2017611 G3YNHinfo:Reflectometry.

TXtoAe RFBridges

6.4Reflectometry
(Measurementofreflectioncoefficient,returnloss,andSWR)

>>>workinprogress.

Reflectometry:
Oneoftheprincipalapplicationsoftheimpedancebridgeisthemeasurementofforward
andreflectedpowerintransmissionlinesthisusuallybeingexpressedintermsofSWR
orreturnloss(tobedefinedshortly).Thebridgehowever,cannotmeasurereflections,it
canonlymeasurequantitieswhichcanbederivedfromvoltageandcurrent.Theratioof
forwardtoreflectedpowerinalineisafunctionoftheloadimpedanceandthe
characteristicimpedanceand,inthecaseofalosslesslineatleast,remainsconstant
throughoutthelengthoftheline.Theactualinputimpedanceofamisterminatedline
however,canvaryradicallydependingonitslengthandsoimpedanceonitsownisnot
sufficienttodeterminetherequiredpowerratio.Thekeytoreflectometrytherefore,isto
devisebridgeswhichcanmeasuresomequantitywhichisconservedregardlessofthe
lengthoftheline,andtoderivetherequiredinformationfromthat.
Considerawavetravelingfromgeneratortoloadinalosslesstransmissionline.As
thewavemovesalongtheline,ithasnoknowledgeoftheconditionsitwillmeetwhenit
arrivesattheloadandsotherelationshipbetweenvoltageandcurrentintheforward
travelingwaveisdictatedentirelybythesurgeresistance(i.e.,thecharacteristic
resistance),R0,oftheline.Thuswemaywrite:
VF=IFR0 (1)
Ifthelineisnotterminatedinitscharacteristicresistance,onlypartoftheenergyinthe
wavewillbeabsorbed(orperhapsnoneifthelineisopenorshortcircuit),anda
reflectedwavewillbelaunchedonajourneyfromtheloadtothegenerator.This
reflectedwavewillalsohavenoknowledgeoftheconditionswhichprevailatits
destination,andsotherelationshipbetweenvoltageandcurrentwillalsobedetermined
solelybyR0,i.e.,
VR=IRR0 (2)
Inthiscase,aminussignisrequiredinordertomaintainconsistencyinthedefinitionsof
theforwardandreflectedwavesi.e.,wemustassumethateitherthevoltageorthe
currentisreversedrelativetotheforwardwaveatthereflectionboundary.Tounderstand
thispoint,notethatifthelineisopencircuit,avoltagemayexistatthediscontinuity,but
thesumofforwardandreflectedcurrentsmustbezero,i.e.,thesignofthecurrentmust
reverseasthewaveturnsaroundandheadsbacktowardsthegenerator.Conversely,if
thelineisshortcircuit,thenafinitecurrentmayexistattheendoftheline,butthesum
oftheforwardandreflectedvoltagesmustbezero,i.e.,thesignofthevoltagemust
reverse.Whenpartialreflectionoccurs,thevoltagereversesrelativetotheforwardwave
ifthemagnitudeoftheloadimpedanceislessthanR0,andthecurrentreversesifthe
magnitudeoftheloadimpedanceisgreaterthanR0buttheminussignintheexpression
abovemaintainsconsistencyineithercase,andallowstheforwardandreversewave
definitionstobecombined(i.e.,tobeusedassimultaneousequations).
Wecannot,ofcourse,measuretheforwardandreflectedvoltagesandcurrents
independently.Ifwemakemeasurementsofvoltageandcurrentatvariouspointsonthe
line,wewillalwaysmeasurethesumofforwardandreflectedvoltagesandthesumof
forwardandreflectedcurrentsateachpoint.Attheloadhowever,wecandeterminethe
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relativemagnitudesoftheforwardandreflectedvoltagesorcurrents,becausethe
relationshipbetweenthetotalvoltageandthetotalcurrentatthispointisdefinedbythe
loadimpedanceZ.Theratiosodeterminediscalledthereflectioncoefficient,andistrue
ofthemagnitudesoftheforwardandreflectedvoltagesandcurrentsatanypointinthe
linebecausethepower(energyperunitoftime)intheforwardandreflectedtraveling
wavesisconstant.Anexpressionforthereflectioncoefficientcanbedeterminedas
follows:

IfVisthevoltageacrosstheload,andIisthecurrentflowingintheload,thenwemay
write:
V=IZ=VF+VR...(3)
i.e.,thevoltageattheloadisthesumofthevoltagesintheforwardandreflectedwaves.
Similarly,thecurrentflowingintheloadisthesumoftheforwardandreflectedcurrents,
andwemayalsowrite:
I=V/Z=IF+IR...(4)
Theobservationsmadesofararesummarisedinthediagrambelow:

Fromtherelationshipsgivenabove,wehaveIF=VF/R0andIR=VR/R0.Substitutingthese
expressionsintoequation(4)gives:
I=(VF/R0)(VR/R0)=(VFVR)/R0
andusing(3)gives:
(VF+VR)/Z=(VFVR)/R0
whichcanberearrangedasfollows:
(VF+VR)R0=(VFVR)Z
VFR0+VRR0=VFZVRZ
VRR0+VRZ=VFZVFR0
VR(Z+R0)=VF(ZR0)
Togive:
VR/VF=(ZR0)/(Z+R0)
whichsaysthattheratioofthevoltagesinthereflectedandforwardwavesisasystem
constantwhichdependsonlyonZandR0.Recallhowever,thatwhilethisexpressionis
trueattheload,itisonlytrueofvoltagemagnitudesatotherpointsintheline,andsoto
generaliseitwemustwrite:
|VR|/|VF|=|ZR0|/|Z+R0|
whichistrueeverywhereintheline.

Thequantity|VR|/|VF|isthedesiredreflectioncoefficient,andisvariouslygiventhe
symbol(rho),(capitalGamma),ork,dependingonthecommentator.Herewewill
prefer,becauseisalreadyusedelsewheretodenotebothresistivityanddensity.is
sometimescalledthe"voltagereflectioncoefficient",butthisisapeculiaraffectationas
wemayseebyusingrelationships(1)and(2)toeliminateallvoltagesfromequation(3)
andthenusingequation(4)toeliminateI.Bysodoingweobtain:

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IFZ+IRZ=IFR0IRR0
whichrearrangesto:
IR/IF=(ZR0)/(Z+R0)
Theminussignislostingeneralisingtoallpointsontheline(i.e.,bytaking
magnitudes),because|IR|=|IR|,andso:
|IR|/|IF|=|ZR0|/|Z+R0|

Thus,tosummarise:
|VR| |IR| |ZR0|
= = =
|VF| |IF| |Z+R0|

>>>workinprogress

Lossylines:
Z0=R0+jX0(X0isnegative)andZ0*

Returnloss=20Log10(1/)[dB]

SWR
S=Maxpeakvoltage/minpeakvoltage=Maxpeakcurrent/minpeakcurrent
(Onlystrictlydefinedforlinesof/4andlonger)

S=(1+)/(1)
Trueforanylengthoflineandforlossylines.

=(S1)/(S+1)

=(PR/PF)

>>>

Directionalcoupler:
Thetransmissionlinebetweenaradiotransmitterandanantennadoesnotnecessarily
needtobematchedbutthepresenceofstandingwavesonanunmatchedlinecreatesa
problemofpowermeasurementwhentheintrumentation(asisusuallydesirable)is
locatedintheradioroom.Thelineperformsanimpedancetransformationsuchthat,ata
distanceof/4(anelectricalquarterwavelength,or90electricaldegrees)fromtheload,
theimpedancelookingintothelinewillbeofhighmagnitudeifthemagnitudeofthe
loadimpedanceislessthanthecharacteristicresistanceoftheline,andviceversa.The
impedancevariescyclicallyasthedistancefromtheloadincreases,andreturnstothe
samevalue(neglectinglosses)atintervalsof/2.Sincethelengthofthelineisusually
dictatedbythephysicalinstallationratherthanbyelectricalconsiderationsearly

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attemptstomonitortransmitterperformancebymeasuringeitherthevoltageorthe
currentatthetransmitterterminalswereboundtoproduceinconsistentresults.

>>
Inventionof:(earlypatents).Overcomingmisleadingmeasurementsbytakingaverageof
voltageandcurrentanalogsatagivenpoint.
Gothe,Buschbeck,Kautter1939,US2165848.
Alexander1949US2467648.

thedirectionalcouplerisrelatedtothetelephonehybridcircuit,adeviceusedfor
separatingandrecombiningupstreamanddownstreamsignalsinlongtelephonelinesso
thattheseparatedsignalscanbepassedthroughamplifiers.Alsousedtoreduceside
tone,sothatcallersarenotdeafenedbytheirownvoices.Thename'hybrid'probably
derivesfromthefactthatanyparticulartransformerwindingisneitheraprimaryora
secondary,butperformsbothfunctionssimultaneously.

Determiningasananalogcomputationproblem.

|VR| |IR| |ZR0| |VvVi|

= = = =
|VF| |IF| |Z+R0| |Vv+Vi|

>>>>>toberewritten

6.4x.TheReflectometer(orSWR)bridge:
AnSWRbridgeisareflectometerbridgewithameterscalecalibratedinSWR.A
reflectometerbridgeisasetoftwoimpedancebridgesoneusednormally,andoneused
withthegeneratorandtheloadtransposed.
Whenanimpedancebridgeisdesignedtobalanceatthecharacteristicresistance(R0)
ofatransmissionlineintowhichitisinserted,thebalancecondition,bydefinition,
occurswhenthepowerreflectedbackfromtheloadiszeroi.e.,thebridgeindicates
whetherornotthetransmissionlineiscorrectlyterminated,andittranspiresthatany
imbalancereadingisproportionaltothesquarerootofthereflectedpower.Iftheload
andthegeneratoraretransposedhowever,thebridgewillnolongerbalance,becausethe
outputatthedetectorportisnowVv+ViratherthanVvVi(thepolarityofthecurrent
sampleisreversed).Theconfigurationisstillusefulhowever,becauseitsolvesthe
problemofhowtomeasuretheforwardpowerinatransmissionlineinthepresenceof
standingwaves.Ifthereisreflectedenergytravellinginaline,thevoltageontheline
willbethesumofthevoltagesduetoforwardandreflectedpower,andthiswillvary
sinusoidallywiththedistancefromtheload.Hence,iftheforwardpoweristobe
measuredatanarbitrarypointontheline,itcannotbecalculatedfrom|V|/R0.Similarly,
thecurrentinthelinewillvarysinusoidally,andtheforwardpowercannotbecalculated
from|I|R0.Currentmaximahoweverwillalwayscorrespondtovoltageminima,and
viceversa,andsotheforwardpowercanbededucedbymakingtwodeterminations,one
fromthecurrentandonefromthevoltage,andtakingtheaverage.Hence|Vv+Vi|is
proportionaltothesquarerootoftheforwardpower,providedthatthecurrentand
voltagesamplesaretakenatexactlythesameelectricalpointontheline.
Inacurrenttransformerbridgewithmorethanoneturninthecurrenttransformer

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primarywinding,anapparentlysensiblepointatwhichtosamplethevoltageisata
primarycentretap.Sincemostbridgesonlyhaveoneprimaryturnhowever,thevoltage
mustbetakenfromonesideortheother,buttheerrorwhichresultsisnegligible
providedthatthedistancefromthemiddleofthecurrenttransformerissmallin
comparisontoonewavelengthatthehighestfrequencyofoperation.Suchisthe
acceptedpractice,butinfactitisnotalwaysbesttosamplevoltageandcurrentat
exactlythesamephysicalpointbecauseittakestimeforthecurrentsampletopropagate
outofthetransformercoil.Thebesttechniqueistotakevoltageandcurrentsamples
frompointsofequaltimedelayralativetothesource,amatterwhichcanbedealtwith
byneutralisation,orbymovingthesamplingpointdownlinebyanelectricaldistance
equaltohalftheelectricallengthofthecurrenttransformersecondarywinding.
AprototypeSWRbridgeisshownbelow:wherethemagnitudeofVfisproportional
tothesquarerootoftheforwardpowerandisindependentofreflectedpowerandthe
magnitudeofVrisproportionaltothesquarerootofthereflectedpower,andis
independentofforwardpower.

Sincetheoutputofthecurrenttransformerissharedbetweentwobridges,thebalance
conditionisnow:
VvVi/2=0
Thismeansthatthevoltagesamplingnetworkcomponentsmustbechosentogivehalf
theoutputrequiredforasinglebridge,butthebridgedesignprocedureisotherwisethe
same.

Caveat:Noticethatthedualbridgecircuitshownabovehasaseriousflawinoneofits
mostpopularimplementationswhichisthatinwhichthevoltagesamplingnetworkZ1,
Z2isahighimpedancecapacitivepotentialdivider,theforwardandreflectedoutput
portsareterminatedwithdiodedetectors,andthecircuitisusedtodrivetwometers
simultaneously.WhentheloadZLiscorrectlymatchedtothecable,theforwardoutput
willbelargeandwilldriveitsdetectorhardcausingtheoutputofthevoltagesampling
networktodroop,especiallyatlowfrequencies.Thiswillthrowthebalancecondition
forthereflectedpowerbridgeandgiverisetoaspuriousreading.Essentially,theshared
capacitivedividerversiondoesnotworkproperlyatlowfrequencieswhenusedto
drivetwoseparatemeters,itbeinganillconceivedextensionofacircuitintendedto
haveasinglemeterandaswitchtoselectbetweenforwardandreversereadings.Warren
Bruene'ssolutiontothisproblemwastouseseparatevoltagesamplingnetworksforthe
twobridges[40].Also,ifwedecidetocompensateforcurrenttransformerdelayby
movingthevoltagesamplingpointalongtheline,wewillneedtomovethereflected
powervoltagenetworktowardstheloadandtheforwardpowervoltagenetworktowards
thegenerator,andsowewillbeforcedtousetwovoltagesamplingnetworksanyway.
Anothersolutionsaretouseavoltagesamplingnetworkwithalowoutputimpedance.
Itwasmentionedinthelastparagraph,thatinordertodelaythevoltagesamplefor
reflectedpower,itisnecessarytomovethesamplingpointtowardstheload.Thismight
seemantiintuitive,butonlyifwesubscribetotheviewthatthereflectometercan
measurereflectedpower.Itcandonosuchthing:itcanonlyinfertheexistenceof
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reflectedpowerfromthedifferencebetweentheactualloadimpedanceandthetarget
loadimpedance.Tounderstandthispoint,consideranSWRbridgedesignedtobalance
whentheloadis50+j0.Ifweconnectthisbridgedirectlytoa100loadresistor,it
willdeclareanSWRof2:1.Theresistorisnotreactivehowever,andsowillabsorball
ofthepowerdeliveredtoitandreflectnone.The2:1SWRreadingisonlytruewhenthe
bridgeseesanimpedancemagnitudeof100(or25)attheinputtoa50
transmissionline.Thebridgeisjustanimpedancebridge,ithasnospecialpsychic
powers,anditsreadingsareonlytruewhenitisinsertedintoalinehavingthesame
characteristicresistance.

6.4x.TheBrueneDirectionalWattmeter:

>>>Toberewritten.
>>>>TheBruenebridgeisdiscussedbelowbecauseitishistoricallyinteresting.Itisnot
recommendedasabasisformoderndesigns.

The"DirectionalWattmeter"(i.e.,SWRbridge)circuitshownbelowisbasedonacircuit
devisedbyWarrenBruene(W0TTK,W5OLY,oftheCollinsRadioCompany)which
becamepopularamongradioamateursasaresultofanarticlepublishedin1959[40].
TheoriginalBruenebridgewasessentiallythesameasDouma'sbridge,butwithoutlow
frequencycompensationandrearrangedtousetheshuntdiodedetectorconfiguration
[seeDetectorsforRFmeas.].ThesechangesweresufficienttocircumventDouma's
1957patent[USP2808566],butthecircuitisalsoalogicaldevelopmentofthecapacitor
ratioarmbridge(CRAB)usedinearlierCollinsdesignsandsomaywellhavebeen
inventedindependently.TheCRABusedasamismatch(SWR)indicatorintheCollins
180L3(2MHz25MHz)automaticantennatunerisdiscussedelsewhere[
/zdocs/zmatching/].A"highfrequencyiron"toroidalcurrenttransformerwashowever
usedforthephaseandmagnitudebridgesofthatunit,andsoitwasonlyamatteroftime
beforethetoroidmigratedintothereflectometer.TheCRABwasuseddownto2MHz
however(limitedonlybytheoutputimpedanceoftheratioarms)whereasthelackof
LFcompensationintheoriginalBruenebridgeraisedtheusefulminimumfrequency,
andthedesignsdiscussedinreferences[40],[41],and[42]areonlysuitablefor3.530
MHz.Douma'spatentexpiredin1977,andso,whilehomeconstructorsneverhadvalid
reasontoomitthecompensationresistors(apartfromlackofawarenessoftheir
importance),commercialdesignersnowhavenoreasontoomitthemeither(and
probablyneverdid,becauseDoumadidnotinventthiscompensationmethoditwas
usedbyKormanin1942[USPat.2285211]andsowasoutofPatentby1962).
Consequently,theresistors(Rv)havebeenaddedtothecircuitshownbelow,andtheir
inclusionshouldberegardedasmandatory.Theinclusionofcompensationresistorsalso
necessitatestheinclusionofblockingcapacitors(Cb)topreventtheDCoutputsofthe
detectorsfrombeingshuntedtoground.Cbmerelyneedstohavealowreactanceatthe
minimumfrequencyofoperation(10nFceramicwillusuallydothetrick)butan
excessivelylargecapacitor(i.e.,severalF)inthispositionwillslowtherateatwhich
theDCoutputcanchangeandwilldampthemeterresponse.

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Noticethattheshuntdiodedetectorisconnecteddirectlybetweenthecurrentand
voltagesampleoutputsandtherectifiedsignalisextractedthroughanRFchoke(RFC).
ThisfloatingdetectorconfigurationisaHallmarkoftheCollinsRadioCompanyfrom
the1950sbutisperhapsnowadayssomewhatarchaic.Onedisadvantageisthatthe
detector'ports'arenotreferencedtoground,andsoisolationtransformerswillbe
requiredifsignalsaretobeinjectedintothem.NotealsothattheRFchokesmustbe
carefullychosentohaveaveryhighimpedancethroughouttheoperationfrequency
range,sincereactiveloadingofthevoltagesamplingnetworkwillintroduceserious
errorsintothebalancecondition(multisegmentRFchokesof1mHormoreare
normallyused).IfthedropinmetersensitivitywhichresultsfromusingRvasthe
detectorDCreturnpathcanbetolerated,itisagoodideatoswapthedetector
connections,i.e.,connecttheanodeofthediodetothejunctionofC1andC2,and
connecttheblockingcapacitorCbtothecurrenttransformeroutput.Duetotheverylow
outputimpedanceofthecurrenttransformercircuit,selfcapacitanceeffectsinthechoke
willthenonlyaffectthemagnitudeofthemeterreadingandwillhavelittleeffectonthe
balancecondition.Ifthedetectorisreversedinthiswayincidentally,attemptingto
restoreitssensitivitybyconnectingachokeacrossRvisnotagoodideabutasweshall
seebyperforminganactualdesigncalculation,thelossofsensitivitywillnotbe
particularlylargebecauseRvwillbemeasuredinhundredsratherthanthousandsof
ohms.

Thebalanceconditionis:

VvVi/2=0

where,fromthederivationgiveninsection?:

Vv/V=v=(Rv//jXC1//jXC2)/jXC2

andthecurrenttransferfunctionatbalance(fromsection?)is:

Vi/V=0=(jXLi//Ri)/NiR0

Sincethecurrentsampleissharedbytwobridges,wemustdivideitbytwo.Hence,at
balance:

v=0/2

i.e.,
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(Rv//jXC1//jXC2)/jXC2=(jXLi//Ri)/(2NiR0)

whichuponinversionofbothsidesgives:

jXC2[(1/jXC1)+(1/jXC2)+(1/Rv)]=2NiR0[(1/Ri)+(1/jXLi)]

RecallingthatXC=1/2fCand1/j=j,thisrearrangesto:

[(C1 +C2)/C2]+jXC2/Rv=[2NiR0/Ri]j2NiR0/XLi

Hence,equatingtherealparts:

(C1 +C2)/C2=2NiR0/Ri x.1

and,equatingtheimaginaryparts:

1/C2Rv=2NiR0/Li x.2

Example:
ABruenebridgedesignisgiveninref.[41].ThisusesanAmidonT682corewith35
turnsof#26AWGenamelledwire,andthecurrenttransformersecondaryloadis20,
i.e.,thetworesistorsmarkedRi/2aboveare10each.Thecapacitorsheredesignated
C1wereoriginally330pF,andcapacitorsC2were7pFtrimmers.Lowfrequency
compensationresistorswerenotusedintheoriginalcircuit,andtheoperatingfrequency
rangewasstatedtobe3.5to30MHzbutsincewehavedataforthetransformercorewe
cancomputevaluesforthecompensationresistorsandextendthefrequencyrangeto1.8
MHz.

Usingequation(x.1)wewillfirstfindthenominalcapacitanceofC2whenthebridgeis
balancedfor50loads:
(C1 /C2)+1=2NiR0/Ri=23550/20=175
C1 /C2=174
330pF=174C2
C2=1.90pF
Thishasareactanceof24kat3.5MHzand46.6kat1.8MHz.Tostayroughlyin
keepingwiththeoriginaldesignintentionsweshouldincreaseC2toobtainareactanceof
about24kat1.8MHz,andsoacandidatevalueforC2is3.68pFandC1=174C2=641
pF.680pFisthelargernearestpreferredvalue,and1%silveredmicacapacitorsofthis
valueareavailable,andsoweendupwithC1=680pF,C2=680/174=3.9pF(obtainedby
adjustinga210pFtrimmer).Sincetherearetwovoltagesamplingnetworks,ourchoice
willresultinafixedcapacitanceofnearly8pFacrossthegenerator,butsinceoneofthe
networksisontheloadside,itwillbeabsorbedintotheloadimpedanceafter
adjustment.Hencethemismatchseenbythegeneratorwhenthebridgeisbalancedwill
bemainlyduetothepresenceofonlyoneofthevoltagesamplingnetworks,andthe
effectof3.9pFiscomfortablywithinnormalloadtolerancelimits.

Forlowfrequencycompensation,wenotethatthetransformerhas35turns,andtheAL
valueoftheT682coreis5.7nH.HencethesecondaryinductanceisALN=7H.Using
equation(x.2):
Rv=Li/2NiR0C2=7106/(235503.91012)=512
Ameasurementoftheactualinductanceofthetransformercoilis,ofcourse,abetter
criterionforthecalculationofthecompensationresistor.
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Inthematterofsettingthebalancepointsandcalibratingsuchabridge,noticethatthe
circuitiscompletelysymmetric.Havingconnecteda50resistortotheloadportand
adjustedthereflectedsignalvoltagesamplingnetworkforanullreadingonthe
correspondingmeter,thegeneratorandloadconnectionscanbeswappedforadjustment
oftheothertrimmer.Forcalibrationofthemeterscales,thevoltageacrosstheloadcan
bemeasured(e.g.,usingacalibratedoscilloscopeanda10probe,providedthatthe
'scopeinputvoltageratingisnotexceeded),swappingthegeneratorandload
connectionsasbeforeforadjustmentofthetwometerseriesresistors.Forveryhigh
powertransmitters,thevoltageshouldbemeasuredattheoutputofathroughline
attenuator(i.e.,atappeddummyloadresistor).Recallthatforwardpowerisproportional
tothesquarerootofVv+Vi,andsothemeterswillhavetobefittedwithnonlinear
scalesifcalibratedinwattsorrelativepower.Itisquitecommonforthemeterresistors
tobeswitchedfordifferentFSDpowerreadings.Dualgangvariablepotentiometersare
alsoused,butthetrackingofinexpensivedoublepotentiometers,particularlyofthe
logarithmicvariety,isnotoriouslybad.Sincemosttransmittershaveadrivelevel
control,infinitevariabilityofthebridgesensitivityisnotusuallyneeded,andswitched
rangescalibratedinactualpoweraremuchmoreuseful.Notethattheaccuracyofthe
calibrationatlowfrequenciesdependsontherelationshipbetweenXLiandRias
discussedinsection?.IntheexamplegivenaboveXLi=4Riat1.8MHz,andsotheerror
willbelessthan5%(seetable?)butinthatcasethedesignisforuseinconjunction
withkilowatttransmitters,andmoresensitivedesigns(lessturnsonthecurrent
transformercoreoralargervalueofsecondaryloadresistance)willnotbesogoodin
thisrespect.

>>>>>
Useoftransformerstotakeoff|VvVi|.Getsridofthechokesandcostsaboutthesame.

>>>>

Refs
[40]"AnInsidePictureofDirectionalWattmeters",WarrenBBrueneW0TTK[W5OLY],QSTApril1959
p2428.
[41]"InLineRFPowerMetering"DougDeMawW1CER[W1FB],QSTDec1969p1116.
ConstructionarticleforBruenetypebridgesfor3.530MHz.
[42]FerromagneticCoreDesign&ApplicationHandbook,MF"Doug"DeMawW1FB,1stedition,2nd
printing1996.MFJpublishingco.http://www.mfjenterprises.com/.
Bruenebridge:p9495.

6.4x.SWRBridgewithloadsidevoltagesampling.

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>>>>>
SamebasicdesignconsiderationsasBruene.
InductanceofhalfwindingisLi/2asexplainedinsection6x.
Getsridofthechokes.
Getsridoftheloadingdefectofsharedvoltagesamplingnetworks.
CVSnetworkacrossloadallowsneutralisationbytheloadcapacitancemethod.HF
phaseneutralisationcanbeeffectedbyarrangingCVSnetworkcapacitancetobelarger
thanrequired,thenaddingasmallamountofcapacitanceacrossthetransformer
secondary.
HFamplitudecorrection(compensationforinductanceoflowervoltagesamplingarm)
canbeeffectedbyplacingasmallinductanceinserieswithC2.
Groundreferenceddet.portsallowreciprocalcalibrationandstealthtuning(mustshort
Lduringthecalibrationreversal)
Lcalculatedaspersection6x,compensatesforcapacitanceacrosstheline.
Rvcanbearesistorinserieswithsmallpot.
C1canbeafixedcapacitorinparallelwithatrimmer.

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Powermeasurement:

6.4x.SquareLawdetectors:

Asectionontheuseofsquarelawdetectorsinpowermeasurement.

Largesignal"linear"detector.
Smallsignal.Outputvoltageisproportionaltothesquareoftheinputvoltage
Agilentapplicationnotes[seediodedetectors].
Thesquarerootofanumbercanbeobtainedbyhalvingitslogarithmandtakingthe
antilog.
Logandantilogamplifiers.Tempcompensationusingdualtransistors.

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>>

DWKnight2008,2013.
DavidKnightassertstherighttoberecognisedastheauthorofthiswork.

TXtoAe RFBridges

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