I.

Introduction significance of ancient time

1. Commingling of cultures is a definite attribute of the period. Vedic texts ascribed to 1500-
500 BC. Sangam literature to period from 300 BC to 600 AD. Munda culture as distinct from
the Dravidian and Aryan kind.
2. Cultural Integration built into the common psyche of the public of the period. Tribal names
were enunciated in form of janapadas. However, the country would be named after the
majoritarian community, hence Aryavarta. Later names would conjure up like Bharatavarsha
or the land of the Bharatas,
3. Iranian words give Hindu, the name Hindu. S and H play causes them to call the Sapta-Sindhu
region as the Hindu, which maybe meant a district on the Indus. It neither indicated religion
nor community.
4. Samudragupta and Asokas image of a single integral unit India. This was respected by
foreigners as well. India as constituted geographically into a singular structure was respected
by even conquerors and cultural leaders. The post-Kushan rulers of Sind region would name
it Hindustan.
5. Looking at varna system as it evolves in the north, which would affect other communities
even.
a. Clamour for restoration of an older culture. Sharma calls Indian society marked by
gross social injustice. Laws discriminate men against women.
b. Bringing of these facts into the present inhibits development of the individual and
the country. Barriers of caste and religion pull all of Indias posterity into a void.
Womens role needs to be recognised
c. Understanding the past indeed helps us comprehend the obstacles that hamper
Indias future.

II. Modern Historians of Ancient India

1. 1776, Manu smriti as A Code for Gentoo Laws when it was needed to administer Hindu law
of inheritance. Hindu pundits and Muslim maulvis would help in building a kind of
administration.
2. Asiatic society of Bengal would be established in 1784 by William Jones who would suggest
commonality between the Sanskrit, Latin and Greek languages. Abhijnanshakuntalam was
translated in 1789 by him and Bhagavad-Gita was translated by Charles Wilkins in 1785.
Similarly, other societies would emerge like Bombay Asiatic Society in 1804 and 1823s
Asiatic Society of Great Britain.
3. William Jones bidding would see rise of Indological studies all over Europe. F. Max Mueller
would do the most out of England although a German. The British would realise the need of
understanding the local culture and hence work like Sacred Books of the East would emerge
under Muellers editorship. Understanding of the religion to find frailties inside it.
4. Certain generalisations were made about Indian culture and things like a lack of a historical
sense emerged. They would add that Indians were accustomed to a despotic rule. Came out
in V A Smiths Early History of India, a pro-Imperialist history. Denigration of India character
was made into the tenets of these works.
5. Reactionary ways of seeing history emerged, which was upset by colonial distortions. This
way of history not only made way for reform and also a sense of self-government. This
included some through Hindu revivalism and other more rational bases like Rajendra lal
Mitra
6. VK Rajawade and RG Bhandarkar in Maharashtra were not only writing histories but actively
engaged in social issues like widow remarriage. P V Kanes work on social reform also
showed in his history like History of the dharma shastras. H. Rayachaudhari, DR Bhandarkar.
Stronger Hindu motives showed in works of RC Majumdar. worked on political history to
establish India had a sense of administration.
7. Nilakantha Sastris work on southern India was a first

III. Natural Sources and Historical Construction

1. Archaeology as a source for proto and pre-history.
2. Mound elevated portion of land which can be single cultured, multi-cultured and major
culture.
a. Single like Painted Grey Ware.
b. Major with one dominating with others of secondary importance.
c. Multi shows a number simultaneously existing.
3. Two kinds of excavations - vertical and horizontal
a. Vertical means lengthwise excavating and digging, generally confined to one culture.
They are of one culture at a particular level, confined to a part of the site.
b. Horizontal entails digging the mound as whole, which is of a period.
i. They are generally very expensive, few in number.
ii. Excavations in drier semi-arid regions are in better shape than the ones in
moist Gangetic plains.
c. Some peoples graves In southern india also contained their tools, weapons, pottery,
encircled by large pieces of stone. These were called megaliths.
4. RC dating. Not older tgan 70000 years. Half-life is 5568 years.
5. Inscriptions study called epigraphy; first on stone, during the early Christian era.
6. Literature as sources- ancient literature generally religious. Rig=1500 BC, rest of the vedas
dated arounf 1000-500 BC.
a. Upanishads have philosophical speculations.
b. Supplements of vedas include shiksha(phonetics), vyakaran(grammer),
nirukta(etymology), chhanda(metrics), jyotisha(astronology) and kalpa(ritual). These
were called sutras, most famous being Paninis Ashtadhyayi.
c. Epics out of which Mahabharata or Shatasahstri Samhita (100,000 verses) might be
older. It can be divided to descriptive and didactic portions out of which the former
of post-vedic period and the latter might be of post-maurya Gupta period.
d. Ramayana also has didactic portions added later. It has 24000 verses.
e. Ritual literature like Shrautasutras(higher three castes rituals) and
Grihyasutras(domestic rituals); also comprises Dharma sutras.
7. Coins numismatics
a. Most coin mould made of clay came from Kushan period.
b. Sign of trade and enables an economic history.
c. Cowries also use as coinage.