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EnergyStorage:PhaseChangeMaterialsforThermalEnergyStorage

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TableofContents

1.Introduction(#Introduction)
2.Feasibilityoftechnologyandoperationalnecessities(#Feasibilityoftechnologyandoperationalnecessities)
3.Statusofthetechnologyanditsfuturemarketpotential(#Statusofthetechnologyanditsfuturemarketpotential)
4.Contributionofthetechnologytoeconomicdevelopment(includingenergymarketsupport)(#Contributionofthetechnologytoeconomic
development(includingenergymarketsupport))
5.Climate(#Climate)
6.Financialrequirementsandcosts(#Financialrequirementsandcosts)
7.CleanDevelopmentMechanismmarketstatus(#CleanDevelopmentMechanismmarketstatus)
8.References(#References)

Oneofthedisadvantagesofmodernlightweightconstructionisitslackofthermalmass,whichmeansthistypeofbuildingcanoverheatin
thesummerandcantretainheatinthewinter.Often,heatingandcoolingsystemsareinstalledtomaintaintemperatureswithinthecomfort
zone.However,itisalsopossibletoreplicatetheeffectofthermalmassofthebuildingusingphasechangematerials(PCM).

ThermalenergystoragethroughPCMiscapableofstoringandreleasinglargeamountsofenergy.Thesystemdependsontheshiftin
phaseofthematerialforholdingandreleasingtheenergy.Forinstance,processessuchasmelting,solidifyingorevaporationrequire
energy.Heatisabsorbedorreleasedwhenthematerialchangesfromsolidtoliquidandviceversa.Therefore,PCMsreadilyand
predictablychangetheirphasewithacertaininputofenergyandreleasethisenergyatalatertime.

AsFigure1illustrates,PCMdependsonlatentheatstorage.Comparedtothestorageofsensibleheat,thereisnotemperaturechangein
thestorage.Inasenseeverymaterialisaphasechangematerial,becauseatcertaincombinationsofpressureandtemperatureevery
materialcanchangeitsaggregatestate(solid,liquid,gaseous).Inachangeofaggregatestate,alargeamountofenergy,thesocalled
latentheatcanbestoredorreleasedatanalmostconstanttemperature.Thusasmalldifferenceintemperaturecanbeusedforstoring
energyandreleasingthestoredenergy.

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Figure1:PrincipleofPhaseChangeMaterials.

Introduction: top(#top)

Today,classiccoolingsystemsareusedforroomcooling,andtheseensurethattheroomsarecooledtoacomfortabletemperatureinall
environmentclimates.Thesesystemsareeffective,howevertheywouldbealotmoreenergyefficientiftheyusedthenaturaltemperature
differencesbetweendayandnightforcoolingpurposes.Theuseofthebuildingmassasastoragemediumiswellknown.Thisconceptof
nighttimecoolinghasalreadybeensuccessfullyimplementedinmanyconstructionprojects.

TheobjectiveofPCMisillustratedinFigure2.Ascanbeseen,PCMlimitsexcessivetemperaturesbystoringtheexcessheatduringtheday,
andreleasingitduringthenight.Thismimcstheeffectofthermalmass,whichalsostoresheatduringthedayandreleasesitduringthe
night.Phasechangematerials(PCMs)allowlargeamountsofenergytobestoredinrelativelysmallvolumes,resultinginsomeofthelowest
storagemediacostsofanystorageconcepts.

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Figure2:ThefunctioningofPCM.

Asmentioned,essentiallyallmaterialsarephasechangematerials.However,thecharacteristicsrequiredforeffectiveandpredictable
thermalenergystorageexcludesalargenumberofmaterials.InFigure3,severalPCMsareillustratedwiththeircorrespondingtemperature
rangesandenthalpyenergystoragecharacteristics.TheFigurealsoillustratesthetemperaturebandwhichrepresentsatypicaltemperature
comfortzoneinhouseholds.ItshowsthatparrafinandsalthydratesareusefulPCMsforhouseholds.Saltsandsugaralcoholsareusedfor
highertemperatureranges.AnexampleofahightemperatureenergystorageuseisinaConcentratedSolarPower(CSP)plant,whichuses
salttostoreenergyforlateruse.Thisalleviatespartoftheintermittencyproblemofsolarpower.

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Figure3:TemperaturerangesandcorrespondingenthalpyoffusionofseveralPCMs.Source:Trox,nodate.

Feasibilityoftechnologyandoperationalnecessities: top(#top)

TheapplicationofPCMsinbuildingscanhavetwodifferentgoals(Pasupathy,Velraj&Seeniraj,2008).First,thePCMscanbeusedtoutilize
naturalheatandcoldsources.Forinstance,solarenergyforheatingduringtheevening/nightortheuseofnightcoldforcoolingduringthe
day.Second,PCMscanusemanmadeheatorcoldsources.

Inaddition,differentwaysofusingPCMsareavailable.Inbuildings,theseagainfallintotwogroups.PCMscanbelocatedinbuilding
componentssuchaswallsorceilings,orcanbearrangedinseparateheatorcoldstores.UsingPCMswithinbuildingscomponentsare

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generallypassivesystems.Theheatorcoldisstoredautomaticallyandreleasedwhenindoororoutdoortemperaturesriseorfallbeyond
thephasechangepointofthematerial.UsingPCMsinseperateheatorcoldstoresareusuallybasedonactivesystems.Thestoredheator
coldisincontainmentseperatedfromthebuildingitselfandheatorcoldtransferisnotautomatic,butusedondemand.

TypesofPCMs

MultipletypesofPCMsexist.ThemaincategorizationofPCMsisthedifferentiationbetweeninorganicPCMsandorganicPCMS.The
commonlyusedphasechangematerialsfortechnicalapplicationsare:paraffins(organic),salthydrates(inorganic)andfattyacids(organic)
(IEA,2005).Additionally,icestoragecanbeusedforcoolingapplications.Thedifferentiationbetweenorganicandinorganicisespecially
importantforbuildingbasedPCMuse.Manyotherdifferentiationsandcatgeorizationsexist,whichareillustratedinFigure4.

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Figure4:ClassificationofPCMs.Source:Abhat,1983

InorganicPCMs

EarlyeffortsinthedevelopmentoflatentheatstoragematerialsusedinorganicPCMs.InorganicPCMsaresalthydrates.Theadvantagesof
thesematerialsare:highlatentheatvalues,nonflammable,lowcostandreadilyavailable.However,thedisadvantagesofinorganicPCMs
hasledtotheinvestigationoforganicPCMs.Someofthesedisadvantagesarecorrosiveness,instability,improperresolidification,anda
tendencytosupercool.

Thehighstoragedensityofsalthydratematerialsisdifficulttomaintainandusuallydecreaseswithcycling.Thisisbecausemosthydrated
saltsmeltcongruentlywiththeformationofthelowerhydratedsalt,makingtheprocessirreversibleandleadingtothecontinuousdeclinein
theirstorageefficiency.

Segregationcanbepreventedchangingthepropertiesofthesalthydratewiththeadditionofanothermaterialthatcanhindertheheavier
phasestosinktothebottom[124].Thiscanbeachievedeitherwithgellingorwiththickeningmaterials.Gellingmeansaddingacrosslinked
material(e.g.polymer)tothesalttocreateathreedimensionalnetworkthatholdsthesalthydratetogether.Thickeningmeanstheadditionof
amaterialtothesalthydratethatincreasestheviscosityandherebyholdsthesalthydratetogether[6].

Subcoolingisanotherseriousproblemassociatedwithallhydratedsalts.Itappearswhenasalthydratestartstosolidifyatatemperature
belowitscongelatingtemperature(Fig.9).Severalapproximationshavebeenstudiedtosolvethisproblem.Oneistheuseofhydratedsalts
indirectcontactheattransferbetweenanimmiscibleheattransferfluidandthehydratedsaltsolution[4].Anothersolutionistheuseof
nucleators[6,125].

OrganicPCMs

OrganicPCMshaveanumberofcharacteristicswhichrenderthemusefulforlatentheatstorageincertainbuildingelements.Theyaremore
chemicallystablethaninorganicsubstances,theymeltcongruentlyandsupercoolingdoesnotposeasasignificantproblem.Moreover,they
havebeenfoundtobecompatiblewithandsuitableforabsorptionintovariousbuildingmaterials.AlthoughtheinitialcostoforganicPCMs
ishigherthanthatoftheinorganictype,theinstalledcostiscompetitive.

However,theseorganicmaterialsdohavetheirquotaofunsuitableproperties.Ofthemostsignificantofthesecharacteristics,theyare
flammableandtheymaygenerateharmfulfumesoncombustion.Otherproblems,whichcanariseinaminorityofcases,areareactionwith
theproductsofhydrationinconcrete,thermaloxidativeageing,odourandanappreciablevolumechange.Appropriateselectionand
modificationhavenoweliminatedmanyoftheseundesirablecharacteristics.

AcomparisonbetweenorganicandinorganicmaterialsforheatstorageisshowninTable1.

Table1.ComparisonoforganicandinorganicPCMforheatstorage.
Source:IEA,2005
Organics Inorganics
Advantages
Advantages
Nocorrosiveness
Greaterphasechangeenthalpy
Lowornoundercooling
Subcooling
Chemicalandthermalstability
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Subcooling
Lowerphasechangeenthalpy
Corrosion
Lowthermalconductivity
Phaseseparation
Inflammability
Phasesegragation,lackofthermalstability

TechniquesforheattransferbetweenPCMandthefluidcycle

HeattransferbetweenthePCMandthefluidcycleisnecessarytochargeanddischargethePCM(IEA,2005).Differenttechniquesare
available,including:

1)Directcontactbetweenphasechangematerialandheattransferfluid:thisneedsmaterialsthatarechemicallystableforlongperiodsof
directcontactandthesolidificationofPCMoccurinsmallparticles,securingsufficientheattransferduringsubsequentmelting.

2)Macroscopiccapsules:thisisthemostfrequentlyusedencapsulationmethod.Themostcommonapproachistouseaplasticmodule,
whichischemicallyneutralwithrespecttoboththephasechangematerialandtheheattransferfluid.Themodulestypicallyhaveadiameter
ofsomecentimetres.

3)Microencapsulation:thisisarelativelynewtechniqueinwhichthePCMisencapsulatedinasmallshellofpolymermaterialswitha
diameterofsomemicrometres(inthemomentonlyforparaffins).Alargeheatexchangesurfaceresultsandthepowderlikespherescanbe
integratedintomanyconstructionmaterialsorusedasaquaeouspumpableslurry.PlastersincorporatingmicroencapsulatedPCMareon
themarketsince2004.PCslurriesarestillunderdevelopment.

AdvantagesanddisadvantagesofPCMusecomparedtoconventionalwaterstorage

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ThethreemainadvantagesofPCMoverconventionalwaterstoragetechniquesforthermalenergystorageare(IEA,2005):

1)Higherthermalenergystoragecapacitycomparedtothesensibleenergystorageinwater.Thisleadstosmallerrequiredstorages.Onlya
trueadvantageifonlysmallusefultemperaturedifferencescanbeachieved.

2)Relativelyconstanttemperatureduringcharginganddischarging.

3)BurnercyclesforthebackupgenerationunitandthereforetheirCOandHCemissionscanbereduced.

ThefourmaindisadvantagesofPCMcomparedtoconventionalwaterstoragetechniquesare(IEA,2005):

1)Higherinvestmentcosts

2)PeakpowerduringdischargeislimitedduetolimitedheatconductioninthesolidstateofPCM.Thisisthemainlimitdeterminingthe
acceptablesizeforthestoragemodules.

3)Limitedexperiencewithlongtermoperationofmanythousandsofchargedischargecycles.

4)Risksoflossofstabilityofthesolutionanddeteriorationoftheencapsulationmaterial.

Operationalnecessities

Whilephasechangematerialsingeneralareabundant,sinceallmaterialsareessentiallyphasechangematerials,certainideal
characteristicscanbeidentifiedforeffectiveuseofPCMs.TheseimportantcharacteristicsareidentifiedinTable2.

Table2.ImportantcharacteristicsofPhaseChangeMaterials.Source:
Economic
ThermalProperties Chemicalproperties PhysicalProperties
Properties
Phasechangetemperaturefittedtoapplication Stability Lowdensityvariation CheapandAbundant
Highchangeofenthalphyneartemperatureofuse Nophaseseparation Highdensity
Highthermalconductivityinbothsolidandliquid Smallorno
Compatibilitywithcontainermaterials
phases subcooling
Nontoxic,nonflammable,non
polluting

WhilethesecharacteristicsoutlinetheimportantaspectsthatneedtobeconsideredtodeterminetheappropriatePCM,theprincipleofthe
technologyitselfcanbeappliedinanystructure.ClimatesthatputhighdemandsoncoolingandheatingaresuitableforPCM.Largeday
nightdifferencesareespeciallysuitableforPCM,sincethePCMwouldbeabletosmoothenandstreamlinethetemperaturedifferences
throughoutthedayandthereforesignificantlyreduceenergyuseforcoolingandheating.

Statusofthetechnologyanditsfuturemarketpotential: top(#top)
Figure5showsthatstorageapplicationsingeneralwillbecomemorevaluableandimportantwhenrenewableenergypenetrationclimbs.
Ascanbeseeninthefigure,theStrategicEnergyAnalysisandApplicationsCenteroftheNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratoryofthe
U.S.,currentlydeemsenergystorageavaluabletechnologybutisnotconsiderednecessarywiththecurrentU.S.electricitygrid.However,
thefuturesituationofalowcarboneconomywilldemandhighlevelsofenergystorageapplications.

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Figure5:Importanceenergystoragetechnologiesingeneral.Source:SEAACofNREL,2008

Whilequitealargeshareofenergystorageapplicationshasalreadyreachedamaturestage,PCMisstillinadevelopmentalphase.
ConsiderTable3,whichshowsseveralthermalenergystoragetechnologiesandtheirmaturationstageregardinguseinaConcentrated
Solarpowerplant.PCMisplacedinthedevelopmentalordemonstrationphase.EPRIconcludesthat"storagesystemsinvolvingPCMsare
stillintheirinfancy,andwillrequirefurtherstudytodeterminethecompatibilityofthesesystemswithCSTplantsusingheattransferfluids"
(EPRI,2009)

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Table3.Commercialstatusofseveralthermalenergystoragesystems.Source:EPRI,2009
Commercial Precommercialprototype Demonstrationphase Developmentalstage
Twotankdirect
Graphiteblock
Twotankdirect Singletankthermocline
Steamaccumulators Phasechangematerials
Twotankindirect Concreteblock
Phasechangematerials
Thermochemical
Contributionofthetechnologytoeconomicdevelopment(includingenergymarketsupport): top(#top)
TheuseofPCMleadstoareducedneedforpeakgenerationcapacity.Storageprovidesanalternativetotheconstructionandoperationof
newgenerationandreservecapacity.Forinstance,theCPUCnotesthatforCaliforniapeakdemandisamajorconcern.Especiallydueto
stronglygrowingpopulationsinthehottercentralandsouthernpartsofCalifornia.TheCPUCconcludesthatthevalueoftheavoidedcostof
peakgenerationcapacitywillcontinuetoincreaseaspeakdemandgrowsandascarbonemissionsbecomemoreexpensive(CPUC,2010).
Insuchacase,implementationofPCMswouldleadtoareducedpeakdemandforairconditioningandwillalleviatethestrainonpeak
generationcapacity.

UsingPCMsinanactivesystem,wheremanmadeheatorcoldisstored,canalsoensuremoreefficientuseofrenewableandotheroffpeak
generation.Asupplyofenergywhendemandislowcanbestoredforlaterusewhendemandishigh.Forinstance,theCPUCnotesthat
windinCaliforniatendstoblowmoststronglyatnight,whichcausesamismatchbetweenthesupplyanddemandofenergy.Storage
applications,suchasPCM,canallowexcesswindandotheroffpeakenergytobestoredandusedduringhighdemandtimes(CPUC,
2010).However,inthecaseofexcesselectricity,otherstorageapplicationsarelikelytobemoreeffective.Especiallyinacasewhereexcess
heat,whichwillbeusedforelectricitygeneration,needstobestored,PCMswouldbeamoreeffectivestorageapplicationcomparedto
severalotherstoragetechnologies.

Climate: top(#top)

TheCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommission(CPUC)identifiesaclimaterelatedadvantagewiththeuseofstorageapplications.CPUCargues
thatduetoshiftingonpeakenergyusetooffpeakperiodsstorageapplicationscanlowerGHGandotheremissions.ApplicationofPCM
leadstoasmallerdemandforenergyonthehottestpartoftheday,sincethereisareducedneedforenergyforairconditioning.Inaddition,
PCMlowerstheenergyneededforheatingbecausethestoredenergyisused.

Financialrequirementsandcosts: top(#top)

ThereareanumberoffactorsthatinfluencethecostofthePCMtechnology.Storagetendstobeanapplicationspecificresourceand
thereforethecosts(andbenefits)canvarygreatly(CPUC,2010).OneofthecomplicationsindevelopingdetailedcostestimatesofPCM
technologiesandmethods,andwithstorageapplicationsingeneral,isthatthecostsofagiventechnologyaregreatlyinfluencedbythe
particularapplicationinwhichthattechnologyisdeployed.Thus,anygeneralizedcostestimatesareofquestionablevalue.

However,somegeneralissuescanbementionedforstorageapplicationsingeneralandforPCMapplicationsinparticular.

Forstorageapplicationsingeneralthetotalinstalledcostvariesontwodimensions:power(whichistheamountofelectricity,heatorcold
whichcanbedischargedatonetime)andenergy(theamountofhoursthattheapplicationcandischargecontinuously).Thesetwo
dimensionsgreatlyinfluencesystemsizeandthereforeinstalledcost.Inaddition,thesystemcostsareinfluencedbythesystemefficiency
andthefrequencyofuse.SystemefficiencyisdeterminedbymeasuringthenumberofuseableKwHorGJthatcanbedischargedcompared
totheamountcharged.Thefrequencyofuseishowoftenandhowdeeplythesystemisdischarged.Allofthesefactors(size,efficiency,and
frequency)meanthatanEEStechnologyscostcannotbemeaningfullyestimatedindependentlyofthewayinwhichitisused(IEA,2005).

Operatingandmaintenancecosts(O&M)istheothermainfinancialaspecttoastoragesystem.O&Mcostsincludethecostofbuyingthe
energyusedtochargethesystem(whenitisanactivesystempassivesystemusednaturaltemperaturefluctuations),fixedcoststhatdonot
dependonhowmuchoroftenthesystemisused,andvariablecostswhichismostlyreplacementcosts(IEA,2005).

ForthePCMstoragetechniqueinparticularseveralissuescanbementioned.InastudyontheeffectofPCMwhenintegratedwithbrickin
IranHaghshenaskashani&Pasdarshahri(2009)foundthatoneoftheimportantfactorswhichhasbothainfluenceoneconomicfactorsas
wellasthermalefficiencyisthequantityofPCMused.

CleanDevelopmentMechanismmarketstatus: top(#top)
ApplicationofPCMsinbuildingsleadstomoreenergyefficientbuildingssincethereisareducedneedforheatingand
coolingactivities.ThisreducesGHGemissionsandisanoptionundertheCleanDevelopmentMechanism(CDM).
ApossiblemethodologyforaCDMprojectapplyingPCMinbuildingsisAMSII.E.:Energyefficiencyandfuelswitchingmeasuresfor
buildingsVersion10(http://cdm.unfccc.int/methodologies/DB/9QDGY435JDVTB8HN3VMI61K9XBWY30).Thismethodologyconsidersenergyefficiency
measuresforasinglebuilding,suchasacommercial,institutionalorresidentialbuilding,orgroupofsimilarbuildings,suchasaschool
districtoruniversity.
FormoreinformationonCDMmethodologiesandapplicationproceduressee:http://cdm.unfccc.int/index.html(http://cdm.unfccc.int/index.html)
References: top(#top)

Pasupathy,Velraj&Seeniraj(2008),Phasechangematerialbasedbuildingarchitectureforthermalmanagementinresidentialand
commercialestablishments.RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviewsVol.12,No.1January2008pp.3964.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2006.05.010(http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2006.05.010)

Trox,nodate.Coolingnaturallywithphasechangematerials.Documentcanbefoundonlineat:www.troxtechnik.com(http://www.troxtechnik.com)

A.Abhat,Lowtemperaturelatentheatthermalenergystorage:heatstoragematerials,SolarEnergy30(1983)313332.

Haghshenaskashani,S.,&Pasdarshahri,H.,2009.SimulationofThermalStoragePhaseChangeMaterialinBuildings.WorldAcademyof
Science,EngineeringandTechnology582009pp.111115

Demirbas,F.,2006.Thermalenergystorageandphasechangematerials:anoverview.EnergySourcesPartB18595.Documentcanbe
foundonlineat:doi:10.1080/009083190881481

IEA,2005.InventoryofPhaseChangeMaterials(PCM).AreportofIEASolarHeatingandCoolingProgrammeTask32.Advancedstorage
conceptsforsolarandlowenergybuildings.ReportC2fromSubtaskC.InternationalEnergyAgencySolarHeatingandCoolingProgram.
Documentcanbefoundonlineat:http://www.ieashc.org/publications/category.aspx?CategoryID=64(http://www.iea
shc.org/publications/category.aspx?CategoryID=64)

CPUC,2010.ElectricEnergyStorage:AnAssessmentofPotentialBarriersandOpportunities.PolicyandPlanningDivisionStaffWhite
Paper.CaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommission.Thisdocumentcanbefoundonlineat:www.cpuc.ca.gov/PUC/energy/reports.htm
(http://www.cpuc.ca.gov/PUC/energy/reports.htm)

EPRI,2009.ProgramonTechnologyInnovation:EvaluationofConcentratingSolarThermalEnergyStorageSystems.Electricpower
researchinstitute.Documentcanbefoundonlineat:www.epri.com(http://www.epri.com)

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