2/9/2017

Aerodinmica

Lecture 2
A Physical Description of Lift
Mathematics Review

History Lecture Overview: Objectives

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency A Physical Description of Lift
Math Review Learning Objectives

The physical description of lift,

using Newtons Laws

The connection between lift and power

Some ideas about why wings look the way they do

Some Math review

Descriptions of Lift

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

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Explaining Lift

Mathematical description
Lecture Taught to Aeronautical Engineers (what you will learn in this course)
Objectives
Lift and
Newton Popular description
Lift and Power Taught by flight schools, FAA, NASA, etc (although changing)
Efficiency
Math Review
Physical description
What you are learning today (builds intuition)

Popular Description of Lift

Lecture
Objectives
(what you might have learned)
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency Bernoulli relates pressure to velocity
Math Review
Focuses on shape of wing to determine velocity
Perpetuates some myths (e.g. equal transit times)

Physical Description

Based on Newtons laws

Lecture Easy to understand without equations
Objectives
Leads to an understanding of power required for flight
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

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Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Physical Description of Lift
Math Review

Forget Bernoullis Theorem

Stick and Rudder, published 1944

Lift is a Reaction Force

Newtons Third Law

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

To every Action there is an

equal and opposite Reaction

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Newtons First Law

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review A body at rest will remain at rest,
or a body in motion will continue
in straight line motion unless subjected
to an external applied force

So.

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

For a wing to be held up

it must force air down

Lots of air!

Cessna Citation flying over fog

(Photo By Paul Bowen)

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

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A Rotating Wing Pushes Air Down

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Does this picture show an airfoil generating lift?

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Does this picture show an airfoil generating lift?

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

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No, the air must experience a net change, as shown

below

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Downwash

Wing diverts air down -- Downwash

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power Downwash is related to angle of
Efficiency
Math Review
attack and airspeed, which the
pilot can control

Why does the air follow the

top surface of the wing?

Nature Abhors a Vacuum

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

This cannot happen

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Air at the molecular scale

Lecture Molecules are in

Objectives
Lift and
random motion
Newton
and communicate
Lift and Power
Efficiency
through collisions
Math Review

= Communication!

Collisions Pressure & Viscosity

Streamlines Communicate

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Streamlines communicate
through pressure and thus bend to
prevent a void

Picture a curved hose

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review Air
Force

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Hose is like an airfoil

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review Air
Force

A simple experiment

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Force on glass

Force on water

Newtons Second Law applied to a rocket

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review The thrust of a rocket is equal to the
velocity of the exhaust times the amount
of mass ejected per second

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Newtons 2nd law applied to a wing

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review
The lift on a wing is proportional
to the amount of
air diverted per second times
the vertical velocity of the air
Lift = mass/sec * vertical velocity

Lift

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
So, wing diverts air down for lift
Math Review
Lift = mass/sec * vertical velocity
or
Lift = (m/t) * Vdownwash
(m/t) is mass flow rate of air
pumped down

Diverted Air

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton The amount of air diverted is
Lift and Power
Efficiency proportional to:
Math Review
The speed
The air density

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The wing as a scoop

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

The scoop can be calculated with

the Biot-Savart Law.

Vertical Velocity

Lecture The vertical velocity is proportional

Objectives
Lift and
to:
Newton
Lift and Power
The speed
Efficiency The angle of attack
Math Review
Speed
a:
a
Do w Vv
n wa
sh
Speed (x2)
b: a

Dow Vv(x2)
nwa
sh

Speed
c:
a(x2)
Do (small angle)
wn Vv(x2)
wa
sh

Angle of Attack

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

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Lift is a Function of Angle of Attack

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power

Critical angle of attack

Efficiency
Math Review
Lift

5 10 15 20
Effective angle of attack (degrees)

(at constant density and speed)

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

How much air is pushed down?

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

A Cessna 172
diverts approximately
5 times its own weight per second!

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Summary of Lift

Lecture
Objectives Lift is proportional to:
Lift and
Newton
Amount of air diverted per second
Lift and Power Downwash velocity of that air
Efficiency
Math Review
Amount of air diverted per second is
proportional
to: Speed of wing
Density of air
Downwash velocity of air is proportional to:
Angle of attack
Speed of wing

Thus, Lift ~ Density x Speed2 x Angle-of-Attack

We shall prove this in a later lecture

Myth: 1

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review
T=0
Tf

Particles reach trailing edge at same time.

With Equal Transit times, How Can...

An airfoil fly upside down?

Lecture A paper airplane fly?
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Equal transit times says it cant happen

Equal transit times is wrong!

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Reality

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

I TR A = 13 77
Air goes much quicker over the top

Lift is a Function of Angle of Attack

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Critical angle of attack

Math Review
Lift

5 10 15 20
Effective angle of attack (degrees)

Myth #2

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

These two pictures are not

the same thing

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Cessna Citation flying over fog

(Photo By Paul Bowen)

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and
Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Power

Lecture
Objectives
If Lift didnt require Power:
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power Planes would have same range empty or full
Efficiency
Helicopters could hover at any altitude and load
Math Review
Propulsion would not require power either (same physics)

Power required for lift:

Power is Force times Velocity
Induced Power is the lift times the vertical velocity

Induced Power = Lift * Vertical Velocity

What is the Lift?

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review Lift = Weight
(for straight and level flight)
Weight isnt changing
Lift is constant

So

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How does Vertical Velocity Change?

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review As speed increases, more air passes
past wing so the amount of air diverted
per second increases.

Lift = (m/t) * vertical velocity

or
Vertical velocity = Lift/(m/t)

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power Therefore, as speed increases,
Efficiency
Math Review
downwash decreases

Induced Power= Lift * Vertical Velocity

Induced Power decreases with speed!
But, dont forget power to overcome skin and form drag

Induced Power

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency At half the speed:
Math Review

Half the air is diverted

therefore, you need to double
the vertical velocity by increasing
the angle of attack

Induced power goes as 1/speed

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Induced Power Cessna 172 Skyhawk

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency 120
Math Review
100

80
Power

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
V - mph

Parasitic Power

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review
The energy loss to collision with the air
is proportional to speed squared (1/2mv2)

Number of collisions is proportional

to speed

Parasitic power goes as speed cubed

Parasitic PowerCessna 172 Skyhawk

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency 120.0000
Math Review
100.0000

80.0000
Power

60.0000

40.0000

20.0000

0.0000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
V - mph

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Power Required

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power 120.0
Efficiency
100.0
Math Review

80.0
Power

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0 Ve
0 50 100 150
V - mph

Langleys Law

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Wing Efficiency

Lift requires power

Lecture
Objectives
Induced power is proportional to lift times vertical velocity
Lift and Newton If you double the span of the wing you double the amount of
Lift and Power air diverted and therefore halve the vertical velocity
Efficiency
Math Review

Induced Power and Induced Drag

decrease as wingspan increases

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Gliders have efficient wings

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Classical Aerodynamics

Lift does no work! (We will see this in lectures coming up)
Lecture But, classical aerodynamics assumes a wing of infinite span
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

if span -> infinity

powerinduced -> 0!

Objectives

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review
Math Review

Define gradient, divergence, curl operators; line,

surface and volume integrals

Establish the mathematical tools required to

develop the governing aerodynamic flow
Equations

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Roadmap

We seek: Governing equations for aerodynamics

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton Lecture 2 reviews the mathematical
Lift and Power ingredients
Efficiency Vectors, operators, useful integral
Math Review definitions and identities

Lecture 3 apply a recipe to give us a

freshly baked set of equations
Conservation of mass, momentum and
energy equations for fluid mechanics

Lecture 4 onwards give us our

decorations
Substantial derivative, vorticity,
circulation, stream function...

Vector operations

Gradient operator
Lecture A vector operator of spatial derivatives
Objectives
Lift and Newton In Cartesian coordinates

Lift and Power
, ,
Efficiency
x y z
Math Review

In cylindrical coordinates

1
, ,
r r z
In spherical coordinates

1 1
, ,
r r r sin

Vector operations

Gradient of a scalar field

Lecture
Objectives Result is a vector
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power Magnitude = maximum rate of change of scalar field
Efficiency
Math Review Direction = direction of maximum rate of change

Fluids context pressure gradient drives flow in cardiovascular system

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Vector operations

Gradient of a scalar field

Lecture E.g. Pressure gradient around an aerofoil
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Vectors of p

Pressure field contour plots

Right: 3D plot, pressure
elevation variable

Vector operations

Divergence of a vector field

Lecture
Objectives
Gradient of a scalar field gave an expression for the derivative of
a scalar field
Lift and Newton
TWO ways to express derivatives of vector fields
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Divergence & curl
Divergence: The dot product of the gradient operator with a
Math Review

vector
A measure of the tendency of a vector field to converge/diverge
to/from a point
In Cartesian coords:
ax a y az
A
x y z

Fluids context for incompressible flow, this quantity must be

zero (more on this soon)

Vector operations

Curl of a vector field

Lecture Curl: Cross product of the gradient operator with a vector
Objectives In Cartesian coords:
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency i j k
Math Review
A
x y z
ax ay az
Fluids context for a velocity field, this gives vorticity

Curl provides a measure

of the rate of rotation for
a vector field

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Line Integrals

Integration of a quantity along a line

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton Here n is tangent to curve s

ds n ds
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review A

Open path: Closed path:

A ds
b
a
A ds c

Line Integrals

Integration of a quantity along a line

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton

ds n ds
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review A

E.g. This type of integral

is used to evaluate
circulation, a quantity
intrinsically linked to the
lift force generated by a
lifting flow

Surface Integrals

Integrate a scalar over a surface S

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton Here n is perpendicular to surface S
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

p
dS
n
S

Integrate scalar p p dS
S
Result is a vector

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Surface Integrals

Integrate a scalar over a surface S

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

p
dS
n
E.g. This type of integral
S
is used to evaluate the
pressure contribution to
lift and drag forces over
the surface of a 3D body

Surface Integrals

Integrate a vector over a surface S

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton Here n is tangent to curve s
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

A
dS
n
S

Integrate vector A A dS
S
Result is a scalar

Surface Integrals

Integrate a vector over a surface S

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

A
dS
n
E.g. When A is a velocity
vector, and SS is a cross-
section of a flow, this type
of integral will yield the
volume flow rate through
that surface

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Surface Integrals

Further integral definitions (including volume integrals) are given in

Lecture Anderson, sections 2.2.9 and 2.2.10
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Crucially, there exist identities linking integral expressions
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review Important for derivations to come in this course

Relating integrals

Stokes Theorem
Lecture

A ds A dS
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power c
Efficiency S
Math Review

In a velocity field

u ds u dS
c
S

Line integral for Surface integral

circulation of vorticity

Relating integrals

Divergence Theorem
Lecture

A dS A dV
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency S V
Math Review

In a velocity field

u dS u dV
S V

Flow leaving Rate of change

through surface of volume
of a 3D volume

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Relating integrals

Gradient Theorem
Lecture

p dS p dV
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency S V
Math Review

Surface integral Volume integral

of a scalar field of gradient of
scalar field

Fluid Modeling Approaches

Need an appropriate framework within which to develop governing

Lecture equations for fluid motion
Objectives
These based on conservation of:
Lift and Newton
Mass
Lift and Power
Momentum
Efficiency
Energy
Math Review
Modeling approaches include:
Finite control volume approach
Infinitesimal fluid element approach
Molecular approach

Fluid Modeling Approaches

Finite control volume

Lecture (Large) finite region of flow enclosed as a Control Volume
Objectives Volume either fixed in space, or moves with fluid
Lift and Newton Physical laws applied within (and on boundaries of) volume
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

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Fluid Modeling Approaches

Infinitesimal fluid element

Lecture Continuum assumption employed
Objectives Differential calculus employed to determine physical behaviour of element
Lift and Newton volume dV
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Fluid Modeling Approaches

Molecular approach
Lecture Develop understanding based on statistical averaging of molecular behaviour
Objectives of fluid
Lift and Newton Leads to kinetic theory see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_theory for
Lift and Power further reading
Efficiency
Math Review Used in astrophysics, low-density gas applications, etc.

Not discussed further in this unit

Divergence of velocity: Physical meaning

Consider infinitesimal element dS moving at velocity V over time t

Lecture Change in volume V due to movement of dS = volume of
Objectives
Lift and Newton
streamtube
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

V Vt n dS tV dS

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Divergence of velocity: Physical meaning

Change in volume of V = integral of V over surface S

Lecture

Vtot t V dS
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
S
Math Review
Take time derivative

DV 1
t V dS V dS
Dt t S S

Apply Divergence Theorem

DV
Dt
VdV
V

Divergence of velocity: Physical meaning

Consider volume V as a very small volume

Lecture

D V
Objectives

VdV
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review
Dt V
V V
(this assumes velocity divergence approx. const. over very small
volume)

D V 1
V
Dt V
Divergence of per unit
time rate of change of a
velocity = volume
fluid element volume

Prototype flow: TaylorGreen vortex

2D analytical solution of incompressible governing equations

Lecture

u cos x sin y exp 2t / Re

Objectives
Lift and Newton

v sin x cos y exp 2t / Re

Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review

Consider Re = 100, t = 1
Mesh Streamlines

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Divergence of velocity: Physical meaning

Example
Lecture For our prototype Taylor-Green vortex flow solution
Objectives

u cos x sin y exp 2t / Re

Lift and Newton
Lift and Power

v sin x cos y exp 2t / Re

Efficiency
Math Review

Find velocity divergence

V
and curl of velocity field

Divergence of velocity: Physical meaning

Solution
Lecture What are divergence and curl in Cartesian coordinates?
Objectives
Lift and Newton
u v w
Lift and Power
V
Efficiency
x y z
Math Review

i w v
i j k y z

V j u w
x y z z x
u v w
k v u
x y

u cos x sin y exp 2t / Re

v sin x cos y exp 2t / Re

Divergence of velocity: Physical meaning

Solution
Lecture What are divergence and curl in Cartesian coordinates?
Objectives
Lift and Newton
u v w = 0 for 2D flow
Lift and Power
V
Efficiency
x y z =0
Math Review

i w v
i j k y z
=0

V j u w
x y z z x
u v w
k v u
x y

u cos x sin y exp 2t / Re

v sin x cos y exp 2t / Re

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Divergence of velocity: Physical meaning

Solution
Lecture What are divergence and curl in Cartesian coordinates?
Objectives
Simplifying for 2D flow
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power

u v
Efficiency
Math Review
V
x y
Need to evaluate 4
spatial derivatives
v u
V k
x y

u cos x sin y exp 2t / Re

v sin x cos y exp 2t / Re

Divergence of velocity: Physical meaning

Solution
Lecture Evaluate required spatial derivatives and solve
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
V sin x sin y exp 2t Re
Efficiency
Math Review sin x sin y exp 2t Re
0

V k cosx cos y exp 2t Re

k cosx cos y exp 2t Re
2k cosx cos y exp 2t Re

u cos x sin y exp 2t / Re

v sin x cos y exp 2t / Re

Divergence of velocity: Physical meaning

Solution
Lecture The resulting fields
Objectives
Lift and Newton
Lift and Power
A 2kcosxcos y exp 2t Re
Efficiency
Math Review

V 0 u cos x sin y exp 2t / Re

v sin x cos y exp 2t / Re

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Airplane of the Day: DC-3/C-47

Objectives

Lecture
Objectives
Lift and Newton
A Physical Description of Lift
Lift and Power
Efficiency
Math Review The physical description of lift,
using Newtons Laws

Math Review
Define gradient, divergence, curl operators; line,
surface and volume integrals

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