A.

2 The Human Brain

Neural tube elongation

The anterior part of the neural tube expands and grows to form the brain
Most of the neural tube is developed on the dorsal side above the gut and becomes the spinal
chord
There are 86 billion neurons in the brain
The brain is the centre of control both directly through cranial nerves and indirectly through the
spinal cord
A centre of control allows for more rapid transmission than if it was dispersed
All of the important sensory organs are located at the anterior near the brain

Functions of parts of brain

Have specific functions and can be distinguished by shape, color and microscopic structure
Medulla oblongata: controls autonomic movement of gut muscles, heart muscles, breathing,
and blood vessels
Cerebellum: control unconscious/involuntary movements such as postural changes and reflexes
Hypothalamus: interface between pituitary and brain by synthesizing hormones released by
posterior pituitary (ex/oxytocin, ADH), and secreting hormones to regulate hormone production
in anterior pituitary
Pituitary Gland: controls many of bodily functions using hormones, posterior lobe stores
hormones produced by hypothalamus, anterior lobe produces and secretes hormones that
control body (FSH and LH)
Cerebral cortex: integration centre for higher order brain functions such as memory, learning
and emotions

Brain Research

Lesions: damages to the brain caused by stroke, accidents or tumours, researched by an

autopsy of brain after it subject is dead, matching characteristics to area of brain that is
damaged, man that could only say tan tumour in left lower side of brain, deduced that was
area of speech, man had railway track passed through front of head permanent changes to
personality and behavior
Animal testing: part of skull removed and electrical stimulation given to certain areas,
effects/changes to behavior recorded, can cause permanent changes, controversial as animal is
usually killed after, has been used to understand and treat Parkinsons, Alzheimers, and
epilepsy in humans
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): non-invasive method of imaging of internal structures in
brain, less controversial, new method called functional MRI: shows blood flow to certain areas
of brain using dye after being exposed to stimuli

Examples of brain function

Visual cortex: present in both hemispheres, processes signals from rod and cone cells,
recognizes patterns, determines speed and direction of moving objects
 Brocas area: present in left cerebral hemisphere and controls speech, if it is damaged words are
known and sounds are produced but not meaningful
Nucleus accumbens: present in both cerebral hemispheres and can be stimulated by food or sex
so nucleus dopamine, neurotransmitter which creates feeling of pleasure, reward centre of
brain, can also be stimulated by cocaine, nicotine, heroin

Autonomic nervous system

All of the nerves in the brain and spinal chord are central nervous system
Peripheral nervous system is split into two systems
o Sensory cells bring signals from receptors to CNS
o Motor neurons:
Voluntary (somatic): control voluntary actions
Autonomic nervous system: controlled by medulla oblongata for involuntary
control of gut muscles, heart, breathing
Parasympathetic nerves: maintain status quo, reduce energy loss
Sympathetic nerves: fight or flight response
Can have opposing effects on a process (ex/ cardiac and vagus nerve,
sympathetic increases blood flow to gut during digestion,
parasympathetic reduces it during fasting or when other cells need it)

Medulla coordinated actions

Swallowing: initially voluntary (cerebral cortex) from mouth to pharynx, from pharynx to
stomach is controlled by swallow centre in medulla causes contractions so food passes down
Breathing: controlled by two centres in medulla one that controls rate/timing of inspiration,
and one that controls pressure of inhalation as well as forced voluntary expiration, controlled by
chemoreceptors in blood vessels in medulla that detect drops in pH due to increased CO2
concentration so increase rate or force of inhalation
Heartbeat: controlled by CARDIOVASCULAR centre of medulla by stretch receptors and pH
receptors in blood vessels in medulla that cause increase through signals to PACEMAKER
sympathetic (cardiac) nerve to increase heartbeat when CO2 is high or parasympathetic (vagus)
to decrease when CO2 is low

Pupil Reflex

When bright light is detected in photoreceptor cells of ganglion cells, sensory neurons bring
signal to medulla which sends signal through parasympathetic nervous system to contract
circular muscles in the eye that constrict the pupil so less light can enter and less damage is
done to the eye, when less light is perceived the medulla sends a signal to the sympathetic
nerve to contract the radial muscles so the pupils dilate and more light enters
Can be used by doctors to determine if the medulla is damaged or not if both pupils dilate at the
same time

Cerebral cortex

Largest percentage in brain compared to other species

 Outermost layer of cerebral cortex
Only 2-4mm thick but has lots of folding to increase surface area, more neurons
Processes most complex functions of brain
Six distinct layers
Birds and reptiles also have but are in clusters not layers

Evolution of humans brains

Lot of increase in number of neurons but mostly in surface area not size
Only a few mm increase in size
However, must accommodate our cranium size, created distinct shape in human skull
Rats have smooth brains
Cats and dolphins have some
Monkeys and apes have level of folding similar to ours with more closely related primates
having more folding

Higher order functions

Cerebral cortex uses many different pathways of neurons from eyes, smell, memory to carry out
higher order functions such as learning, memory, and emotions
More complex functions such as reasoning, decision making and planning are thought to be
carried out in frontal or pre-frontal cortex
Allow us to order things in logical sequence, make educated predictions and have an awareness
of our existence

Sensory organs

Cerebral cortex receives impulses from sensory cells

Signals from ear pass into auditory area of temporal lobe on the same side
Impulses from skin, internal organ and muscles pass onto the somatosensory area of the
parietal lobe
Impulses from each field of view on each eye pass on to the visual area in the occipital lobe on
the opposite side integration of input allows eyes to judge distance and perspective

Motor control

Posterior part of frontal lobe called primary cortex controls striated muscle in the body through
overlapping neurons
The left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex controls motor movements in the right hemisphere
of the body and vice versa
Strokes cause paralysis on the opposite side

Brain Energy

Brain uses up a large portion of energy created by basal metabolic rate as it is constantly
creating action potentials then re-establishing the resting potential in thousands of neurons
Other organisms only 10% in humans it is 20%