a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Small power is a substantial energy end-use in ofce buildings in its own right, but also signicantly
Received 11 July 2013 contributes to internal heat gains. Technological advancements have allowed for higher efciency com-
Received in revised form puters, yet current working practices are demanding more out of digital equipment. Designers often rely
20 December 2013
on benchmarks to inform predictions of small power consumption, power demand and internal gains.
Accepted 5 February 2014
These are often out of date and fail to account for the variability in equipment speciation and usage
patterns in different ofces. This paper details two models for estimating small power consumption in
Keywords:
ofce buildings, alongside typical power demand proles. The rst model relies solely on the random
Small power
Plug loads
sampling of monitored data, and the second relies on a bottom-up approach to establish likely power
Ofces demand and operational energy use. Both models were tested through a blind validation demonstrating
Predictions a good correlation between metered data and monthly predictions of energy consumption. Prediction
Estimates ranges for power demand proles were also observed to be representative of metered data with minor
Computers exceptions. When compared to current practices, which often rely solely on the use of benchmarks, both
Energy consumption proposed methods provide an improved approach to predicting the operational performance of small
Power demand power equipment in ofces.
Operational performance
2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY license.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.02.011
0378-7788 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY license.
200 A.C. Menezes et al. / Energy and Buildings 75 (2014) 199209
Nomenclature
u uncertainty
t Students t distribution using n 1 degrees of free-
dom
n the number of samples
S standard deviation
P power (W)
T time of day
Table 1
ECG 19 benchmarks for small power consumption (i.e. ofce and catering equipment).
overall energy consumption of ofce buildings: laptop shipment inuencing the amount of time a computer spends in different
gures are projected to be triple that of desktops in the next few operating modes [2]. Power managed computers are programmed
years [20]. Technological advancements such as the evolution of to enter a low power mode after a specied time of inactivity.
thin client computers and tablets are likely to drive power demand A study carried out in 2004 revealed that if power management
down even further, with thin clients being widely used in schools settings were applied to switch a computer to low power mode
already [21]. This technology reduces power demand and resultant after 5 min of inactivity, 76% of the idle time would be spent on
heats gains locally by shifting these to centralised processors with low power mode [25]. Alternatively, setting the time delay to
higher efciencies [22]. 60 min resulted in the computer only spending 20% of its idle
However, power demand is only one factor affecting the total time in low power mode. A separate study carried out by the
energy consumption of computers. Arguably, the way in which a Australian National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efciency
computer is used is a more signicant factor in determining the Program (NAEEEP) demonstrated that aggressive power manage-
total energy consumption of computers [16]. Nonetheless, there ment (powering down computers after 5 min of inactivity) resulted
is little research into usage patterns and behavioural factors with in a reduction of annual energy consumption by approximately 75%
most of the existing work focusing solely on the split between compared to a scenario when no power management settings were
energy consumed during working hours and out-of hours. applied [28].
A monitoring study of 5 ofce buildings by Masoso et al. revealed When estimating the peak demand and energy consumption of
that more energy was being used out-of-hours (56%) than during computers, it is also vital to consider usage diversity [29]. Actual
working hours (44%), largely due to occupants leaving lighting and peak demand for computers (and subsequent energy consump-
equipment on at the end of the day [23]. More recently, a study tion) in a given area of a building will always be less than the
into the after-hours power status of ofce equipment highlighted sum of power demand for each computer due to usage diversity
a signicant variation amongst the number of computers switched [30]. Diversity factors need to be applied to load calculations in
off after hours, ranging from 5% to 67% [24]. Amongst the monitored order to limit oversizing of cooling plant [4]. The diversity factor of
computers, the rate of after-hours turn off was larger for laptops computers (or any given equipment) is dened as the ratio of mea-
than desktops. Focusing on daytime usage, a study looking into the sured heat gains to the sum of the peak gain from all equipment
energy savings potential of ofce equipment power management [31]. A study conducted in 1994 measured the diversity factor of
suggested that on average, the monitored computers were powered 23 areas within 5 ofce buildings, highlighting a signicant varia-
on for 6.9 h a day, being in active mode for 3 h per day [25]. tion in diversity, ranging form 3778% [26]. More recently, Wilkins
Studies dating back to the 90s suggest that on average, comput- and Hosni proposed diversity factors for individual ofce equip-
ers are active for approximately 9% of the year [26]. In a detailed ment, recommending that factors of 75% and 60% should be applied
monitoring study of 3 desktop computers, Nordman et al. calcu- to computers and screens (respectively) in load calculations [32].
lated that computers were active between 17 and 31% of the time Measured diversity during weekends was observed to be 10% and
during workdays, falling to 916% when all days were considered 30% for computers and screens, respectively.
[27]. More recently, Mooreeld et al. monitored 61 desktops and 20 The past decade has seen a major shift towards exible work-
laptop computers in-use in 25 ofces in California over a two-week ing practices in both private and public sectors fuelled by tougher
period [15]. Results demonstrated that desktops spend on average markets and technological advances [33]. The recent proliferation
30% of the time on active mode, compared to 10% for laptops. Mean of hot-desking is largely driven by a desire to reduce the cost of
monitored time spent off highlights further energy savings poten- physical ofce space, and is particularly attractive to organisations
tial with laptops spending 26% of the time off compared to 7.2% for where employees are regularly on the road or working remotely
desktops. [34]. It effectively increases building utilisation also increasing
In addition to usage patterns, power management settings can usage diversity, which is likely to have a signicant impact on
have a signicant impact on the energy consumption of computers; internal heat gains due to ICT equipment. Research into the
Table 2
Published energy requirements gures for desktop and laptop computers.
development of workplaces also suggest that further reliance on into weekdays and weekends allowing for two sets of proles to
ICT is likely to occur regardless of the adoption of exible working be calculated respectively. No ltering was done to exclude days in
practices [35]. which the equipment was not used as the ratio of operational/non-
A recent study modelled the impact of two possible future sce- operational days was used to account for usage diversity.
narios for computer use in ofce buildings [36]: A daily prole for each equipment type was calculated by ran-
domly selecting proles from the database (for weekdays and
(1) Energy conscious scenario: ICT acquisition policy is driven by an weekends separately). For example, a summed prole for the 19
effort to minimise energy consumption and carbon emissions. high-end desktop computers was calculated by adding up 19 ran-
(2) Techno explosion: Maximisation of productivity gives users free- domly selected weekday proles out of the 78 available in the
dom to select the level of ICT demand they need. database. This process was repeated 30 times in order to assess
the variability of the data, allowing for 95% prediction limits to be
calculated using Eq. [1] as follows:
Results suggest that for a building with best practice fab-
ric design, a techno-explosion scenario would result in cooling
1
demands almost double that of the energy conscious scenario, high- u=tS 1+ (1)
n
lighting the potential impact that small power equipment can have
on the energy performance of the building and suggesting the need where u is the uncertainty, t is Students t distribution using n 1
for greater understanding of the likely trends and factors inuenc- degrees of freedom, n is the number of samples and S is the standard
ing small power consumption. deviation.
Daily proles were calculated in this manner for each equip-
3. Methodology ment type, resulting in a total power demand prole for weekdays
and weekends alongside their prediction limits. Daily energy con-
Two new modelling approaches are presented, the rst is base sumption predictions were calculated based on the daily proles for
on the sampling of measured data, whereas the second is new weekdays and weekends, also including upper and lower prediction
bottom-up approach that is independent of the need for moni- limits. The data was then extrapolated to monthly consumption
tored data. by assuming 20 weekdays and 8 weekend days per month, whilst
annual consumption was based on 52 weeks (each with 5 weekdays
and 2 weekend days).
3.1. Model 1: random sampling of monitored data
The rst model developed in this study relies on the ran- 3.2. Model 2: bottom-up model
dom sampling of detailed monitored data to represent an ofce
space with a dened quantity of different types of small power The second model takes the form of a simple bottom-up
equipment. Daily power demand proles (in 1-min intervals) were approach, inspired by the methodology set out in CIBSE Guide F
randomly selected from a database of monitored data and aggre- and TM54, addressing the needs of designers and the wider indus-
gated to represent the number of installed equipment. This process try more closely. It is informed by ndings from the development
was repeated 30 times to assess the variance of the outcomes, pro- of Model 1 but does not rely directly on detailed monitored data.
viding prediction limits within which estimated power demand The model also allows designers to assess the impact of different
is expected to fall. An inherent strength of this approach is that variables on the outputs, encouraging informed discussions with
it avoids the need for assumptions regarding the expected usage the prospective occupier.
proles of individual equipment, relying on the monitored data to The model requires input data relating to the equipment used,
account for such variations. the building, equipment operation and usage patterns.
Table 3 provides a summary of the monitored equipment
included in the database used to predict power demand proles 3.2.1. Equipment inputs
and energy consumption. It also includes the number of daily pro- The rst set of inputs relate to the types of equipment procured
les available for each equipment type, as well as their respective or installed in the area under investigation. These are split under the
quantities within the ofce space under investigation. The selec- following categories: computers, screens, printers/copiers, cater-
tion of devices included in the monitoring study was based on the ing and other. Quantities for each equipment type are provided
installed quantities and expected energy use, also attempting to as absolute values and the model calculates the percentage each
capture information regarding the expected variability of usage. equipment type represents for each category.
With the exception of LCD computer screens, at least 8% of the The power demand of each piece of equipment is characterised
installed equipment (per type) was monitored. Previous research into three operational modes: off, low and on.
by the authors suggests low variability of power demand by com-
puter screens resulting in fewer screens being monitored as part of Poff is the lowest power draw whilst the equipment is connected
this study. to the mains.
Monitoring took place over 3 months at 1-min sample rates Plow is dened as a low power mode that the computer is capa-
and equipment with similar specications was grouped together ble of entering automatically after a period of inactivity (also
to increase the sample size (within the given monitoring period commonly referred to as stand-by).
length). Class 1 accuracy Telegesis ZigBee Plogg-ZGB plug moni- Pon encompasses all the difference operational modes whilst the
tors with a published measurement uncertainty of <0.5% were used. machine is on but not asleep (including idle and active states).
According to Lanzisera et al. sampling faster than at 1-min intervals
does not provide signicant benet and that monitoring periods According to Wilkins and Hosni, two modes of operation (active
longer than a few months provides little improvement in esti- and low) are appropriate for the purpose of load calculations [32].
mating annual energy use [37]. By grouping similar equipment The addition of the off mode allows for further insight into the
used by different users, the sample also provides a wide variety impact of out-of-hours usage. Although power demand can vary
of equipment-user combinations, helping to account for elements signicantly whilst the machine is active, the widely established
of user behaviour in the predictions. The monitored data was split Energy Star framework proposes that computers spend the greater
A.C. Menezes et al. / Energy and Buildings 75 (2014) 199209 203
Table 3
Equipment in the database and installed quantities in the ofce space under investigation.
proportion of time on idle whilst operational [17]. As such, idle might have a higher percentage of transient users. An analysis of
demand values can be used to adequately represent the on mode the time-series demand proles by different users demonstrated
input. varying hours of operation by different computers, yet these were
Power demand values can be obtained from published bench- observed to be fairly consistent for individual users. It is anticipated
marks or if the machines being specied are Energy Star rated, these that the proportion of usage proles can be established based on
can be obtained from their database available online [38]. In the detailed discussions with the client and/or prospective occupier.
case of refurbishments or when the appliances being installed are Usage proles must also be assigned to communal equipment
readily available, these can be monitored for short periods of time to such as printers and photocopiers as well as catering appliances. If
inform better inputs. Plug-in devices with an internal display such the four proles are deemed to be an inappropriate representation
as the Efergy energy monitoring socket (with accuracy within 2%) of the usage of these appliances, more representative proles can
are widely available and can provide live readings of power demand be developed manually and applied instead.
[39]. Table 4 details the equipment inputs used to characterise the
The model provides four usage proles to be assigned to each ofce space under investigation based on a walkthrough audit of
type of computer and screen controlled by individual users (as a the installed equipment alongside ndings from the monitoring
percentage of the total number of equipment installed): study used to develop Model 1.
transient users who are often out of the ofce or away from the
3.2.2. Operational inputs
their desks;
Inputs regarding the operational characteristics of the ofce
strict hours users who work strictly during the companys
include:
standard working hours and who are at their desks for the major-
ity of the working day;
extended hours users who often arrive earlier or leave later Tarr (norm) = standard arrival time;
than the companys standard working hours and who are at their Tdep (norm) = standard departure times
desks for the majority of the working day; Tarr (ext) = extended arrival time;
always on users who are required to leave their machine on all Tdep (ext) = extended departure times.
the time.
The model also requires an estimate of the proportion of equip-
These proles were established as part of previous work by the ment switched off at the end of the day (excluding those who are
corresponding author [40] based on an analysis of the detailed assigned an always on prole) and expected usage diversity (on
monitoring data for different users, and allows for different usage weekdays and weekends). The model also requires information on
patterns to be accounted for. This is of particular relevance when whether reduced occupancy is expected during lunchtime and if
considering different workplaces, for example: a call centre is likely so, when this is likely to occur. Table 5 illustrates the operational
to have a high percentage of strict hour users whereas a law rm inputs used to characterise the ofce space under investigation.
Table 4
Equipment inputs for Model 2.
Absolute % Off Low active On (average) Transient Strict hours Extended hours Always On
Computers
High-end desktops 19 14% 1 80 150 15% 30% 30% 25%
Low-end desktops 22 16% 1 30 40 10% 70% 10% 10%
Laptops 99 71% 1 20 30 30% 30% 40% 0%
Screens
19 LCD screen 128 85% 0 1 25 20% 50% 30% 0%
21 LCD screen 22 15% 0 1 45 20% 50% 30% 0%
Printers and copiers
Photocopier 4 80% 30 30 220 0% 0% 100% 0%
Plotter 1 20% 120 120 170 0% 0% 100% 0%
Catering
Fridge 2 50% 0 100 120 0% 0% 0% 100%
Coffee Machine 2 50% 25 25 350 0% 0% 0% 100%
204 A.C. Menezes et al. / Energy and Buildings 75 (2014) 199209
Table 5
Operational inputs for Model 2.
Wilkins and Hosni suggest that a diversity factor of 75% should 3.2.4. Outputs
be applied to computers in load calculations, with weekend usage The model calculates power demand proles in kW (and W/m2 )
diversity ranging from 10% to 30% [32]. A usage diversity factor of for a typical weekday by multiplying the power demand of each
75% was applied, with a weekend diversity of 15% accounting for item of equipment at different operational modes to the selected
occasional weekend workers. usage proles. The low-end and high-end usage diversity factors
Daily proles of computer diversity published in Wilkins and (10% of the diversity factor specied in order to account for daily
Hosni demonstrate that peak diversity can vary on a daily basis, variability in usage diversity) are applied to the cumulative power
ranging by up to 20% [32]. In order to account for such variations, demand prole, accounting for daily variations in usage diversity.
the model generates two sets of power demand proles (and sub- This approach also accounts for the inherent difculty in estab-
sequent energy consumption gures) by utilising a low-end and lishing an accurate estimate of diversity factor, especially at the
high-end usage diversity factor. These are assumed to be 10% lower design stage. As such, the models outputs are presented as a range
and higher (respectively) than the diversity factor established in the (between the high-end and low-end scenarios). Weekend power
model inputs, accounting for a total variation of 20% in line with demand proles are calculated in a similar way, yet rely on the spec-
data published by Wilkins and Hosni [32]. ied usage diversity factor for weekends. If the ofce is unoccupied
during weekends, the baseload is applied throughout.
3.2.3. Usage proles Fig. 4 illustrates the power demand proles calculated by the
The operational inputs are used to adjust the usage proles model. This includes low-end and high-end outputs for weekdays
as illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3. Pbase represents the base-load and and weekends. Energy consumption values are calculated based on
the summed energy consumption of typical weekday and week-
end power demand proles. Monthly consumption is based on 20
weekdays and 8 weekends, whilst annual consumption is based on
52 weeks (each with 5 weekdays and 2 weekends).
4. Results
Fig. 5. Predictions and metered weekday power demand proles using Model 1.
206 A.C. Menezes et al. / Energy and Buildings 75 (2014) 199209
Fig. 7. Predictions and metered weekday power demand proles using Model 2.
Fig. 9. Predictions and metered weekday power demand proles for the validation of Model 1.
A.C. Menezes et al. / Energy and Buildings 75 (2014) 199209 207
Fig. 10. Predictions and metered monthly energy consumption for the validation of Fig. 12. Predictions and metered monthly energy consumption for the validation of
Model 1. Model 2.
metered power demand increases at lunchtime, probably due to diversity factor of 70% was applied as lower usage was expected
the presence of a small kitchen within the ofce space. The absence in the validation ofce compared to the original worked example
of monitored data for microwave ovens is likely to have limited the (which was the organisations headquarters).
models ability to predict such peaks, contributing further to the Fig. 11 illustrates the low-end and high-end predictions for
underestimation of power demand during the working day. Pre- the blind validation alongside metered power demand proles
vious research by the authors suggests that microwave ovens can for the ofce space over ve different weekdays. A good cor-
have a maximum demand in excess of 1.5 kW [7], being a signi- relation is observed for peak demand and base-loads, with few
cant source of power demand. The transition between the base-load instances where metered peak demand exceeds the prediction
and peak (and vice versa) is represented very well in the predic- range. Once again lunchtime demand is underestimated and this
tion ranges. When compared to the NCM prole, the model results could be addressed by establishing catering-specic usage proles.
provide a much better prediction of power demand throughout The transition between the base-load and peak (and vice versa)
the day. In this particular ofce space, the NCM prole would sig- are represented well in the prediction range, except for a slower
nicantly overestimate peak demand (by more than 50%) yet still decrease in power demand late at night (after 8 pm).
underestimating overnight heat gains. Fig. 12 compares the predicted range of monthly energy con-
Fig. 10 compares the predicted range of monthly energy con- sumption against metered data. Results illustrate that metered
sumption against monthly metered data for 8 months leading up consumption falls within the estimated range for all months. Note
to the validation exercise (normalised for 28 days). Results illus- that the low-end prediction now accounts for a typical December
trate that metered consumption falls within the predicted range month by including only 3 working weeks (i.e. 15 working days and
for all months. 13 weekends).
For the validation model, power draw values and usage proles Both models were observed to provide representative pre-
were consistent with those used in the original example, follow- dictions of power demand, yet Model 1 provides estimates with
ing the assumption that similar operational characteristics would greater granularity, better accounting for the variability in peaks
be observed in ofces occupied by the same organisation. A usage throughout the day. This can be of particular use if the prole
Fig. 11. Predictions and metered weekday power demand proles for the validation of Model 2.
208 A.C. Menezes et al. / Energy and Buildings 75 (2014) 199209
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