via a
heating element) but passive cooling (heating off, but no cooling), so
overshoot can only be corrected slowly it cannot be forced downward. In this
case the PID should be tuned to be over damped, to prevent or reduce
overshoot, though this reduces performance (it increases settling time).

A problem with the derivative term is that small amounts of

measurement or process noise can cause large amounts of change in the
output. It is often helpful to filter the measurements with a low-pass filter in
 54

order to remove higher-frequency noise components. However, low-pass

filtering and derivative control can cancel each other out. So reducing noise
by instrumentation means is a much better choice. Alternatively, a nonlinear
median filter may be used, which improves the filtering efficiency and
practical performance. In some case, the differential band can be turned off in
many systems with little loss of control. This is equivalent to using the PID
controller as a PI controller.

4.4 PID CONTROLLER BASED INDUCTION MOTOR V/F

CONTROL

The design of PID controller for SVPWM inverter for induction

motor V/f speed control is in Figure 4.8. Space Vector Modulation (SVM)
was originally developed as a vector approach to Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) for three phase inverter (Munira Batool 2013). It is a well
sophisticated technique for generating the sine wave that provides a higher
voltage to the motor with lower total harmonic distortion. The Space Vector
Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) method is an advanced PWM method and
possibly the best among all the PWM techniques for variable frequency drive
application. A proportionalintegralderivative controller (PID controller) is a
generic control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control
systems. PID is the most commonly used feedback controller. Defining u (t)
as the controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is

u(t) =MV(t) =KP e(t) + Ki e( ) d( ) + Kd. de(t)/dt (4.16)

Where

Kp : Proportional gain,

Ki : Integral gain,
 55

Integral limit is from 0 to t.

Kd : Derivative gain

e : Error

t : Time or instantaneous time (the present)

The ZieglerNichols tuning method is used to tune the PID

controller. The proportional, integral, and derivative terms are summed up in
order to calculate the output from the PID controller. A PID controller
calculates an "error" value as the difference between the measured process
variable and the desired set point. The controller is tuned based on Integral of
absolute value of the error (IAE).

IAE= | e(t) |.dt (4.17)

The limits are from 0 to . The controller is tuned and calculated

the values Kp, Ki and Kd are calculated based on IAE to produce reference
frequency output proportional to the absolute error. Kp= 0.01, Ki = 1.5750
and Kd = 11.52. The controller attempts to minimize the error by adjusting
the process control inputs (Kumar et al 2013). PID controller is shown in
Figure 4.9.

A PID controller calculates an "error" value as the difference

between the measured process variable and the desired set point. The
controller attempts to minimize the error by adjusting the process control
inputs.
 56

Figure 4.8 Simulink model of PID controller based three phase

Induction motor V/f speed control

Figure 4.9 PID controller

 57

Figure 4.10 SVM module

The three phase AC is converted into DC by the rectifier. The DC

is converted into controlled AC by three phase inverter. Inverter output is
given to three phase induction motor. The PID controller is designed to give
control signals to IGBTs present in the inverter module. The inverter output is
V/f controlled, and it is given as input to three-phase induction motor. The
speed is taken as feedback, and it is compared with the set speed. The error
signal is given as input to the PID controller (Kumar et al 2013). The
controller output is the reference frequency. The reference frequency and
actual frequency are compared. It is learnt that the frequency error creeps
in.V/f ratio maintains constant, based on reference speed Nref and frequency
error. The V/f ratio is maintained constant as per the following
Equation (4.18)

V/f ratio = [Nref/5+ [frequency error x 0.5]. (4.18)

Oscillator (OSC) is used to produce the frequency output based on

V/f ratio. The frequency of the OSC is chosen to produce 6 pulses. OSC
outputs are given as input to the SVM module. SVM module is shown in
Figure 4.10. When the first pulse comes the counter output in SVM module
 58

will be 0. For the second pulse the counter output will be 1 and so on. Based
on the V/f ratio OSC frequency is changed. The pulse widths of the OSC
pulses are based on the V/f ratio. For example, when the pulse width is
increased for pulse 1, the counter output remains 0 and the switches 1 and 4
will be in the conduction state till the counter output changes to 1. When the
reference speed is increased the V/f ratio is constant (Soni et al 2013). But all
6 pulses widths of OSC will be reduced. So the counter value will be changed
quickly. Due to this the duration of on time of IGBTs are reduced.

T=Ton+Toff (4.19)

F= 1/T (4.20)

So the inverter output voltage is controlled based on Ton. When the

on time is varied, frequency will also be varied. V/f control is achieved.

4.5 SIMULATION RESULTS AND INFERENCES

In this part PID controller performance is analyzed. The nominal

speed of the motor is 1440 RPM. PID controller reference frequency output of
step change speed from 1500 RPM to 1800 RPM is shown in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11 PID controller reference frequency

 59

The PID controller speed and frequency output have more

overshoot. Settling time and rise time are also more for a set speed of 2000
RPM. Figure 4.12 shows the PID controller speed change from 1600 RPM to
1800 RPM.

Figure 4.12 PID controller step response

The speed reaches the 1800 RPM after 2.5 Sec. PID responses for
various set speeds 1350 RPM, 1440 RPM, 1850 RPM and 2000 RPM under
no load are shown in Figures 4.13, 4.14, 4.15 and 4.16 in chapter 4. PID
responses for the same speeds under 50% loads are shown in Figures 4.17,
4.18, 4.19 and 4.20. PID responses under full load are shown in Figures 4.21,
4.22, 4.23 and 4.24.
 60

Figure 4.13 PID response for a set speed of 1350 RPM under no load

Figure 4.14 PID responses for a set speed of 1440 RPM under no load
 61

Figure 4.15 PID response for a set speed of 1850 RPM under no load

Figure 4.16 PID responses for a set speed of 2000 RPM under no load

A PID controller speed response to a set speed of 2000 RPM

(above rated) at no load is analyzed.
 62

Figure 4.17 PID response for a set speed of 1350 rpm under 50% load

Figure 4.18 PID response for a set speed of 1440 RPM under 50% load
 63

Figure 4.19 PID response for a set speed of 1850 RPM under 50% load

Figure 4.20 PID response for a set speed of 2000 RPM under 50% load
 64

Figure 4.21 PID response for a set speed of 1350 RPM under full load

Figure 4.22 PID responses for a set speed of 1440 RPM under full load
 65

Figure 4.23 PID response for a set speed of 1850 RPM under full load

Figure 4.24 PID response for a set speed of 2000 RPM under full load

PID controllers performance parameters for various speeds without

load are given in Table 4.5.
 66

Table 4.5 PID controller based system performance parameters for

various speeds without load

Set Actual Peak Rise Settling Over Steady

Speed Speed Speed Time Time Shoot State Error
(RPM) (RPM) (RPM) (Sec) (Sec) (%) (%)
1350 1400 1500 0.4 3 11.1 3.7
1440 1500 1550 0.52 2.5 7.6 4.2
1850 1860 1870 0.8 2 1.1 0.5
2000 2020 2070 1.2 2 3.5 1

In no load the overshoot is more in 1350 RPM and steady state

error is more for the set speed of 1440 RPM. PID controller performance is
good for the set speed of 1850 RPM under noload.PID controllers
performance parameters for various speeds with 50% load are given in Table
4.6. PID controllers performance parameters for various speeds with full load
are given in Table 4.7.

Table 4.6 PID controller based system performance parameters for

various speeds with 50% load

Set Speed Actual Speed Peak Speed Over Shoot Steady State
(RPM) (RPM) (RPM) (%) Error (%)
1350 1390 1450 7.4 3
1440 1500 1590 10.4 4.2
1850 1850 1890 2.2 0
2000 2000 2100 5 0

The overshoot and steady state error are more for the set speed of
1440 RPM under 50% load, compared to other set speeds. PID controller
performance is good for the set speed of 2000 RPM, compared to other set
speeds for this load.
 67

Table 4.7 PID controller based system performance parameters for

various speeds with full load

Set Speed Actual Speed Peak Speed Over Shoot Steady State
(RPM) (RPM) (RPM) (%) Error (%)
1350 1375 1510 11.9 1.9
1440 1450 1620 12.5 0.7
1850 1850 2000 8.1 0
2000 2000 2200 10 0

While comparing other set speeds, the overshoot is more for 1440
RPM and the steady state error is higher for 1350 RPM under full load. The
PID controller response is good for the set speed of 1850 RPM compared to
other set speeds for the same load.

4.6 CONCLUSION

In this chapter the three parts namely mathematical modeling of

induction motor, PID controller design and application of PID controller for
three phase induction motor speed control are discussed. The mathematical
model is established for 0.5HP induction motor using dq reference frame
concept. PID controller is designed and it is tuned by ZieglerNichols method
for V/f control of induction motor. An SVM based inverter is used for this
purpose. The controller gives control signals to inverter to maintain V/f ratio
constant. It is understood from the simulation results that, in general the PID
controller responses have high overshoot and steady state error in various
speeds and loads.