Social Psychology

Social psychology is the study of how groups, other people and situations influence the individual
Social cognition reflects on how we use mental processes to interpret the social world.
Attributions fall under the category of social cognition. Attributions are explanations of events, our
behavior, and other's behavior. Weiner's model of attributions suggests that we look at three different
dimensions when making attributions:
Internal/external - characteristic within the person or environment
Stable/unstable - consistent or inconsistent trait
Controllable/uncontrollable - how much influence you have over the situation
In other words, when a person is trying to identify a cause of an event (ie., car accident), he will
identify either an internal or external factor (ie., poor driver - internal factor), stable or unstable factor
(ie., driver was medicated at the time of the accident - unstable) and controllable or uncontrollable
factor (ie., choose to take medication before driving a car - controllable).
Sometimes when making attributions, we make errors. Some types of errors include:
• fundamental attribution error - when explaining someone's misfortune, we overestimate the
internal factors ( a person is out of a job because she is lazy)
• defensive attribution - tendency to blame the victim for his/her misfortune, in order for us to
feel safe in our environment (ie., she was raped because she wore a short skirt)
• self-serving bias - attribute one's successes to internal factors and one's failures to external
factors (I passed the first test because I am smart, but I failed the second test because the teacher
did not teach well)
Keep in mind that these explanations may not be the real explanations for these events, thus can be
inaccurate; these explanations are made with little knowledge or information.

The study of attitudes also falls under the social cognitive umbrella. Attitudes are thoughts or
reactions to a person, object or topic.
Attitudes are difficult to measure. Often attitudes do not predict behavior - better predictive value if we
are aware of our attitude, the attitude is strong, and we are asked a specific, rather than general,
attitude. A person may have a particular attitude but when placed in that specific situation, the person's
behavior may not be the same as the stated attitude.

Interpersonal attraction

What attracts us to others, either as friends or potential mates? Some factors include:
• proximity - tend to choose people who are physically close (ie., neighbors)
• mere exposure- tend to like people who we see over and over again (make friends who are in
the same classes and we see day after day)
• physical attractiveness - want to know people who are physically attractive
Similarity of attractiveness is likely to keep the friendship going (If I'm of average attractiveness, I am
more likely to hang around others of average attractiveness.)
• similarity principle - tend to associate with people who are similar (Athletes have friends who
 are on the same team, having friends who share the same values)
• competence - tend to maintain friends who are competent (high degree of competence can make
us feel uncomfortable - prefer competence with evidence of errors)

When addressing social psychology, and specifically social cognitions, we must include discussion of
steretypes.

Stereotyping
When we stereotype, we are using a heuristic or rule of thumb. We judge someone based on their
membership in a group. Stereotyping is a cognitive shortcut that can be both positive and negative
(blondes have more fun, men are powerful) and negative (blondes are ditzy, men are aggressive).
Stereotyping is categorizing into groups. Although we can stereotype with any characteristic, the two
most common characteristics that we use to group people include gender and race.

Prejudice
Prejudice involves a negative feeling towards someone because of his or her membership in a group. If
we say that we dislike all women, elderly adults, or Hindus, we are prejudice. Race and gender again
are the two categories that people express the most prejudicial feelings or comments.

Discrimination
Discrimination is acting out on our feelings of prejudice. We treat people differently because of their
membership in a group. I will not rent to you because you have children. I will not hire you because
you are short. Discrimination is taking our prejudices on step further.

How do we reduce prejudice and discrimination? The cognitive, behavioral, and socio-cultural
perspectives help explain how these thoughts, feelings, and actions develop.

When do other people influence our behavior? If you look at Asch's study in the textbook, you will see
that people of equal status can change how we behave. This influence refers to
conformity. Conformity results in adjusting our thinking or behavior to some group standard (Asch's
experiment). Peer pressure is one example of conformity.
Conditions that strengthen conformity:
• feel incompetent or insecure (if I have low self-esteem, I may change my behavior in order to fit
into a group)
• group size of at least three people (if there are just two people, it is one person's opinion against
another's; however, with three people, ther eare two people against one on an issue. We are
more likely to conform if at least two people have the differing view or behavior compared to
ours)
• group decision is unanimous (everyone is doing it - not one person is going against the opinion
or behavior)
• if one hasn't already made a commitment (if a person has not already told others about his/her
opinion, then the person is more likely to change the opinion to fit the group - saving face or
pride)
• if our behavior or opinion is to be viewed by others (more likely to conform if others can see
 our view or vote - less likely to conform if we share our opinions by secret ballot)

An authority figure can also change our behavior. This influence on our behavior refers to
obedience. Read about Milgrim's research in the textbook. Obedience involves following the direct
commands of an authority figure (Milgrim's experiment).

Strategies to gain obedience:

• be a figure of authority (ie., parent, teacher, police officer)

• be physically near the person (give the command when standing close to the person rather than
farther away - For example if you ask a child to pick up his toys in the toy room while you are
in the kitchen, the toys are likely to still be out when you make it to the toy room. If you give
the command next to the child in the toy room, the toys are more likely to be picked up.)
• gain support from an institution (judicial system, hospital, university)
• make sure there are no role models for disobedience (once one person disobeys, others are
likely to follow)
• physically remove the victim (do not allow the person who you are commanding to see the
victim - ie., when the learner in Milgrim's study was in a different room, the teacher was more
likely to deliver higher voltage than when the victim was in the same room as the teacher)

Groups of people can influence our behavior in other ways also.

Bystander effect. As the number of people standing around the scene of an emergency increases,
it becomes less likely that the victim will receive help from any of them. If you were stranded on a
road because your car stalled, you would be more likely to receive help on a county road than on a
major highway. Since more people travel on a major highway, those individuals are likely to
believe that someone else will help you (diffusion of responsibility) or that since no one is helping
you, your situation must not constitute an emergency. Of course in our current times, we must also
think about safety. People may not be willing to help, because they fear what might happen to
them. Refer to the online resource link that discusses the catalyst of this research, the case of Kitty
Genovese.

GROUP DYNAMICS

Many individuals choose to belong to groups. Being in a group can influence and change our behavior.
As a group member, we have roles or expectations for our own behavior. Our role may be socio-
emotional. This means that we are concerned with the feelings and respect of other people in the group.
Our role may also be task-oriented, or concerned with completing a task or achieving goals. Each group
will also have norms, or expectations for everyone in the group. We may have the norm that everyone
is kind to each other or that problems are solved by discussion. Norms can also address how we present
ourselves physically, how we talk, behave, and interact with others within or outside of the group.
Group productivity can be influenced by many factors. For example, just by being around other people,
our individual performance may improve. An example of this social facilitation would be an individual
running faster during a track meet than when practicing on his own. The presence of other people
somehow influences him to run faster.
Presence of other people can influence us in the opposite direction. If I am completing a group project
and there are four other people in my group, I may engage in social loafing. Social loafing is giving
less effort towards a group task. With four other people in my group and our grade being dependent on
group, not individual, performance, I do not need to exert as much effort. The teacher would not know
that I loafed because she is not looking for individual performance. She is looking at the overall group
performance.

Groups may also make us feel as if we have lost our own personal identity. This concept is
called deindividuation. For example, if I attended Ohio State University and attended class in a large
lecture hall with 500 people, I may feel that I do not have an identity. My instructor may only know me
by my social security or other identifying number. Since I do not feel that I have an identity, I may be
more tempted to engage in socially unacceptable behavior. For example, I may leave in the middle of
class, throw things at the instructor, write on the desk, etc. The same principle could apply if I am at a
large concert, participating in a demonstration, attending a parade, etc. Since no one would identify me,
I may behave in ways that are not true to my character.

Groupthink defines another potential risk when making decisions in groups. With groupthink, the
group is more concerned about the harmony of the group than the validity of the decision. If you are
concerned about my feelings, you may not tell me that my idea stinks. If my idea does stink and no one
tells me, the implementation of my solution may fail and have disastrous consequences. But hey, I don't
have hurt feelings.

AGGRESSION

The other end of the social behavior continuum is aggression. AGGRESSION is any physical or
verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy, whether done out of hostility or as a calculated
means to an end. The act has to involve intent. If a person accidentally kicked someone, it would not
be considered aggression. However, if you took a swing at someone, meaning to "bash their face in",
but missed, the act would be considered an aggressive act.

Biology of aggression.

1. Genetic influences. Animals can be bred for aggressiveness, sometimes for sport, other times for
research. Many times when one identical twin admits to having a violent temper, the other twin will
subsequently and independently admit to having a very bad temper.

2. Neural influences. Animal and human brains have neural systems that, when stimulated, produce
aggressive behavior.
A cat lives harmoniously with a mouse until one day researchers implant an electrode that stimulates a
specific spot in its hypothalamus. Immediately, the cat attacks its cage mate. Intensive evaluation of 15
death-row inmates reveal that all 15 have suffered severe head injury.

3. Biochemical influences. Hormones and other substances in the blood influence the neural systems
that activate and inhibit aggression. Testosterone is one such hormone.

Psychological roots of aggression.

1. Aversive events. Studies in which animals or humans experience unpleasant, uncontrollable events
reveal that those manipulated to feel miserable often make others miserable. Being unable to achieve a
goal also increases people's readiness to behave aggressively. This idea is known as the frustration-
aggression principle. Frustration (the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal) creates anger,
which may generate aggression.

Others: physical pain, personal insults, foul odors, hot temperatures, cigarette smoke, etc.

2. Learning to express and inhibit aggression. Aggressive behavior can be learned through rewards
(operant conditioning). Children who grow up observing aggressive models often imitate the behaviors
that they see (beatings for discipline ->appropriate to hit others)

TV and aggression. "the consensus among most of the research community is that violence on
television does not lead to aggressive behavior by children and teenagers who watch the programs"

The violence stems from a lot of factors:

1. from arousal by the violent excitement
2. from the triggering of violent-related ideas
3. from the erosion of one's inhibitions
4. and from imitation

TV's unreal world, in which acts of aggression greatly outnumber acts of affection, can also affect our
thinking about the real world. Those who watch a great deal of prime-time crime regard the world as
more dangerous.
Prolonged exposure to violence also desensitizes viewers; they become more indifferent to aggression
when later viewing a brawl, whether on TV or in real life.
Chapter 14
Psychological Disorders
People are labeled with abnormal disorders for various reasons. Some of the valid reasons for
diagnosing a person would be to help them receive the appropriate type of treatment, to ensure
insurance coverage of therapy, and for research purposes. Many criteria exist that can be used to
determine whether or not someone should be diagnosed with an abnormal disorder. You will see that no
one criterion is fool proof.
1. Deviation from the social norm. Norms are the expectations for behavior established by society or
one’s culture. For example, if I, as your psychology instructor, walk into our classroom with spiked
purple hair, I would have deviated from the social norm. However, if I lived in New York City or in
California, I may not appear to be so deviant. The culture and historical period defines the norm and
sometimes it is difficult to determine whether a person is deviant by those standards. Remember when
men did not wear earrings? Back then, men wearing earrings was considered deviant. Now the practice
is not deviant.
2. Maladaptive behavior. This idea describes when someone does something that is not in his or her
best interest. For example, gambling an entire paycheck when the paycheck is needed to pay bills,
hitting other individuals, not getting out of bed for two weeks straight could all be considered
maladaptive. However is Lennox Lewis, who boxes for a living, maladaptive? Some people would say
yes and some would say no. This criterion is also difficult to apply consistently.
3. Violent behavior. This criterion would include murder, vandalism, spousal abuse, and physical
fighting. Again consider Lennox Lewis. Some cases of violent behavior are clear-cut, others are not.
4. Personal distress. Personal distress is when a person feels uncomfortable with his or her own
behavior. Examples may include unhappiness with one's current life or relationships. A person may
have what appears to be everything one could ask for, yet this person wants more. Is this person a
perfectionist or motivated? How do we know when this person needs help?
As you can see, it is not easy to determine whether or not someone should be diagnosed with a mental
illness. For this chapter and in the therapeutic community, the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual)
is used to accurately diagnose abnormal disorders.

DSM-IV-TR (current edition)

The DSM is the psychological handbook that provides categories of abnormal disorders and the criteria
that need to met for each disorder
Diagnoses and symptoms are listed in this manual; treatment and causes of abnormality are not found
in the DSM.
As society changes, the diagnoses and symptoms listed in the DSM will also change. For example,
homosexuality was once listed as an abnormal disorder. Later editions removed the homosexuality
diagnosis but included an adjustment to this orientation as a disorder. In the current edition of the DSM
(IV-TR), homosexuality is not mentioned at all. We are likely to see more stress disorders added. A
psychological version of PMS is currently being considered as an addition to the next DSM.
Myths concerning abnormal behavior – These next four issues are widely believed by the general
population; however, there is little evidence for these myths.
1. Psychological disorders are a sign of personal weakness. In reality, we have little control of many of
the disorders that will be addressed.
2. Psychological disorders are incurable. In truth, most disorders are curable. Depression, anxiety,
hypochondriasis can all be cured. Schizophrenia is one disorder that we will talk about that is not
curable.
3. People with psychological disorders are often violent and dangerous. In reality, people with mental
illness are no more likely than the general public to be dangerous. However, because of the media
exposure that is received when a mentally ill patient is violent, the myth continues to exist. We are
engaging in the availability heuristic.
4. People with psychological disorders behave in bizarre ways and act very different from normal
people. If you sit in a classroom with about 32 people, chances are you are sitting with approximately 8
people who would be diagnosed sometime in their lives. If people are depressed, fear spiders, have to
be clean all of the time, lack personal memories, they can hide their symptoms. Many people do not
even know that something is different about this person. However, if I set in the back of the room and
start talking to myself, you will be able to identify that I may be different than you.

LEGAL ISSUES
INSANITY
Since insanity is a legal term, not a psychological term, insanity and abnormal disorder are not the
same. Insanity indicates that the individual did not understand the wrongfulness of the act and/or his or
her accountability for the act. The insanity defense must be supported by the defense in a trial. The
defense has the responsibility of proving that the defendant was insane (at least at the time of the
crime). The prosecutor does not have to prove that the defendant was sane and rational. The insanity
defense is difficult to argue and prove, and many defendants are not successful at arguing this defense.

Abnormal Disorders
We will look at categories and individual disorders. Each category has a set of general symptoms and
they will be described. The individual disorders will have the general as well as distinguishing
symptoms. This chapter is meant as an introduction to mental illness. The disorders are more complex
than described in these notes. With most of these disorders, the symptoms do not meet full criteria of a
diagnosis until there is a level of personal distress or social impairment (problems with daily living and
responsibilities).
Anxiety Disorders
marked by feelings of excessive apprehension, arousal or fear
1. Generalized anxiety disorder
chronic, high level of anxiety that is not tied to any specific threat
free floating anxiety - rapid heart rate, sweating, and trembling
chronic increased arousal of the sympathetic nervous system – this may result in the experience of
physical symptoms (headaches, muscle tension, stomach problems) for this client
Charlie Brown, who is a cartoon character, could be diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder.

2. Panic Disorder
experiencing one or more panic attacks and fearing what those attacks mean or of having another panic
attack – in other words, the fear or anxiety with this disorder is of the panic attacks
panic attack - intense episode of dread, apprehension, and anxiety which lasts several minutes -
Symptoms may include sweating, feeling light-headed, shortness of breath, chest pains, muscle
weakness, fainting, disoriented, hot flashes. Panic attacks may be experienced differently by different
people.

3. Obsessive-compulsive disorder
obsessions are THOUGHTS that repeatedly intrude on one's consciousness in a distressing way
compulsions are ACTIONS that one feels forced to carry out - common compulsions are checking (to
see if door is locked, stove is off), cleaning, hand washing, counting
marked by persistent, uncontrollable intrusions of unwanted thoughts and urges to engage in senseless
ritualistic behavior
the person diagnosed with this disorder commonly understands that these thoughts or actions are
irrational, yet they cannot control them
The movie As Good As It Gets illustrates this disorder well.

4. Phobic disorder
persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that presents no real danger - the person could
have a panic attack when exposed to the feared stimulus - the person will often go out of the way to
avoid the feared stimulus
Some common phobias include:
agoraphobia - fear of public places - fear of leaving one's comfort zone
social phobia - fear of situations that might lead to embarrassment - public speaking is the most
common
zoophobia - fear of animals
claustrophobia - fear of enclosed places
acrophobia - fear of high places
Anxiety disorders may result from many diverse factors. Biologically, genetics plays a role. If our
parents are diagnosed with any anxiety disorder, we are at risk for developing not only that specific
disorder but any one of the anxiety disorders. There may be a chemical imbalance. GABA is one
neurotransmitter that may cause anxiety symptoms if imbalanced. The sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) could be overly aroused because of misfiring in the brain or chemical imbalances. The SNS is
responsible for the physical symptoms of fear.
Behavioral perspective: The person may have been conditioned to feel this arousal. Operant
conditioning: Someone was ridiculed in the 4th grade while giving a class presentation and now fears
speaking in front of groups (social phobia).
Classical conditioning: a person's sympathetic nervous system may have been aroused (UCR) by cold
medicine (UCS). The arousal may have taken place while the person was in the grocery store. The
person now becomes aroused (CR) every time he/she goes into the grocery store (CS).
Observational learning: Fred's mother jumps up on the table when she sees mice. Fred watches her and
assumes that this is an appropriate behavior so Fred now jumps up on the table when he sees a mouse.
We cannot overlook the cognitive approach. Almost every one of the anxiety disorders involved some
form of irrational thinking (ie., mice can hurt me, my house has to be clean all of the time, I will not be
safe in a grocery store, etc.) The irrational thoughts and interpretations may be at the root of the anxiety
disorder.
Somatoform Disorders
physical ailments with no authentic physical basis that are due primarily to psychological factors

1. Conversion disorder
loss of functioning in some part of the body, has no physical cause but solves some psychological
problem (ie., drafted man develops paralysis in his right arm - he will not go off to war because of this
paralysis- His fear of going to war was so overwhelming that his mind created the paralysis). If
someone is diagnosed with the conversion disorder, the person is not faking the symptoms. The mind is
very powerful over the body. Think about all of the possibilities that involve the power of the mind-
both positive and negative.

2. Hypochondriasis
characterized by excessive preoccupation with health concerns and unstoppable worry about
developing a physical illness, despite reassurance from doctors to the contrary
This person does feel the discomfort or pain but the source is often misinterpreted. Say that Aunt Alice
is having headaches. You go over to visit her and you tell her about the neighbor lady who has just died
from cancer. Your Aunt may now believe that her headaches are due to cancer or a brain tumor, rather
than her needing glasses or shaded from too much sun.

Dissociative Disorders
This category is a class of disorders in which people lose contact with portions of their consciousness
or memory, resulting in disruptions in their sense of identity. These disorders are created by
psychological issues or pain. Physical causes are not at the root of these symptoms.
1. Dissociative amnesia
sudden loss of memory for important personal information (ie., identity or specific disturbing
incidence) - There is no physical cause for this loss of memory.
2. Dissociative fugue
one has a complete loss of identity and wanders away from home - possibly assuming a new identity
3. Dissociative disorder
coexistence in one person of two or more largely complete and usually very different personalities -
often result of extreme abuse or childhood trauma- stressful events splinter the personality
Each personality has its own unique characteristics, gender, age, abilities, and memories. When one
personality is out in the world, it retains memories of the events. The other personalities, as well as the
host (the real person), does not have access to those memories. If Billy developed to take abuse from
the stepfather, Billy would be the only personality to have memories of the abuse. Todd (the real
person) would not have any memory of the abuse. Todd could have other personalities that are female,
left handed if he is right handed, more intelligent, more athletic, etc. Each personality exists to protect
the host and will only come out in specific situations. For example, Billy will only come out when
Todd is going to be abused by the step-father. If Todd needs another personality for another situation,
the appropriate alter personality will come out or be developed.
The goal in therapy is to teach the host coping skills so that the other personalities are not needed and
others are not formed, to unify the various personalities, and to put the host in control.
Schizophrenic Disorder
psychotic disorder in which one loses contact with reality, experiences cognitive impairment, and
possible inappropriate behavior and emotion
Symptoms
1. Irrational thought
a. Delusions - false beliefs that are maintained even though they are clearly out of touch with reality
delusions of grandeur - maintain that you are important or famous: "I am the President of the United
States"
delusions of persecution - paranoid - "out to get you": "The CIA is bugging my house" "My spouse is
poisoning my food"
b. Loose thoughts - wild unconnected thoughts "I am the President, and my homework is due the rain
is shining cold buckets." "And if we don't have a race of babies that will hate the ladies its time to be
real to our women heal for our women. I remember Marvin Gaye used to sing to me he had me feeling
like black was the thing to be and suddenly the ghetto didn't seem so tough all though we had it rough
we all ways had enough. I often broke my curfew and broke the rules with a local crew and had a
smoke or two."
2. Deterioration of adaptive behavior - no longer brushing one's teeth, taking showers, eating right,
interacting with other people
3. Distorted perceptions
hallucinations - sensory perceptions that occur in absence of real, external stimuli
The person may experience hallucinations of any of the five senses; however, auditory hallucinations
(hearing things) is a red flag that something is wrong - A doctor may consider schizophrenia but must
first rule out drugs
4. Disturbed emotions - inappropriate emotional expression or no emotional expression
5. Mannerisms – habits that serve no real purpose (ie., rocking back and forth)
Similar to other disorders, researchers are not sure what causes schizophrenia. Some explanations that
have been supported by research include:
• genetics - there appears to be a genetic predisposition for the development of this disorder. A
person's chances for developing this disorder increase if an immediate family member is
diagnosed.
• neurotransmitter imbalance - dopamine is the brain's chemical that may be imbalanced causing
some of the cognitive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions, loose thought). Medication is often
prescribed to correct this imbalance.
• diathesis- stress theory - theorists with this belief suggest that there is an interaction between
genetics and the environment to cause this disorder. They believe that a person inherits a set of
genes (diathesis) that will only be expressed if a person experiences extreme stress. However,
what is determined to be stressful for one person may not be stressful for another person.
Mood disorders
Major depression - symptoms can include sadness, feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness,
helplessness, change in appetite, change in sleeping habits, lose of energy, libido, or interest in
pleasurable activities, suicidal thoughts (Remember that a person must feel personal distress or one's
life must be impaired in order for that person to be diagnosed with depression).
Major depression is episodic - there is a (by definition) a beginning and end to these symptoms. The
episode must be experienced for at least two weeks. Not everyone's symptoms of depression will look
the same.
Dysthymia - symptoms of dysthymia are very similar to major depression. These symptoms will be
less severe (not likely to be suicidal) and longer lasting. The person seems to have low levels of energy,
excitement, and happiness on a continual basis. Currently, researchers are debating whether this should
be a mood disorder or a personality disorder.
Bipolar disorder - (new name for manic-depression) A person diagnosed with this disorder will
experience the highs (mania) and lows (depression). The symptoms for depression will be the same as
mentioned above. Manic symptoms may include increased excitement, euphoria, decreased need for
sleep, inflated self-estee,m increased goal directed activity, problems with concentration, and increased
involvement in risky activities. A person with this disorder will experience a cycle of highs and lows
as well as periods of "normal" mood. Cycles are different for each individual. Some might experience a
cycle 4 times a year, others will experience fewer cycles in that time period.
Depression also has multiple causes:
Genetics plays a role for some people. A neurotransmitter, serotonin, may be imbalanced. The
parasympathetic nervous system (causing relaxation and slowing of internal physical activity) may be
over aroused. A person's diet may contribute to depressive symptoms.
We can look at all three behavioral theories that address associations that are made, consequences that
are received, and environments or actions that are observed.
The cognitive approach would again emphasize the illogical and negative thought patterns as the root
of the depressive symptoms.
Humanists would suggest that a person has low self-esteem, cannot self-actualize or has lived with too
many conditions of worth.
Personality disorders
long-standing, maladaptive manner of dealing with others and the environment; symptoms usually
emerge in teens or early adulthood
• Schizoid - lacks the desire for social contact or interaction, often described as a loner
• schizotypal - also lacks the desire for social contact or interaction but has the added symptom of
odd or eccentric behavior (Kramer from Seinfeld - took a bath in butter because he thought
butter had medicinal value; played a board game and actually believed that he was 'part' of the
game)
• paranoid - distrustful, suspicious, angers easily, provokes hostility in others (George from
Seinfeld - waitress scratched her nose with her middle finger and George believed she was
"flipping him off")
• antisocial – goes against the laws or rules of society, cheats, steals, dishonest, lacks empathy or
remorse, superficial, manipulates others for power (serial killer Ted Bundy)
• borderline - manipulates others for nurturance (to be loved, taken care of), unstable self-esteem
and emotion, instability in relationships (best friend today, hates you tomorrow), may lack
commitment to goals, engage in risky behavior
• histrionic - attention-seeking behavior - does whatever it takes to gain attention (ie., loud and
obnoxious, dress provocatively, risky sexual behavior)
• narcissistic - self-absorbed, believes the world revolves around him/her, puts on front of
achieving perfection but often has low self-esteem, can't handle criticism, lacks empathy (may
have four dating patners with no partner aware of another, but this person does not consider the
feelings of any of the partners - would not care that one would find out about the others and
then be hurt)
• dependent - has difficulty making major and minor decisions - be careful of cultural and
historical influences (ie., Asian women, US women growing up in 60's and before) (Tim Allen
from Home Improvement, Charlie Brown from Peanuts)
• avoidant - avoids social interaction although strongly desires to have that contact; feels
inadequate in social situations
• obsessive-compulsive - less severe than the anxiety disorder; "anal," organized, structured,
rigid, always in control, trying to achieve perfection but can't get there, rigid in emotional
expression
Chapter 15
Psychological Therapies
Psychotherapy is the process used to help individuals deal with abnormal disorders. Psychotherapy
involves many techniques that can be used by mental health practitioners. The different perspectives
that have been discussed throughout the semester will again be useful when trying to understand this
process.
Currently, our goal is to treat a person in the least restrictive environment.Therefore, institutionalization
is the last resort, which is progress from previous centuries. Individuals were placed in institutions for
many unnecessary reasons. Deinstitutionalization describes the movement to remove individuals
from mental institutions; the belief was that these individuals could now be treated in outpatient
facilities or by the new psychotropic drugs. This movement was not as successful as planned because
many patients were released without follow-up care or guarantees that they would be treated in
outpatient facilities.
Types of therapists:
All of these therapists can aid in the diagnosis and/or treatment of the mentally ill
• psychiatrist - MD - can prescribe medication
• psychologist - PhD - also trained to administer psychological tests
• social worker - BSW or MSW (Bachelors or Masters in Social Work) - trained to know
community resources for the treatment of the mentally ill
• psychiatric nurse - RN - incorporates biological issues; may administer medication
A therapist may use any one or a combination of the following perspectives to treat a person with a
mental illness. I want you to understand the basic ideas and techniques of the five main psychological
perspectives (most of this information will be review, just applied to therapy).

Psychoanalysis (psychoanalytic perspective, Freud)

Potential causes of mental illness: fixation, repressed information in the unconscious mind, weak ego
(strong id or superego), relationship problems, childhood trauma, overuse of the defense mechanisms,
over or under active sex and aggressive drives (you may want to refer back to the personality chapter
for a review of this theory).
Goals:
• uncover unconscious information
• develop coping skills
• catharsis - emotional release
Techniques (used to uncover unconscious information):
• free association - allowing the client to talk freely, uninhibited (look for themes in
conversations) about any topic of his/her choice
• dream analysis - interpret patient's dreams to look for unconscious information
• resistance - client unconsciously sabotages the therapeutic process (comes late, leaves early,
cancels, doesn't talk about real issues); indicator that you are close to revealing the unconscious
information
• transference - transfer emotions from the real target onto the therapist (ie., hate the therapist,
when in reality the hate is meant for mother; fall in love with the therapist when in reality one
longs for the love of a parent)
A psychoanalyst will look for symbolism in the conversations shared by the client. Interpretation is the
key to uncover unconscious information. While working on this goal, the therapist will help the client
develop skills to cope with the buried information.
Humanistic (client/person-centered, Maslow and Rogers)
Potential causes of mental illness (review also in personality theory)
• low self-esteem
• conditions of worth ("only if" statements that indicate acceptance only if we perform, think, etc.
in a particular way)
• lack of growth (can't self-actualize)
• incongruent self-concept (one's definition of self does not match that of reality)
Goals:

provide an environment for growth and raise self-esteem

Techniques:
• use of empathy (understanding what the person feels or is experiencing)
• use of genuineness (be honest in order to build trust)
• offer unconditional positive regard (no matter what you say or do, you are welcome in my office
or you are still a good person)
• active listening - listen to what the client has to say - don't offer solutions; the client must
develop solutions on his/her own

Cognitive (Beck)
Potential causes include:
• irrational/illogical thinking (over generalization [one friend is mad at me, so all of my friends
must be mad at me], catastrophic thinking [if I failed this test, I am a loser])
• negative thinking (pessimism)
• according to Beck, we should look at the ABC's of thought and behavior:
A (activating event - ie., being caught behind a stopped train on the way to work) + B (belief
I am going to be late to work and lose money) = C (consequence, resulting behavior - being
tense when finally making it to work)
Goals:

change thoughts to be realistic and productive

Techniques

• cognitive restructuring: 1. Identify illogical/negative thought; 2. Stop thinking that thought; 3.

Change to logical, positive thought
• hypothesis testing - develop a hypothesis ("I am a bad mother"), operationally define the terms,
test the hypothesis - patient learns through active testing that the thought was not realistic
(therapist works with the client to make sure that results demonstrate original faulty logic of the
client)
• journaling - writing down your thoughts in a journal and diary; this could serve as an emotional
release or be used to reflect at a later date in order to learn from the situation and your reactions
• homework - counselors may give homework during a counseling session - the client will have
to complete the assignment before the next session and then the client and counselor will
discuss the assignment. Homework may include saying to yourself 10 times within a week that
 "I am capable" or interaction with a significant other, etc.

Behavioral (Watson, Skinner, Bandura, Pavlov)

Causes of mental illness:
• classical conditioning - associations made (ie., dad tells scary stories and share climax of story
when crossing a bridge -> associate bridges with scary stories -> afraid of bridges; parent dies
and many carnations delivered to the funeral home for the viewing -> associate carnations with
death ->depressed when see/smell carnations)
• operant conditioning (reinforce inappropriate behavior, punish appropriate behavior)
• observational learning - imitate behavior seen (dad hits mom -> OK to hit wife, so son hits his
wife)
Goal:

change maladaptive behavior to adaptive behavior

Techniques:

systematic desensitization - teach client to relax, develop fear hierarchy (situations invoking fear, with
least fearful at the bottom and most fearful at the top), expose client to lowest level of hierarchy (ie.,
see a picture of a mouse) and have him/her relax; if relaxed move up to the next level of the hierarchy
(see mouse in cage) until exposed to all levels; if not relaxed stay at the same level in the hierarchy
until relaxation is achieved
token economy - offer a token (ie., poker chip, sticker) for each desired behavior; tokens can later be
exchanged for larger rewards (ie., additional recess, carton of cigarettes, extra dessert)
assertiveness (sticking up for oneself without hurting others) and social skills (skills necessary for
social interaction - eating with silverware, taking turns when carrying on a conversation) training
role playing exercises - role play the appropriate behavior - have client first watch and then participate

Biological
Causes:
• chemical imbalance (hormones or neurotransmitters)
• genetics
• nervous system damage or arousal
• brain damage
• diet
Goals:

change the chemical or physical structure

Techniques:
• medication - there are different medications for different disorders - fast results of relief of
symptoms but may have side effects, be addictive, and ignore the psychological root of a
problem
• ECT - electroconvulsive therapy - attaching electrodes to person's head and administering
electrical shock -> shock creates a seizure, changing brain activity - No scientific evidence that
 this treatment works for any other disorder than severe cases of depression
ECT has fast results but may result in temporary or permanent cognitive deficits (most likely
memory loss)

• psychosurgery - destroying small parts of the brain with the use of lasers- used when
nothing else has been effective for severe cases of aggression or obsessive-compulsive
disorder

Eclectic approach can also be used. Remember from earlier chapters that eclectic means to use various
ideas or techniques from different theories as you see fit. As an example, a therapist may use
medication combined with cognitive restructuring and token economy to treat a person with a severe
phobia.

Different techniques are effective for different problems. The technique that is most beneficial to the
patient will be determined by the problem, the training by the therapist, and the willingness and
openness of the patient.