Lecture Notes
Reference Book
Chemical Process Principles
(Part 1)
Second Edition
Material & Energy Balance
Olaf A. Hougen
Kenneth. M. Watson
Roland. A. Ragatz
Title
Cover
Chapter 2
Stoichiometric And Composition Relationships
Conservation of Mass
A system refers to a substance or a group of substances under
consideration
A process refers to the changes taking place within that system.
Within a given isolated system, the mass of the system remains
constant regardless of the changes taking place within the system.
This statement is known as the law of conservation of mass and is the
basis of the so-called material balance of a process.
The state of a system is defined by numerous properties which are
classified as extensive if they are dependent on the mass under
consideration and intensive if they are independent of mass. For
example, volume is an extensive property, whereas density and
temperature are intensive properties.
Stoichiometric Relations
Mass Relations in Chemical Reactions
In stoichiometric calculations, the mass relations existing between
the reactants and products of a chemical reaction are of primary
interest.
As a typical example of the procedures followed, the reaction
between iron and steam, resulting in the production of hydrogen
and the magnetic oxide of iron, Fe3O4, may be considered.
3Fe 4H 2O Fe3O4 4H 2
Element Atomic Weight Compound Molecular Weight
Fe 55.84 H2O 18.02
H 1.008 Fe3O4 231.5
O 16.00 H2 2.016
Mass Relations in Chemical Reactions
The respective relative weights of the reactants and
products maybe determined by multiplying the respective
atomic or molecular weights by the coefficients that
precede the formulas of the reaction equation.
3Fe 4H 2O Fe3O4 4H 2
3 55.84 4 18.02 231.5 4 2.016
167.52 72.08 231.5 8.064
lb
M .Wt. of Cl2 gas = 2 35.5 = 71
lb mol
Lb moles of Cl gas = 25 = 0.3521 lb mol
2 71
Volume at standard conditions = 0.3521 359.05
3
= 126.7 ft
ILLUSTRATION 2
Gaseous propane, C3H8 , is to be
liquefied for storage in steel cylinders.
How many grams of liquid propane will
be formed by the liquefaction of 500
liters of the gas, the volume being
measured at standard conditions?
Basis of Calculation: 500 liters of propane at
standard conditions
g
M .Wt. of C3 H8 = 3 12 + 8 1 = 44
g mol
500
g moles of C3H8 = 22.414 = 22.32 g mol
Weight of C3 H8 = 22.32 44
= 985 grams
ILLUSTRATION 3
a) Calculate the weight of iron and of
steam required to produce 100 lb
of hydrogen, and the weight of
Fe3O4 formed?
b)What volume will hydrogen occupy
at standard conditions?
Reaction Equation:
3Fe + 4H 2O Fe3O 4 + 4H 2
Basis of Calculation: 100 lb of hydrogen
100
Hydrogen produced = 2.016 = 49.6 lb-moles
3
Iron required = 49.6 = 37.2 lb-atoms
4
= 37.2
ILLUSTRATION 3
55.84 = 2075 lb
4
Steam required = 49.6 = 49.6 lb-moles
4
= 49.6 18.02 = 894 lb
1
Fe3O 4 formed = 49.6 = 12.4 lb-moles
4
= 12.4 231.5 = 2870 lb
Total Input = 2075 + 894 = 2969 lb
Total Output = 2870 + 100 = 2970 lb
Volume of hydrogen at standard conditions;
= 49.6 359.05 = 17,820 ft 3
Excess Reactant
In most chemical reactions carried out in industry, the
quantities of reactants supplied usually are not in the
exact proportions demanded by the reaction
equation.
It is generally desirable that some of the reacting
materials be present in excess of the amounts
theoretically required for combination with the
others. Under such conditions the products obtained
will contain some of the uncombined reactants.
Excess Reactant
The quantities of the desired compounds which are formed
in the reaction will be determined by the quantity of the
limiting reactant, that is, the material which is not present in
excess of that required to combine with any of the other
reacting materials.
The amount by which any reactant is present in excess of
that required to combine with the limiting reactant is usually
expressed as its percentage excess.
The percentage excess of any reactant is defined as the
percentage ratio of the excess to the amount theoretically
required for combination with the limiting reactant.
Degree of Completion
The degree of completion of a reaction is ordinarily
expressed as the percentage of the limiting reacting
material which is converted or decomposed into other
products. In processes in which two or more
successive reactions of the same materials take place,
the degree of completion of each step may be
separately expressed.
ILLUSTRATION 4
An aqueous solution contains 40%
Na2CO3 by weight. Express the
composition in mole per cent?
Basis of Calculation: 100 grams of solution
g
M .Wt. of Na 2 CO3 = 44
g mol
Na CO
present = 40 g = 40 = 0.377 g-mol
2 3
106
H O
present = 60 g = 60 = 3.33 g-mol
18.02
2
Total g-moles = 0.377 + 3.33 = 3.71 g-mol
0.377
Mole % of Na 2 CO3 =
3.71
100 =
ILLUSTRATION 4
10.16%
3.33 100 = 89.9%
Mole % of H 2 O =
3.71
A solution of naphthalene, C10H8 , in
benzene, C6H6 , contains 25 mole per
cent of naphthalene. Express the
composition of the solution in
weight per cent?
Basis of Calculation: 100 g-moles of solution
ILLUSTRATION 5
Molecular Weights:
g g
C10 H 8 = 128.1 , C6 H 6 = 78.1
g mol g mol
C10 H 8 present = 25 g-mol = 25 128.1 = 3200 g
C6 H 6 present = 75 g-mol = 75 78.1 = 5860 g
Total weight = 3200 + 5860 = 9060 g
3200
Weight % of C10 H 8 = 9060 100 = 35.3%
5860
Weighte % of C6 H 6 = 9060 100 = 64.7%
Important Note
In the case of ideal gases, the composition in mole per cent
is exactly the same as the composition in volumetric per
cent. This deduction follows from a consideration of
Avogadro's law. It should be emphasized that this relation
holds only for gases, and does not apply to liquid or to solid
systems.
A natural gas has the following composition,
all figures being in volumetric per cent:
1827
Density at standard conditions = = 0.0509 lb 3
35, 900 ft
ILLUSTRATION 7
A solution of sodium chloride in
water contains 230 grams of NaCl
per liter at 20 oC. The density of the
solution at this temperature is 1.148
grams per cubic centimeter.
Calculate the following items:
a) Composition in weight per cent
b)Volumetric per cent of water
c) Composition in the mole per cent
d)Composition in the atomic per cent
e)Molality
f) Pounds NaCl per pounds H2O
Basis of Calculation: 1000 cm3 of solution
Total weight 1000 1.148 = 1148 g
230
NaCl = 230 grams or = 3.93 g-moles
58.5
H 2 O = 1148 230 = 918 grams = 50.9 g-moles
Total moles = 3.93 + 50.9 = 54.8 g-moles
a) Composition in weight per cent :
Weight % of NaCl = 230 100 = 20.0%
1148
Weighte % of H 2 O = 918 100 = 80.0%
1148
b) Volumetric per cent water:
o g
Density of pure water at 20 C = 0.998 3
cm
918 3
Volume of pure water = = 920 cm
0.998
920
Volumetric % of water = 100 = 92.0 %
1000
c) Composition in the mole per cent:
3.93 100 = 7.17 %
Mole % of NaCl = 54.8
50.9
Volumetric % of H 2 O = 54.8 100 = 92.8 %
d) Composition in atomic per cent:
G-atoms of sodium = 3.93
G-atoms of chlorine = 3.93
G-atoms of hydrogen = 2 50.9 = 101.8
G-atoms of oxygen = 50.9
Total = 160.6
3.93
Atomic % of sodium = 100 = 2.45 %
Atomic % of chlorine = 160.6
3.93 100 = 2.45 %
160.6
101.8
Atomic % of hydrogen = 160.6 100 = 63.4 %
Atomic % of oxygen = 50.9 100 = 31.7 %
160.6
1000
e) Molality = 3.93
918
= 4.28 lb-moles of NaCl per 1000 lb of H 2 O
230
f ) Lb NaCl per lb H 2 O = = 0.251
918
Specific Gravity Scales
Specific gravities are made the basis for the control of
many industrial processes in which solutions are
involved.
To meet the needs of such industries, special means of
numerically designating specific gravities have been
developed. Several scales are in use in which specific
gravities are expressed in terms of degrees which are
related to specific gravities and densities by more or
less complicated and arbitrarily defined functions.
Baume Gravity Scale:
Two so-called Baume gravity scales are in common
use.
One for use with liquids lighter and the other for
liquids heavier than water.
The former is defined by the following expression:
140
Degrees Baume 130
G
It is apparent from this definition that lighter liquids
will have higher gravities on the Baum6 scale. Thus, a
material having a specific gravity of 0.60 will have a
gravity of 103 Baume.
The Baume scale for liquids heavier than water is
defined as follows:
145
Degrees Baume 145
G
American Petroleum Institute (API)
Scale
CaCO3 92.89%
MgCO3 5.41%
Insoluble 1.70%
a) How many pounds of CaO can be made from 5 tons
of this limestone?
b) How many pounds of CO2 can be recovered per
pound of limestone?
c) How many pounds of limestone are needed to make
1 ton of lime?
Calculations for the following:
1) Limiting Reactant
2) Excess Reactant
3) Degree of Conversion
4) Degree of Completion
5) Selectivity
6) Yield
1.64 g-mol Sb
a) Ratio in Feed Ratio in Chemical Equation
1
Sb2 S3 1.77 0.395 0.334
Fe : 4.48 3
Therefore,
Sb 2S3 is the excess reactant and Fe is the limiting reactant.
4.48
Sb 2S3 required to react with the limiting reactant =
3
= 1.49 g-mol
b) The percentage of the excess reactant is,
1.77 1.4 100 = 18.8% excess
= 9
1.49
c) As we know that Fe is the limiting reactant that reacts,
but not all. Therefore, to produce 1.64 g-mol of Sb, we
have to find out how much Fe actually does react:
3 g mol Fe
1.64 g-mol of Sb 2 mol Sb = 2.46 g-mol Fe
g
moles of feed that reacts
Completion fraction =
moles of feed introduced
2.46 = 0.55
= 4.48
d) ) Let us assume that the percent conversion refers to the
Sb 2S3 since the reference compound is not specified.
Therefore,
1.64 g-mol of Sb 1
g mol Sb 2S3
= 0.82 g-mol Fe
2 g mol Sb
moles of feed that reacts
% Conversion = 100
moles of feed introduced
0.82 100 = 46.3%
= 1.77
0.200 kg Sb kg Sb
e) Yield = = 0.33
0.600 kg Sb 2S3 kg Sb2 S3
Problems
1) Sulfur dioxide may be produced by the reaction:
Cu + 2H 2SO 4 CuSO 4 + 2H 2 O + SO 2
a) How much copper must be used to obtain 32 pounds of sulfur dioxide?
b) How much 94% H2S04 must be used to obtain 32 pounds of sulfur dioxide?
2) In the reactions:
2KMnO 4 + 8H 2SO 4 + 10FeSO 4 5Fe 2 SO 4 3 +K 2SO 4 +2MnSO 4 +8H 2 O
K 2 Cr2O7 + 7H 2SO 4 + 6FeSO 4 3Fe 2 SO 4 3 +K 2SO 4 +Cr2 (SO 4 )3 +7H 2O
TABLE
gmol
Cl 2 141.0
C3H6 6SI.O
C3H5Cl 4.6
C3H6Cl2 24.5
HCI 4.6
Based on the product distribution assumins that no allyl chlorides were pre-
sent in the feed, calculate the following:
a. How much Cl2 and C3H6 were fed to the reactor in g mol?
b. What was the limiting reactant?
e. What was the excess reactant?
d. What WS:S the fraction conversion of C3H6 to C3H5CI?
e. What was the selectivity of C3H CI relative to C3 Cl1?
f. What was the yield of C3H5Cl expressed in g of C3H5Cl to the g of C3H6
fed to the reactor?
g. What was the extent of reaction of the first and second reactions?
Chapter 3
Behavior of Ideal Gases
Energy
Energy is defined as the action of a force moving
under restraint through a distance.
All matter and the properties of matter are
manifestations of energy. Energy is the capacity of
matter to perform work and to affect the senses.
Energy is distributed throughout the universe in a
variety of forms, all of which may be directly or
indirectly converted into one another.
Classification of Energy
1) Potential Energy
2) Kinetic Energy
3) Heat
4) Work
5) Internal Energy
6) Enthalpy
Potential Energy
Under the classification of -potential energy are
included all forms of energy not associated with
motion but resulting from the position and
arrangement of matter.
The energy possessed by an elevated weight, a
compressed spring, a charged storage battery, a tank
of gasoline, or a lump of coal are examples of
potential energy.
Similarly, potential energy is stored within an atom as
the result of forces of attraction among its subatomic
parts.
Thus potential energy can be further classified as
external potential energy, which is inherent in matter
as a, result of its position relative to the earth, or as
internal potential energy, which resides within the
structure of matter.
Kinetic Energy
Energy associated with motion is referred to as kinetic
energy.
The energy represented by the flow-of a river, the
flight of a bullet, or the rotation of a flywheel are
examples of kinetic energy. Also individual molecules
possess kinetic energy by virtue of their translational,
rotational, and vibrational motions.
Similar to the sub-classification of potential energy,
kinetic energy is sub-classified as internal kinetic
energy, such as associated with molecular and atomic
structure, and as external kinetic energy, such as
associated with the external motion of visible objects.
In addition to the forms of energy associated with
composition, position, or motion of matter, energy
exists in the forms of electricity, magnetism, and
radiation, which are associated with electronic
phenomena.
Temperature & Heat
The science pertaining to the transformation of one
form of energy to another is termed thermodynamics.
Energy can be transformed from one form to another
but it can never be destroyed and that the total
energy of the universe is constant. This principle of
the conservation of energy is referred to as the first
law of thermodynamics.
Energy may be transferred not only from one form to
another but also from one aggregation of matter to
another without change of form.
The transformation of energy from one form to
another or the transfer of energy from one body to
another always requires the influence of some driving
force. As an example, if a hot metal bar is placed in
contact with a cold one, the former will be cooled and
the latter warmed. The sense of " hotness " is an
indication of the internal kinetic energy of matter. The
driving force which, even in the absence of electrical,
magnetic, or mechanical forces, produces a transfer of
energy is termed temperature and that form of energy
which is transferred from one body to another as a
result of a difference in temperature is termed heat.
Calculate the volume occupied by 30
lb of chlorine at a pressure 743 mm
Hg and 70 oF?
Basis of Calculation: 30 lb of chlorine
Lb
moles of ClILLUSTRATION 1
= 30 = 0.423 lb-mol
2 71
Volume at S.C. V = 0.423 359.05 = 152 ft 3
1
Volume at S.C. V1 = 0.228 359.05 = 81.7 ft 3
p p A pB pC ...... (1)
where p is the total pressure of the mixture and pA, pB,
pC, etc., are the partial pressures of the component
gases as defined above.
Similarly, the additive nature of pure-component
volumes is given by the law of Amagat, or Leduc's
law, which states that the total volume occupied by a
gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the pure-
component volumes, that is:
V VA VB VC ...... (2)
where V is the total volume of the mixture and VA, VB,
VC, etc., are the pure-component volumes of the
component gases as defined above.
Calculations for Partial Pressure
Conditions are such that the ideal gas law is applicable:
nA R T
pA = (3)
Where, V
V = total volume of mixture
n = number of moles of component A in mixture
Similar equations represent the partial pressures of
components B, C, etc. Combining these equations with
Dalton's law, Equation 1 Becomes:
RT
p (nA nB nC ...) (4)
V
This equation relates the pressure, temperature, volume,
and molal quantity of any gaseous mixture under such
conditions that the mixture and each of the components
follow the ideal gas law and Dalton's law.
By combining Equations 3 and 4 a useful relationship
between total and partial pressure is obtained.
nA p
pA = n n ... (5)
n A B C
nA
(6)
N = n n n ...
A
A B C
The quantity NA is the mole fraction of component
A. Equation 5 then signifies that, where the ideal gas
law may be applied, the partial pressure of a
component of a mixture is equal to the product of
the total pressure and the mole fraction of that
component. Combining Equation 5 and 6; we may
get,
pA N A p (7)
Calculations for Pure-component Volume
Similar procedure is for the calculations of pure-
component volume as defined by Amagats Law
VA N A V (8)
Equation 8 signifies that, where the ideal gas law may
be applied, the pure-component volume of a
component of a gaseous mixture is equal to the
product of the total volume and the mole fraction of
that component.
ILLUSTRATION 6
Calculate the average molecular CO2 13.1 %
weight of a flue gas having the O2 7.7 %
following composition by volume: N2 79.2 %
100%
Basis: 1.0 g-mole of mixture
Components g-mol Mol. Wt. grams
CO2 0.131 44 5.76
O2 0.077 32 2.46
Avg. M. Wt. =
N2 0.792 28 22.18 30.40 g/g-mol
Total 1.00 30.40
Calculate the density in pounds per
cubic foot at 29 in. of Hg and 30C of
a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
which contains 11.1 % H2 by weight?
Basis of Calculation: 1 lb of mixture
H 0.111 lb 0.111 = 0.0555 lb-mol
2
ILLUSTRATION 7
2
0.889
O2 0.889 lb 32 = 0.0278 lb-mol
Total Molal quantity = 0.0833 lb-mol
Volume at S.C. V1 = 0.0833 359.05 = 29.9 ft 3
Applying Ideal gas law,
T2
V V p1 = 29.9 29.921 303 = 34.2 ft 3
2 1
p2 T1 29 273
Density at 29 in. Hg, 30 oC 1 lb 0.0292 lb
3 3
34.2 ft ft
Air is assumed to contain 79.0 %
nitrogen and 21.0 % oxygen by
volume. Calculate its density in
grams per liter at a temperature of
70 F and a pressure of 741 mm of
Hg?
Basis of Calculation: 1 g-mole of Air
O2 0.21 g - mol 0.21 32 = 6.72 g
ILLUSTRATION 8
N 2 0.79 g - mol 0.79 28 = 22.10 g
Total Weight = 28.82 g
Volume at S.C. V1 = 1.0 22.414 = 22.414 L
Applying Ideal gas law,
T2 530
V V p1 = 22.414 760 = 24.8 L
2 1
p2 T1 741 492
28.82 g 1.162 g
Density at 741 mm Hg, 70 C
o
24.8 L L
VOLUME CHANGES WITH CHANGE IN
COMPOSITION
1) Melting
2) Freezing
3) Condensation
4) Vaporization
5) Deposition
6) Sublimation
Some other operations are as;
Absorption
Drying
Evaporation
Adsorption
ILLUSTRATION 9
Combustion gases having the following molal
composition are passed into an evaporator at
a temperature of 200 C and a pressure of
743 mm of Hg.
CO2 13.6 %
O2 7.2 %
N2 79.2 %
Water is evaporated, the gases leaving at a
temperature of 85 C and a pressure of 740 mm
of Hg with the following molal composition:
CO2 8.3 %
O2 4.4 %
N2 48.3 %
H2O 39.0 %
1) Calculate the volume of gases leaving
the evaporator per 100 ft3 entering.
2) Calculate the weight of water evaporated per
100 ft3 of gas entering.
Figure: E
V
CO2 13.6 % A
P
O2 7.2 %
O 85 C
N2 79.2 % R
200 C A 740 mm of Hg
T
743 mm of Hg O
R CO2 8.3 %
61.0 % O2 4.4 %
H2O N2 48.3 %
H2O 39.0 %
Basis of Calculation: 1.0 g-mole of entering gas
1) N 2 = 0.792 g - mole
O 2 = 0.072 g - mole
CO 2 = 0.136 g - mole
RT
V n n n
( N2 O2 CO2 )
P
1 g-mol 473 K 82.06 cm3 . atm 760 mm Hg 1 ft3
= 743 mm Hg g-mol . K 1 atm 30.483 cm3
3
= 1.40 ft
This 1.0 g - mole of gas entering
forms 61% by volume of the gases
leaving the evaporator.
100
Gases leaving 1.0 1.64 g - mole
61
Water leaving 1.64 - 1.0 1.64 0.38 0.64 g - mole
RT
Volume of gas leaving n n n n
(
N2 O2 CO2 CO2 )
P
V at 85 oC & 740 mm Hg,
1.64 g-mol 358 K 82.06 cm3 . atm 760 mm Hg 1 ft3
= 740 mm Hg g-mol . K 1 atm 30.483 cm3
1.75 ft 3
3
Volume of gas leaving per 100 ft entering,
3
1.75 ft leaving 100 ft 3 125 ft 3
3
1.40 ft entering
2) Weight of water leaving evaporator,
0.64 18 11.5 g 0.0254 lb
2NO O2 2NO2
3NO2 H 2O 2HNO3 NO
The NO liberated is in part reoxidized and forms more
nitric acid in successive repetitions of the above
reactions. The ammonia and air enter the process at a
temperature of 20 oC and a pressure of 755 mm Hg.
The air is present in such proportion that the oxygen
will be 20% in excess of that required for complete
oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid and water. The
gases leave the catalyzer at a temperature of 700 oC
and a pressure of 743 mm Hg.
a) Calculate the volume of air to be used per 100 ft3
of ammonia entering the process
b) Calculate the percentage composition by volume of the gases
entering the catalyzer
c) Calculate the percentage composition by volume of the gases
leaving the catalyzer, assuming that the degree of completion
of the reaction is 85% and that no other decomposition takes
place.
d) Calculate the volume of the gases leaving the catalyzer per
100 ft3 of ammonia entering the process
e) Calculate the weight of nitric acid produced per 100 ft3 of
ammonia entering the process, assuming that 90% of the
nitric oxide entering the tower is oxidized to nitric acid.
Figure:
Ostwald Process for producing Nitric Acid
Basis of Calculation: 1.0 lb-mole of NH3
NH 3 2O2 HNO3 H 2O
Weight %
FURNACE N2 =78.80%
Carbon = 89.1%
Ash = 10.9% A Excess Air
30% in
mole %
R
Refus
e
weight
%
O2 = 21.0% C = 44.97%
N2 = 79.0% Ash = 55.03%
Basis: 200 lbs of coke entering C O CO
2 2
Stream F; 1
Carbon = 178.2 lbs C O2 CO
2
Ash = 21.8 lbs
Stream P;
Stream R;
Carbon = 0.10 178.2 = 17.82 lbs CO 2 produced = 12.965 lb moles
Ash = 21.8 lbs CO produced = 0.40 lb moles
O 2 produced = 3.95 lb moles
Carbon reacted in F = 160.38 lbs N 2 produced = 64.38 lb moles
= 13.365 lb moles P = 81.695 lb moles
Volume at STP; P V P V
1 1 = 2 2
V1 = 29332.59 ft 3 T1 T2
P1 = 760 mm Hg 3
V2 = 61593.01 ft
hr
T1 = 32 F 3
V = 1026.55 ft
V2 = ? at 550 F & 743 mm Hg 2 min
18. Coke containing 87.2% carbon and 12.8% ash is burned on a grate. I& is
found that 6% of the carbon in the coke charged is lost with the refuse. The com-
position by volume of the staek gases from the ruru is as follows:
OOt ................... - ..--. . ... .. 12.0%
. ..
00.. or or II or II .. II 0.2%
.. " Ill " " e I+
I 'I
Ot. It It It I It I I It 8.8%
II e It II II a II It t IIt t
Weight %
FURNACE N2 = 79.0%
Carbon = 87.2%
Ash = 12.8% A Air R Refuse
mole % weight %
O2 = 21.0% C = 29.01%
N2 = 79.0% Ash = 70.99%
Basis: 100 lbs of coke entering C O2 CO2
Stream F; Stoichiometric relation;
Carbon = 87.2 lbs 1 lb mole of reacts with O 2 = 1 lb mole
Ash = 12.8 lbs For 6.83 lbmoles of C = 6.83 lb mole of O 2
Stream R; Stream P;
Carbon = 0.06 87.2 = 5.232 lbs CO 2 produced = 6.83 lb moles
Ash = 12.8 lbs CO produced = 0.1138 lb moles
O 2 produced = 5.008 lb moles
Carbon reacted in F = 81.968 lbs
N 2 produced = 44.964 lb moles
= 6.83 lb moles
P = 56.91 lb moles
P = 56.91 lb moles for 100 lb of coke Air = 73.32% in Excess
P = 0.5691 lb moles per lb of coke
Volume at STP; P V P V
1 1 2 2
=
V1 = 0.5691 359.05 = 204.33 ft
3
T1 T2
P1 = 29.921 in. Hg V2 = 424.107 ft 3
T1 = 32 F
V2 = ? at 540 F & 29.3 in. Hg
Volume of Air at STP;
3
V1 = 203.94 ft
P1 = 29.921 in. Hg
Degree of Completion; T1 = 32 F
Fraction = 0.94 V2 = ? at 70 F & 29.3 in. Hg
% completion = 94% P V P V
1 1 2 2
T1 =
T2
3
V2 = 224.34 ft
THANKS
Questions
132