Standards and Quality Practices in Manufacturing

Construction maintenance and Services

1. Quality Basics
2. Quality Thinkers
3. Tools in quality control
4. Acceptable sampling
5. NDT/NDE
6. Standards
7. TQM
8. Six Sigma
9. Maintenance and rehability
10. Construction, service and manufacturing
Quality :

(1) Degree of fitness for use of customers

(2) Meeting the customers requirement/needs/

Satisfaction Stated
Implied

Market survey/field research will be used as a tool to know the needs of customers by agencies or service

providers.

(3) Whether the product conforms to specified standard

(4) Cost effectiveness :

(5) Product should be reliable (i.e. reliability)

Easily available
(6) Serviceable
Less costly
(7) Aesthetics = good looking or appearance

(8) Perceived Quality : Branding

Time

(9) Relative Location

Person
Quality Characteristics :

(1) Technological : strength, hardness

(2) Time-oriented : reliability, maintainability, availability

(3) Psychological : status

(4) Contractual : warranty, guarantee, etc.

(5) Ethical : honesty, courtesy, etc.

Cost of quality and quality dimension :

Quality Dimensions

Quality of Design : most crucial and imp stage

Market survey
Concept development
design codes/guidelines
specification
or regulations.

Market survey :

VOC CTQ (Critical to Quality Characteristics)

Voice of customer

Quality of conformance = stage of implementation

Technology
Manpower
Financial

Human

Quality of performance : After delivery stage

Reliability

Logistical support

Cost of quality :

Cost of conformance Cost of non-conformance (failure)

Prevention Appraisal Internal External

cost cost failure failure

Prevention cost during the production

Appraisal cost after the production to check the quality by the producer
Internal failure cost : within the premises of company

A B C D

(Repair/Replace)

The cost of quality : It is a methodology which tells an organisation about the extent to which its resources are

being used for activities that prevent poor quality, that appraise the products quality and that result from internal

and external failure.

Prevention cost : Cost incurred to prevent quality problems. It includes costs of planning and design,

implementation and maintenance of a quality.

Q. :

A. Cost of prevention (1) Cost of production inspection

B. Cost of appraisal (2) Cost of quality planning

C. Cost of internal failure (3) Cost of rework and repair

D. Cost of external failure (4) Cost of processing complaints from customer.

A2

B1

C3

D4

(I) Before Industrial Revolution :

Skill low
Small scale industries
Technology was low
DOL (division of labour) was low
(II) After Industrial Revolution :
Technology increased
Mass production
Inspection based quality control
(III) Continuous improvement
Process based approach
Preventive
Quality Policy :

(i) Quality policy can be defined as the overall intentions and direction of an organization w.r.t. quality and it has

to be formally expressed by the top management of the company.

(ii) Quality policy should be consistent with the overall policy of the organization.

(iii) Quality policy will lead to establishing of the quality objectives.

(iv) Quality objectives can be defined as something aimed for, related to quality.

(v) Quality objectives are derived from the quality policy.

(vi) Quality policy is for all of the organization where as quality objectives are specific to the specific department.

S Specific

M Measurable

A Achievable

R Realistic

T Time Oriented

Quality Assurance Quality Control

Process based product based

Preventive corrective

Quality audit inspection

Proactive reactive

The goal of quality assurance is to improve processes so that the defect does not arise while the product

being developed.

On the other hand, the goal of quality control is to identify defects after a product has already been

developed. Quality assurance aims to prevent defects by focusing on the process used to make the product.

While quality control aims to identify and correct the defect in the finished product.

Quality Audit :
st
1 party (internal audit)

2nd party audit at supplier location

rd
3 party audit by independent body
Quality audit is a systematic and independent examination to compare some aspect of quality performance with a

standard and check that whether the quality practices are being under taken as per the documented or specified

standard procedure.

Internal Audit (1 st party audit)

It is performed by the employees of the organization itself who dont have vested interests in the audit results of

the area selected for audit.

nd
2 party audit : These are performed by the customer organization at the supplier location.

3rd party audit : These are performed by an independent party or certification body.

Customers are of two types

(1) External customers

(2) Internal customers

External customers : These are not the members of the production company and they buy the end products.

Internal customers : These are members of the production company itself and they need the project for inhouse

processing.

Q. Which of the following terns correctly describes the examination of process with the standard procedure?

(i) Quality control

(ii) Quality assurance

(iii) Quality audit

(iv) Quality management

Kaizen Approach

(i) Continuous improvement

(ii) Process based

(iii) Small change in daily operations

(iv) Involvement of everyone

(v) Recognize the crucial role of top management

(vi) Employees sense of belongingness

(vii) Moral of employees (more)

(viii) It involves identifying bench marks of excellence practices and thereby comparing own performance with the

benchmark to continuously improve.

(ix) It is also based on the realizations that mass inspection of the output does not add value to the product.

Poka Yoke Mistake proofing

In built quality control

It means mistake proofing

Its purpose is to eliminate deflects by preventing human error from taking place. Thus it has 100 inbuilt

quality control mechanism and the company has to spend less time and resources on training of its

employees.

Bench Marking : It is a quality improvement tool to improve the performance of an organization by comparing

with the best practices and learning from them to improve own performance by setting the best performances as

benchmark.

Various quality thinkers approach

(1) Ishikawa

(2) Juran

(3) Fungenbaum

(4) Taguchi

(5) Crosby

(6) Denning

(1) Ishikawa

Quality control tools(next chapter)

Quality circle

Problem solving purpose

People from different levels

Communication will develop under hierarchy

Increase in problem solving ability

Knowledge transfer

Increase in morale and motivation, also sense of belongingness.

(2) Juran :

(i) Top down approach

(ii) Technical approach

(iii) Quality trilogy : Quality planning

Quality control

Quality improvement

(3) Faigenbaum :

Pioneer of total quality management

Quality is everyones job

(4) Taguchi :

L (y y0 )2

y0 = target value

Loss
(h)

y0

Taguchi loss for is used to measure the financial loss to the society due to poor quality.

He suggested that each product has a target value and as the product moves away from the target value,

there is a loss incurred by the society.

As one deviates from the target value, this loss increases and it is proportional to the square of the distance

from the target value.

Thus every attempt should be made to meet the target value rather than being with in upper specifications

limit (USL) and lower specification limit (LSL).

Taguchi calls common cause variations as noise factor and the aim should be to reduce the effect of noise

on the product quality. Thus Taguchi Robust design is a concept used to make the system less sensitive to

variations.
Q. Assuming the following Taguchi loss for and specifications, determine the estimated loss if the quality

characteristics under study takes a value 6.3 cm.

2
Taguci loss function = 8500 (x T)

Specification in (cm) = 6.00 + 0.25

(a) 765 (b) 2500

(c) 21 (d) 1350

(5) Crosby :

Quality is free : Quality and cost are not in competition to each other. It means it is not true that if quality

increases cost will also increase. Further we can say that quality is free because there is a time lag between

the investment in improvement of the process and reduction in the cost of quality.

Zero defect :

(6) Deming :

(i) 14 principles for transformation of management

(ii) 7 deadly diseases

(iii)Demings PDCA cycle

Deming said :

(i) Avoid too much emphasis on short term profit.

(ii) Avoid excessive medical cost, warrantee cost, etc.

(iii)Consider total cost, not just initial cost

7. Quality control tools :

(i) Fishbone Diagram : (Ishikawa Diagram/Cause and Effect Diagram.

Minor
bone

Effect or
problem
Minor
bone

cause

Brainsforming
 Team approach

Why-why analysis

It is used to identify, explore and display the possible causes of a particular problem. It is done through

brainstorming, teamwork, collective knowledge and it builds supports for the solution of the problem.

The problem or effect is represented through the head of the fish. The major causes will be represented

through the major bones of the fish and further sub-divisions of the major bone into minor bones will

represent the minor causes.

By doing why-why analysis we can generate understanding of deeper layers of causes.

8. Scatter Diagram :

x x1 x2 x3 x4
y y1 y2 y3 y4

It is used to establish correlation b/w two process variable.

The correlation may be linear, parabolic etc.

3. Pareto chart :

Vital few from trivial many

Pareto chart is based on the pareto principle which states that approximately 80% of the problems are

caused by approx 20% of the factors.

Thus if we identify the vital few factor, then majority of the problems can be solved.

The pareto chart ranks data in descending order from left to right.

4. Flow chart :

Flow chart is a pictorial representation of the sequence of steps in a process. These can be used to

document a process and find out the sources of problem as well as solution to those problem
5. Check sheet :

Defect Type day1 day 2 day 3

Type1
Type 2
Type3

It is a structured form for collecting data dejectedly at the same location. Thus we can find the frequency or

pattern of problems or defects for further analysis.

6. Histogram : it is a graphical display of data using bars of different height. It can be used to identify the

frequency of the occurrence of a defect and find a pattern in it. The unusual values if any will indicate the

presence of certain specific factors causing the problem.

7. Control chart :

Assignable/Special Leads to defects

Common/Chance Factor

CL = Control limit

UCL 6.25cm

CL 6.0cm

LCL 5.75cm

Demings PDCA Cycle :

P Plan

D Do Implement

C Check Monitor of prours result

A Act

Act Plan

Check Do
Demings PDCA Cycle : Continuous improvement

P Plan

D Do implement

C Check monitor of process result

A Act

Plan stage : Define the problem, find the causes, constraints and solutions :

Do stage : Implement the solution

Check stage : Monitor the results and compare them with the previous data

Act stage : Documents the results and make recommendations for the problem to be addressed in the next

PDCA cycle.

Control Charts

We dont consider as defects

Common cause
Unavoidable (natural), natural
Variations occurrence, minor magnitude

Special cause Defects Large magnitude (Assignable)

Control charts are used to differentiate b/w common causes and special causes. The variations due to

common causes are always present and they cant be avoided. There take place due to inherent nature of

the process. There are not considered as defects and the variations are small in magnitude.

On the other hand the variations due to special causes are due to the presence of some assignable factors.

These are of larger magnitudes and hence steps should be taken to remove thus. There are considered as

defects.

Types of control charts :

Variable Attribute
(Measureable) Count type or
Conformity/Non-unformition
X chart P chart
R chart C chart

X chart :

Let n = sample size

 N = number of samples

x x 2 xn
xi
X = 1 i1
n n

x1 x2 xn
X =
N

X CL

3
UCL = X
n

3
LCL = X
n

3 +3

3 to 3 99.73%

2 to 3 95.5%

to 68%

R-chart : R Range

R = Xmax Xmin and n = total no. of sample

R1 R 2 R N
R CL
N

UCL D4R
UCL = D3 & D4
LCL D3R
Constants

Will be given

Variables are characteristics that are measureable where as attributes are characteristics which are

expressed in terms of conformity/Non-conformity, defective/Non-defective.

 Defects are quality characteristics that dont meet the desired specifications while a defective unit may have

one or more no of defects such that unit is unable to meet the standard.

X chart shows the centering of the process or the trend whereas R chart shows the dispersion in the

sample. It is a measure of the spread of the sample.

Q. For a control chart of variables the sample size is 4 and the total no of the samples are 20.

X 400, R 4

What will be the 3 control limits for X and R charts. Assume the population std deviation = 0.08.

D4 = 2.28

D3 = 0

Given n = 4, n = 20, = 0.08

X ch a rt

X 400
X = 20
N 20

3 3 0.08
UCL = X 20 20 3 0.04
n 4

U C L 2 0 .1 2

LCL = 20 3 0.04 = 19.88

R-chart

R 4
R = 0.2
N 20

UCL = D4 R = 0.2 2.28 = 0.456

LCL = D3 R = 0
 P Chart :

(Fraction Defective or proportion defective)

Sample no. of defective Fraction defective

d1 p1 d1n1
n1
d2
n2
p2 d2 n2
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
dN
nN 1

pN dn nN

N
pi p1 p2 pN
CL p L 1
N N

p 1 p n1 n 2 nN
UCL p 3 n
n N

p 1 p
LCL p 3
n

Chart :

CL = np

UCL = p 3 n p (1 p )

LCL = p 3 n p (1 p )

P chart follows binomial distribution, while c-chart follows Poissons distribution.

C-chart :
It is used to control the number of defects in a sample.

C-chart is diff from p-chart in the sense that C-chart differentiates between two defective, whereas p-chart

treats defectives equally whether they contain one defect or more.

Np chart is used to control the no of defectives whereas p-chart is used for fraction defectives.

CL C

UCL C 3 C
LCL C 3 C

C = average of number of defect

Q. During an experiment it is found that on an avg 1 out of 10 items produced by a machine is defective. While

inspecting the quality inspector selects a sample of 100 items and finds that 15 of them are defective. What

will be the decision of the inspector about, whether the process is within control or not?

p = 0.1

UCL = p 3 p(1 p) 0.1 3 0.1 0.9

n 100

U C L 0.19

L C L 0 .1 0 .0 9 0 .0 1

15
But process = 0.15 OK (within control limits)
100

Q. A control chart is established with limits of + 2 standard errors. For use in monitoring samples of size n = 20.

Assume the process to be in control. What is the likelihood of a sample mean falling outside the control limit?

(a) 97.7%

(b) 95.5%

(c) 4.5%

(d) 2.3%

+2 stand error = + 2.

Acceptance Sampling

Samplerepresentative, randomly selected (unbiased)

Lot Good & sample bad = producers risk

Lot Bad & sample good = consumers risk

In the present case it means that the proportion of defectives are same in the sample and the lot.

Acceptance sampling is a technique in which based on the inspection of a small sample the decision regarding

accepting or rejecting a lot is taken. It is assumed that the sample represents the whole of lot. It means that the

characteristics of the lot are same as that of the sample.

It is further assumed that the sample is chosen in a random or unbiased manner.

100% inspection of the lot is not preferred because

(i) It consumes time & resources.

(ii) It may decrease the productivity of the organization

(iii) There may be an element of human error

(iv) Items may get damage due to handling

Single sampling :

Decision regarding the accepting or rejecting a lot is taken on the basis of inspection of only one sample no

of samples = d

If d < C accept the lot

d > C reject the lot

Double sampling :

n1 = 1 st sample, n2 = 2 nd sample

c1 = Lower acceptance number and c2 = Upper acceptance number

If number of defective = d

If d < c1 accept the lot

d > c2 reject the lot

If c1 < d < c2 take 2nd sample

If (n1 + n2)

d > c 2 reject

d > c 2 accept
Q. In a single sampling plan N = 200 , n = 10, c = 2 } the actual defectives found by inspection is 3, then the

decision will be

(a) accept the lot

(b) reject the lot

nd
(c) take 2 sample

(d) None of these

st
Q. In a double sampling plan n = 500, n1 = 10, n2 = 8 c1 = 1 and c2 = 4. If the no of defectives in the 1 sample

are 3, then the decision will be

(a) accept the lot

(b) reject the lot

(c) Take a 2 nd sample

(d) None of these

Producers Risk () : It is the probability that a lot which has acceptable quality level will be rejected i.e. it is the

probability of a good lot being rejected.

Consumer Risk () : It is the probability that a lot containing defectives more than LTPD will be acceptance i.e. it

is the probability of a bad lot being accepted.

LTPD : lot tolerance percent defective.

LTPD : it is the %age of defective items above which the consumers will not accept the lot.

AQL : It is the %age of defective at which the consumers will accept the lot.

Operating characteristics curve : It is a curve between probability of accepteance and the lot quality in terms of

fraction defectives. As the praction defective in the lot increases the probability of acceptance will decrease.


Probability
of
acceptance

AQL
% fraction defective LTPD

Objectives of standardization :

(1) Measure, compare & as criteria.

(2) For inter changeability in mass production.

(3) Can be used for accurate & consistent communication.

(4) Can be used for protection of environment, health & safety.

(5) Can be used for trust of consumers & confidence of investors.

(6) It can be used as a marketing strategy.

(7) It enhances the productivity of organisation and saves time & resources.

Indian standards :

ISI Marks : It is given for Industrial products. It certifies that the product conforms to the standard set by Bureau of

Indian standard (BIS).

Agmark : It s given for agricultural products & it is given by directrate of Marketing & inspection under ministry of

agriculture.

FPO Mark : Fruit product Order

It is given for all processed fruit product. It certifies that the product was manufactured in a hygienic environment .

It is given by Ministry of food processing industries under food safety & standards Act 2006.

BSES : Bharat State Emission Standard

There are set to regulate the output of air pollutants from IC engines. The standards & time lines for

implementation are set by central pollution control Board (CPCB) under MOEFCC (Ministry of Environment &

Forest and Climate Change)

Bharat stage IV emission norms has been implaceed since 2010 & BS VI norms would be adopted by 2020.

Hall mark : It is given for purity of gold.

India Organic : It is a certification mark for organically formed product as per National standards for organic

products 2000.

Darjiling Tea : It is a Geographical Indication Mark for tea produced in Darjiling.

BIS : Bureau of Indian standard comes under ministry of consumer affairs food & public Distribution, GOI. It is a

statutory body established under an act of parliament i.e. bureau of Indian standard Act, 1986.

ISO : International Organication for Standardisation : Headquarter: Geneva, Member: 162

ISO has three types of members.

(1) Membership Bodies : Each country here is represented by one standards body from country. There

members approve the changes that take place in the standards. Burea of Indian standards represents Indian

in this.

(2) Correspondant Members : There are countries that do not have their own standards body and hence they

dont participate in the changes introduced in the standards. However they are informed about the same.

(3) Subscribe Members : There are countries with small economics. They pay reduced membership fees and

can follow the development of standards.

Various standards :

ISO 9000 series : QMS

It is a generic management standard. It means that the same standard can be applied to any organization

irrespective of whether the organication is large or small, it is from manufacturing sector or service sector etc.

It is only concerned about the way an organic does it is not concerned about the result of that work.

These quality system are based on the principles of total quality management.
IS 14000 series : For EMS= EM Management System

It helps organization to minimize the ve effect on environment and compliance with the relevant rules and

reghlations.

It does not seek that the organization should follow a particular level of performance regarding pollution etc. but

requires an awareness of the process that ve affect the environment.

OHSAS 18000 Occupational Health & Safety Assessment Series.

OHSMS : Occupation Health & safety management system

It promotes a safe & healthy working environment by identifying and controlling health and safety risks and

reducing the potential for accidents.

MBNQA : Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award :

It is an annual award given to companies of USA which excel in total quality management. It is given by the

president of USA.

It is given only to organisations & not to individuals.

Rajiv Gandhi Quality Award :

It is given only to Indian Companies .

It is instituted by BIS.

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

NDT : It is performed in a manner which does not effect the future usefulness of the object or material. It is used

to check the quality of structural mechanical components so that they can perform their functions in a safe,

reliable and cost effective mannar.

It can be used for in service inspection to detect cracks or other defects caused by corrosion, stress, fatigue etc.

Penetrant Testing (PT/LPT/DPT) : LPT : Liquid Penetrant Test, DPT Dye Pepenetrant Test

Penetrant is applied to a pre cleaned surface.

Penetrant will be pulled into the surface breaking defect by capillary action.
A developer is then applied after wiping out the penetrant from the surface.

The developer will produce a visible indication at the location of defects.

Advantage :

It requires minimum investment, large surface areas, can be inspected rapidly.

Parts with complex geometries can be inspected.

Disadvantage : It can detect only surface breaking defects.

Cant be used for porous materials.

Radiography Testing (RT) :

The test object is placed between the radiation source and the object.

The thickness & density of the material that the X-rays penetrate affects the amount of radiation reaching the

detector.

The variation in radiation produces an image on the detector which shows the internal features of the test object.

Advantage :

It can be used for all types of materials.

It can detect both surface to sub-surface defects.

Disadvantage :

Relatively costly equipments.

Skilled operator is required.

There may be hazards associated with the radiations.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) :

High freq. sound waves are sent into the materials by the use of a transducer.

The amount of energy transmitted & received find the time taken can be used to determine the presence of flaws.
Advantage :

Non-Hazardous

Can be used for both surface & sub-surface defects.

It can be used to determine the changes in thickness.

Disadvantage :

Skilled operator is reqd.

The surface must be accessible to the probe.

4. Magnetic Particle Testing : (MPT)

Magnetic field is established in a ferromagnetic material and the magnetic field lines flow through the material.

The place of discontinuity or cracks cant support such flow of magnetic field and hence it comes leakage of the

magnetic flux at the locations of discontinuity. The iron particles spread over the sample, will be attracted to such

areas of flux leakage and thus it produces visible indications.

Advantage :

It can be used for both surface & sub-surface cracks, large area of complex shapes can be inspected rapidly.

Equipment cost can be relatively less.

Disadvantage : It can be used only for ferromagnetic materials.

5. Eddy current Testing :

Alternating current is passed through a coil thus producing a magnetic field. If a conducting materials is placed

near the coil, then changing the magnetic field induces eddy currents in the conducting material.

There eddy currents produce their own magnetic field, which may be measured to analyse for the presence of any

defects.

Adv. : it can be used to detect both surface and sub-surface defects.

Disadvantage : can be used only for conducting materials.

Q. Which of the following is not an adv. of MPT

1. Fast and simple to perform

2. Can defect discontinuities

3. Most reliable for finding surface orders in all types of materials.

4. Works well through a very thin coat of paint.

Dues : Which of the following is a function of developer (in penetrant testing)?

a. Providing a contrast background for visible dye indications.

b. It shows discontinuities by causing indication to spread.

c. It provides capillary to help in bleeding out of the penetrant.

Shift from technical aspect to human element.

Target of six sigma approach is 3.4DPMO 6th sigma is a set of technique for process improvement.

It was introduced by bill smith in 1986 while working in Motorola.

It aims to minimize variation in the manufacturing process by indentifying & removing the causes of defects.

Six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of the total products manufactured are defect free.

It makes continuous manufactured are defect free.

It makes continuous efforts to a stable & predictable process result.

For sustained quality performance involvement of everyone is required but the support of top management is

recognized as crucial.

It is diff. from approaches of quality improvement in the sense that it focuses on achieving measureable and

quantifiable results.

DMAIC for improving existing process.

DMADV for designing new process.

D define

M Measure

A Analyse
I Improve

C control

D-Define : Define the voice of customer, their requirements & the project goals.

M-Measure : Measure the key aspect of the process and collect the relevant data.

A-analyse : Investigate the data to establish came & effect relationship.

I-Improve : Bared on the analysis implement the improvements.

C-control : control the process parameters by monitoring & checking for sustained improvements.

Design : Design and improved alternative on the basis of analysis of various alternatives.

Varify : Varify the design by implementing the design the hand it over to the process owner.

Executive leadership Vision

Champions Mentor

Master Black belts Coaches

Black Belts Project team leader

Green Belts
Yellow Belts

Executive Leadership : It includes CEO & other members of top management. They are responsible for setting a

vision, empowering others and allowing resources to be used.

Champions : They act as mentors. They approve any changes to scope of the project.

Master black belts : They act as in house coaches. They assist champions and guide black belts & green belts.

Black Belts : Act as project team leader, assign team members their roles & responsibility and they are held

accountable for the results.

Green Belts : They lead small scale improvement projects within respective areas. They work under the

guidance of Black Belt.

Yellow Belts : They are basically support staff to green & black belt. They lead any project on their own.

Maintenance & Reliability

Preventive Regular

Maintenance Predictive Condition Monitoring

Reactive After Breakdown

Maintenance can be defined as the combination of all technical & administrative action indended to retain an item

or restore the item to a state in which it can function as per the requirement.

(1) Preventive Maintenance : It is done as per a pre-planned schedule on a regular basis.

(2) Predictive Maintenance : It is used for critical equipments in of a plan based on the resultant of condition

monitoring before any breakdown or failure takes place.

(3) Reactive Maintenance : It is done after the equipment has already failed. There type of maintenance

reduces the productivity of the plan.

Reliability

R1 = 0.9, R2 = 0.8, R3 = 0.7

R1 R2 R3

Rs = R1 R2 R3 =0.90.80.7 Rs. 0.504

R1 = 0.9, R2 = 0.8, R3 = 0.7

R1 R2 R3

R2

Rs = R1 {R2 + (1 R2) R4 } R3

Reliability is defined as a probability that a product performs as per the specified std over a period of time

without failing.

When the components in a system are connects in series, then the reliability of the system will be lower than

the reliability of the individual components.

It happens because in terms of probability, these are mutually dependent events. Thus as the no. of

components in series increases the reliability of the system as whole will decrease.

To increase the reliability of the system, back up can be given to the critical components.

Q. What will be the probability of a system failure for a two component parallel system if the individual

component reliabilities are 0.95 & 0.96 respectively.

 (i) 0.088

(ii) 0.050

(iii) 0.002

(iv) 0.010

Ans. Rs. 0.95 + ( 1-0.95) 0.96

0.95 + 0.05 0.96

0.95 + 0.048

Rs. 0.998

Probability of failure = 1 0.998 = 0.002

Ques. On the fig show below what will be the reliability of the system.

A C RA = 0.9
RB = 0.8
RC = 0.7
B D RD = 0.6
Rs = {0.9+(1-0.9)0.8} {0.7+(1-0.7)0.6}
Rs = 0.8624

early life wear out

period life
period
failure useful life
rate period

Life span of the product

Life Cycle cost :

It in the total cost of ownership of a product. It included acquisition cost, installation cost, space parts cost,

operating cost & operating cost & maintenance cost.

In some organization it is a proactive to parches equipments on the basis of lowest coated price. However the

selection of equipment should be based on life cycle cost.

Maintainability :

It is the probability that a failed device will be restored to its normal working condition in a given period after

carrying out the necessary maintain ace activities.

MTTR Mean time to repair

MTTF
MTTF : Mean time to failure
MTBF : Mean time between fail
MTTR
MTBF = MTTR + MTTF

MTBF

Availability :

It is the probability that a system is available when requested for use.

MTTR : Avg Time required to repair a failed component.

Total productive Maintenance (TPM)

To increase productivity; predictive & preventive maintenance should be used and reactive maintenance should

be avoided. It is an integrated approach and it desires the involvement of various department and employees. The

equipment should be designed in a way that the need for maintenance is minimized.

FMEA (Failure Mode Effects Analysis ) :

It is a systematic approach where in for each component the failure modes and their resulting effects on the rest

of the system is malyied and records, so that preventive steps can be taken.

Manufacturing :

Raw materials into final product

Technology transfer
 Direct & Indirect employment

Supply chain management

Multiplier effect

Shipping & packaging

Lean Manufacturing :

Its purpose is to eliminate avoidable waste within a manufacturing system.

1. Pull based : Manufacturing should be based on the demand.

2. Create flow : It should be ensured that product moves from production state to shipping stage without much

interruption.

3. Seek Perfection : On the basis of continuous improvement.

4. Identify value : Designing products to meet customer needs.

5. Value steam Mapping : Minimize those steps which dont add value to the product.

Supply Chain Management : Supply chain management is crucial to improve the efficiency in manufacturing.

KANBAN : It is a scheduling system for lean manufacturing and just in time manufacturing. It is an inventory

control system to effectively manage the supply chain and thereby improve the manufacturing efficiency.

Quality in construction

Improve procurement system

Quality
Assurance Training

Guidelines/Costs
Quality Control Site inspection

Cost of failure high better to take preventive steps

Do it right first time otherwise Repair rework

Timely delivery

Use of recycled products

Aesthetical (Interior decoration, architectural)

Space utilization
Total Quality control (TQC)

In traditional quality control it is assumed that quality control is within the acceptable limit. Thus allowing a certain

amount of defects as acceptable but in case of TQC, no defective items are allowed anywhere.

In const sector the goal of zero defects can never be permanently obtained because of the many no. of sub

contractor and variability in the workforce.

However TQC as a goal continuously inspires the oxganization to reduce the no of defects.

Quality in Services
Service delivered > Service expected

customers satisfaction

The distinguishing features of the services is that the service is created & delivered at the same time. Hence in

service inspection is difficult.

Service inherently consists of human elements.

Service is an experienced felt by the customers.

There are 5 dimensions of quality in services.

Service Quality Dimensions

1. Tangibles : Appearance of physical environment, surroundings in which the service is provided. E.g.

lighting, decorations etc.

2. Responsivencess : Willingness to help the customers in a time bound manner.

3. Empathy : Individual attention & earing attitude towards to make them feel special.

4. Reliability : The ability to deliver the promised service accurately & dependably.

5. Assurance : Knowledge & courtesy of the staff and their ability to convey trust & confidence.

Gap Model

1. Gap between customer expectations and the perception of the management :

Inadequate master research

Lack of communication between the various levels of the organization.

2. Between management perception & service quality specification

 The perception of infeasibility

Inadequate commitment to the quality

3. Between service quality specification & service delivery.

Cause : Poor training of workers, their in capability or unwillingness.

4. Service quality delivery and external communication : It may be due to the fact that the company is

promosing to made to attract the customers or there may be difference in the service quality of different

branches.

5. Gap between expected service & experienced service ;

This is became the customer may misinterrupt the service quality.

st
Q. The advertisement of an automobile claims that the does not need any service or maintenance for 1 1 lac

km. which of the following quality characteristics are described by this advertisement ?

(a) Reliability

(b) Tangibles

(c) Features

(d) Court say