02 Friedmann Models

Friedmann Models
Alexander Knebe (Universidad Autonoma de Madrid)

Friedmann Models
! Robertson-Walker-Metric
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
! Friedmann Equations
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
special solutions for flat and open world models
horizons
Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
! Friedmann Equations Friedmann derived equations for R(t) in 1929,

but did not use the most general metric
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
Friedmann Models
! Robertson-Walker-Metric Robertson (1935) & Walker (1935):

derivation of most general metric
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
! Friedmann Equations Friedmann derived equations for R(t) in 1929,

but did not use the most general metric
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
Friedmann Models Robertson-Walker-Metric
! principle of general relativity
the equations describing the laws of physics have the same form
irrespective of the coordinate system
1
=> fulfilled by Einsteins field equations R Rg g = 8 GT
2
1
2
we require a metric
1
2
! cosmological principle
space is homogeneous and isotropic

1
2
=> fulfilled by Robertson-Walker-Metric (to be derived below)

1
2
! cosmological principle ?
=> fulfilled by Robertson-Walker-Metric (to be derived below)

isotropy ?
homogeneity ?
isotropy <=> CMB
homogeneity ?
T = 2.725K
isotropy <=> CMB
homogeneity <=> galaxy surveys*
SDSS galaxies
* for instance, WiggleZ Dark Energy Survey (arXiv:1205.6812) reported RH~75 Mpc/h
! metric in general
ds 2 = g dx dx
with x = vector
g = metric tensor
! metric in general
ds 2 = g dx dx
with x = vector
g = metric tensor
example for 3D Euclidean space: ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 g = 1

! metric of curved space-time
ds 2 = g dx dx
with x = (ct, x i ) = space-time vector
" 1 0 0 0 %
$ '
$ 0 11 12 13 '
g = $ = metric tensor
0 21 22 23 '
$ '
$ 0 31 32 33 '&
#
Note: Greek-index => four-vector (space-time),

Roman-index => three-vector (space)
! metric of curved space-time
ds 2 = g dx dx
with x = (ct, x i ) = space-time vector
" 1 0 0 0 %
$ '
$ 0 11 12 13 '
g = $ = metric tensor
0 21 22 23 '
$ '
$ 0 31 32 33 '&
#
ij should describe a homogeneous and isotropic 3D space, i.e.

maximal symmetry for the 4D hypersurface described by xi
! metric of curved space
1D space hypersurface in 2D space
dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 => 1D distance on 2D hypersurface
x

R2 = x 2 + y 2 => 2D hypersurface

x

we like to get rid

of that 2nd dimension (e.g. y)
as we live in 1D space (e.g. only x)
x

dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2
2 2 2
0 = xdx + ydy dy = xdx / y
R =x +y
y2 = R2 x 2
x

dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2
2 2 2
0 = xdx + ydy dy = xdx / y x 2 dx 2
R =x +y 2
dl = dx + 2 2
y2 = R2 x 2 R x2
x

dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2
2 2 2
R =x +y 2
dl = dx + 2 2
( R dl = dx )
y2 = R2 x 2 R x2
x

dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2
2 2 2
R =x +y 2
dl = dx + 2 2
( R dl = dx )
y2 = R2 x 2 R x2
x2
11 = 1+ 2 2
R x
dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 + dz 2

R 2 = x12 + x22 + x32 + z 2
spherical 3D space: dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 + dz 2

R 2 = x12 + x22 + x32 + z 2
hyperbolic 3D space: dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 dz 2

R 2 = ( x12 + x22 + x32 ) + z 2
Euclidean 3D space: dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32


R 2 = x12 + x22 + x32 + z 2

R 2 = ( x12 + x22 + x32 ) + z 2
homogeneity: dl is invariant under translations xi xi + D

isotropy: dl is invariant under rotations xi R ik xk

R 2 = x12 + x22 + x32 + z 2

R 2 = ( x12 + x22 + x32 ) + z 2
3D space: Euclidean spherical hyperbolic
inherited Sec 13.2 in

homogeneity: dl is invariant under translations xi xi + D trivial from (trivial) Weinbergs
i xk 4D symmetry Gravitation
isotropy: dl is invariant under rotations xi R k &
Cosmology

R 2 = x12 + x22 + x32 + z 2
differentiation
0 = x1dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3dx3 + zdz
combination
2
( x dx + x dx + x dx )
dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 + 1 21 22 2 2 3 2 3
R (x1 + x2 + x3 )
spherical 3D space:
2 2 2
dl = dx + dx + dx 2 ( x dx + x dx + x dx )
+ 1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
R 2 (x12 + x22 + x32 )
2 introduction of spherical coordinates*

spherical 3D space:
2 2 2
+ 1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
R 2 (x12 + x22 + x32 ) ! x $ ! r sin cos $
! # & # &
r = # y & = # r sin sin &
# z & ## r cos
&&
" % " %
dx12 + dx 22 + dx 32 = gr dr 2 + g d 2 + g d 2
* this choice will diagonlize ij


spherical 3D space:
2 2 2
+ 1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
R 2 (x12 + x22 + x32 ) ! x $ ! r sin cos $
! # & # &
r = # y & = # r sin sin &
# z & ## r cos
&&
" % " %
dx12 + dx 22 + dx 32 = gr dr 2 + g d 2 + g d 2
!
r
gr = =1
r
!
r
g = =r

!
r
g = = r sin
* this choice will diagonlize ij

spherical 3D space:
2 2
dl = dx + dx + dx 2 2 ( x dx + x dx + x dx )
+ 1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
R 2 (x12 + x22 + x32 ) ! x $ ! r sin cos $
! # & # &
r = # y & = # r sin sin &
# z & ## r cos
&&
" % " %
! !
2 2 2 2 2 (r dr )2
2
= dr + r d + r sin d + 2 2
R r
2 2 2 2 2 2 r 2 dr 2
= dr + r d + r sin d + 2 2
R r
# r2 &
= dr % 2 2 +1( + r 2 ( d 2 + sin 2 d 2 )
2
$R r '
# R2 & 2
= dr % 2 2 ( + r ( d 2 + sin 2 d 2 )
2
$R r '
" R2 % 2
spherical 3D space: dl = dr $ 2 2 ' + r ( d 2 + sin 2 d 2 )
2 2
#R r &
" R2 % 2 introduction of rescaled (comoving) coordinates

spherical 3D space: dl = dr $ 2 2 ' + r ( d 2 + sin 2 d 2 )
2 2
#R r &
r = Rx
dr = Rdx
( " 1 % 2 +
= R 2 * dx 2 $
) #1 x 2 '&
+ x ( d 2
+ sin 2
d 2
)-,
" dx 2 %
spherical 3D space: 2
dl = R $2
# 1 x
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
d 2
)'&
" dx 2 % generalisation to hyperbolic & Euclidean spaces

spherical 3D space: 2
dl = R $2
# 1 x
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
d 2
)'&
k = +1: spherical
k = 0: Euclidean
k = -1: hyperbolic
# dx 2 &
R % 2
$ 1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
d 2
)('
" dx 2 % k = +1: spherical

2
dl = R $2
# 1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
d 2
)'& k = 0: Euclidean
k = -1: hyperbolic

2
dl = R $ 2
# 1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
d 2
k = -1: hyperbolic
" 2 %
$ R '
0 0
$ 1 kx 2 '
ij = $$ 0 R2 x 2 0 '
'
$ 0 0 R 2 x 2 sin 2 '
$$ ''
# &

2
dl = R $ 2
# 1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
d 2
k = -1: hyperbolic
"
R 2 % " 1 0 0 0 %
$ 0 0 ' $ '
$ 1 kx 2 ' $ R2 '
0 0 0
ij = $$ 0 R2 x 2 0 '
' => g = $ 1 kx 2 '
$ 0 0 R 2 x 2 sin 2 '
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$$ '' $
# & # 0 0 0 R 2 x 2 sin 2 '&
" dx 2
2 %
2
ds = ( cdt ) + R $ 2
+ x ( d + sin d )'
22 2 2 2
#1 kx &
or equivalently:
i
" 1 0 0 0 %
x = (ct, x ) $ '
$ R2 '
0 0 0
2
ds = g dx dx
with g = $ 1 kx 2 '
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R 2 x 2 sin 2 '&
#
" dx 2 2 %
2
ds = ( cdt ) + R $ 2
+ x ( d + sin d )'
2 2
2 2 2
#1 kx &
or equivalently:
i
" 1 0 0 0 %
x = (ct, x ) $ '
$ R2 '
0 0 0
2
ds = g dx dx
with g = $ 1 kx 2 '
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R 2 x 2 sin 2 '&
#
Notes: !! ! R! $2
R k
k
- curvature of space:(3)
R = 6 2 & curvature of space-time: R = 6 + 6# & + 6 2
(4)
R R "R% R
- any non-trivial g00 component can be absorbed be re-defining time dt! = g00 dt
- the inclusion of g0i / gi0 components would break isotropy

" dx 2
2 %
2
ds = ( cdt ) + R (t)$ 2
+ x ( d + sin d )'
2 2 2 2 2
#1 kx &
can be an arbitrary function of time
or equivalently:
i
" 1 0 0 0 %
x = (ct, x ) $ '
$ R2 '
0 0 0
2
ds = g dx dx
with g = $ 1 kx 2 '
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R 2 x 2 sin 2 '&
#
Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
! geodesics
" %
x = (ct, x i ) $
1 0 0 0
'
$ R2 '
0 0 0
ds 2 = g dx dx with g = $ 1 kx 2 '
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R x sin '&
2 2 2
#
! geodesics
" %
x = (ct, x i ) $
1 0 0 0
'
$ R2 '
0 0 0
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R x sin '&
2 2 2
#
geodesic equation (absence of external forces):

d 2 x
dx dx

1 $ g g g '
2
= with
= g & + )
ds ds ds 2 % x x x (
! geodesics
" %
x = (ct, x i ) $
1 0 0 0
'
$ R2 '
0 0 0
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R x sin '&
2 2 2
#
geodesic equation (absence of external forces):

du dx 1 $ g g g '
0= + u u with u =
and
= g & + )
ds ds 2 % x x x (
! geodesics
" %
x = (ct, x i ) $
1 0 0 0
'
$ R2 '
0 0 0
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R x sin '&
2 2 2
#
geodesic equation:
du dx 1 $ g g g '
0= + u u with
u = and
= g & + )
ds ds 2 % x x x (
! in FRW metric:
R! 1
ij0 = RR! ij , i0 j = ij , ijk = il ( j kl + k jl l jk ) (all other s are zero)
R 2
! geodesics
" %
x = (ct, x i ) $
1 0 0 0
'
$ R2 '
0 0 0
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R x sin '&
2 2 2
#
geodesic equation:
du dx
0= + u u with u =
ds ds
! in FRW metric - =0 component:

ij0 = RR! ij physical 3D velocity: |u|2=R2ijuiuj
du 0 du 0 du 0 du 0 ! 2 i j du 0 R! 2
R
0= 0
+ u u = 0 i j
+ ij u u = + RR! ij u u =
i j
+ R ij u u = + u
ds ds ds ds R ds R
! geodesics
" %
x = (ct, x i ) $
1 0 0 0
'
$ R2 '
0 0 0
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R x sin '&
2 2 2
#
geodesic equation:
du dx
0= + u u with u =
ds ds
0 dt i dx i
u =c , u = u u = c 2
ds ds
du 0 R! 2
0= + u du 0 du 0 dt du 0 u 0 u d u u u!
ds R = = = =
ds dt ds dt c cdt c
! geodesics
" %
x = (ct, x i ) $
1 0 0 0
'
$ R2 '
0 0 0
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R x sin '&
2 2 2
#
geodesic equation:
du dx
0= + u u with u =
ds ds
u! R!

u R
! geodesics
" %
x = (ct, x i ) $
1 0 0 0
'
$ R2 '
0 0 0
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R x sin '&
2 2 2
#
geodesic equation:
du dx
0= + u u with
u =
ds ds
du du !
= R
u! R! dt dR
1 du ! R! du dR 1
R u
u R u dR R u R R
! geodesics in FRW metric:
1
p
R
the momentum of particles scale like 1/R

Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
Friedmann Models Expanding Universe
2 " dx 2 %
2 2
ds = ( cdt ) + R (t)$ 2
+ x ( d + sin d )'
2 2 2 2
#1 kx &
! !
comoving coordinates: r (t) = R(t) x

2 " dx 2 %
2 2
ds = ( cdt ) + R (t)$ 2
+ x ( d + sin d )'
2 2 2 2
#1 kx &
! !
comoving coordinates: r (t) = R(t) x

any connection to observables?
! cosmological expansion
all length scales scale like R(t)*

! !
r (t) = R(t) x
expanding Universe
R(t)
*Remember: space can be curved!

! cosmological expansion
all length scales scale like R(t)

! !
r (t) = R(t) x
expanding Universe
R(t)
! cosmological expansion and redshift

! !
r (t) = R(t) x
0 : observed
E : emitted
expanding Universe
R(t)
0 E
z=
E

! !
r (t) = R(t) x
0 : observed
E : emitted
expanding Universe
R(t)
0 E
z=
E

! !
r (t) = R(t) x

relation between z and R ?!
expanding Universe
R(t)
0 E E : emitted
z=
E 0 : observed
! expansion factor and redshift
E ? ! !
z= 0 r (t) = R(t) x
E
0 : observed

: emitted
E
expanding Universe
R(t)
E ? ! !
z= 0 r (t) = R(t) x
E
0 : observed

: emitted
E
expanding Universe
R(t)
h
de Broglie relation: p=

E ? ! !
z= 0 r (t) = R(t) x
E
0 : observed

: emitted
E
expanding Universe
R(t)
h

1
FRW geodesics: p
R
E ? ! !
z= 0 r (t) = R(t) x
E
0 : observed

: emitted
E
expanding Universe
R(t)
h
0 E
1
=
FRW geodesics: p
R
R0 RE
E 0 E
z= 0 & =
E R0 RE

RE E 1 1 1
=> = = = =
R0 0 0 E 0 E 1+ 1 z + 1

R(tE ) 1
=> =
R(t0 ) 1+ z
(very important relation; does not depend on cosmology)

1
a(t) =
1+ z
R(t)
cosmic expansion factor: a(t) =
R(t 0 )

1
a(t) =
1+ z observable
R(t)
R(t 0 )

cosmology
1
a(t) =
1+ z
R(t)
R(t 0 )

but how to calculate?

1
a(t) =
1+ z
R(t)
R(t 0 )

Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
Friedmann Models Friedmann Equations
! derivation
Einsteins Field Equations
1
R Rg g = 8 GT
2
! derivation
1
R Rg g = 8 GT
2
pure geometry properties of matter
matter tells space-time how to curve,

and curved space-time tells matter how to move.
(J.A. Wheeler)
! derivation
1
R Rg g = 8 GT
2
isotropy/homogeneity perfect fluid
" 1 0 0 0 %
$ '
$ R2 '
g = $
0
1 kx 2
0 0 ' T = pg + ( + p)u u
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R 2 x 2 sin 2 '&
#
! derivation
1
R Rg g = 8 GT
2
isotropy/homogeneity perfect fluid
" 1 0 0 0 %
$ '
$ R2 '
g = $
0
1 kx 2
0 0 ' T = pg + ( + p)u u
$ '
$ 0 0 R2 x 2 0 '
$ 0 0 0 R 2 x 2 sin 2 '&
#
Friedmann-Equations
! derivation
2
".% 2 2
$ R ' = 8G kc + c
$ R' 3 R2 3
# &
..
R 4 G " 3p % c 2
= $ + 2 ' +
R 3 # c & 3
! derivation
2
".% 2 2
$ R ' = 8G kc + c
$ R' 3 R2 3
# &
..
R 4 G " 3p % c 2
= $ + 2 ' +
R 3 # c & 3
! critical density*
3H 2 R
k = 0, = 0 = crit = ,H =
8 G R

*will be our favourite unit for densities later on
! derivation
2
".% 2 2
$ R ' = 8G kc + c
$ R' 3 R2 3
# &
..
R 4 G " 3p % c 2
= $ + 2 ' +
R 3 # c & 3
! critical density
3H 2 R
k = 0, = 0 = crit = ,H =
8 G R
! equation of state
p = p( )
Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
! equation of state
solving the Friedmann Equations still requires an equation-of-state

! equation of state
we will restrict ourselves to barotropic fluids (i.e. linear relation between p and ):
p = (T) c 2

! equation of state
p = (T) c 2
p =
nkBT
! equation of state
p = (T) c 2
2
k T k T c
p =
nkBT = B
m c 2
= B
= (T ) c 2
m pc 2 m pc 2 (1+ kBT )
( 1)m pc 2
number density mass density energy density

! equation of state
p = (T) c 2
the three main types are:
radiation
w = 1/3
collisionless matter w=0
vacuum energy w = -1
Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
! adiabatic expansion
R! p
energy conservation: 0 = ! + 3 ( + 2 )
R c
R! p
R c
follows from combination of 1. and 2. Friedmann equation:

R! p
R c
1. Friedmann Equation
2
8 G 2 2 c2 2
d
dt
R = R kc + R
3 3

8 G 2
! c2
2RR = ( R + 2 R R) + 2RR
3 3
2 2

4 G R c
R= ( + 2 R) + R
3 R 3

R 4 G R c2
= ( + 2 ) +
R 3 R 3
R! p
R c
1. Friedmann Equation 2. Friedmann Equation

..
2
8 G c 2 2
R 4 G " 3p % c 2
d R = R 2 kc 2 + R = $ + '+
dt
3 3 R 3 # c2 & 3

8 G 2
! c2
2RR = ( R + 2 R R) + 2RR
3 3
2 2

4 G R c
R= ( + 2 R) + R 4 G R c2 4 G # 3p & c 2
3 R 3 ( + 2 ) + = % + 2 ( +

3 R 3 3 $ c ' 3
R 4 G R c2
R # 3p &
= ( + 2 ) + ( + 2 ) = % + 2 (
R 3 R 3
$ c '
R

R 3p

+ 2 =
R c2
R! # p&
0 = ! + 3 % + 2 (
(also follows from T; = 0) R$ c '
R! p
R c
2nd law of thermodynamics: TdS = dU + pdV

R! p
R c

dU = d(R 3 c 2 )
dV = d(R 3 )
R! p
R c
dV d ( R c ) d ( R3 )
3 2
dU = d(R 3 c 2 ) dU
+p = +p = 3R 2 R! c 2 + R 3! c 2 + 3pR 2 R!
dV = d(R 3 ) dt dt dt dt
R! p
R c
dV d ( R c ) d ( R3 )
3 2
dU = d(R 3 c 2 ) dU
+p = +p = 3R 2 R! c 2 + R 3! c 2 + 3pR 2 R!
dV = d(R 3 ) dt dt dt dt
! 2 p + 3pR 2 R! = 0
= 3RR
R! p
R c
2nd law of thermodynamics: TdS = dU + pdV = 0

R! p
R c
2nd law of thermodynamics: TdS = dU + pdV = 0
during cosmic expansion entropy is conserved

and hence the expansion is adiabatic:
dU + pdV = 0
cosmic expansion: dU + pdV = 0

! implication for barotropic fluids p = c2:


dU = d(R 3 c 2 )
3 => d(R 3 c 2 ) = pd(R 3 ) = c 2 d(R 3 )
dV = d(R )
0 = R 3d + d(R 3 ) + d(R 3 )
= R 3d + (1+ ) d(R 3 )
1 d(R 3 )
d = (1+ ) 3
R
R 3(1+ ) = const.
radiation w = 1/3 r R 4
collisionless matter w=0 m R 3
vacuum energy w = -1 = const.
R 3(1+ ) = const.
Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
! density parameters
2
!.$ 2 2
R
# & = 8 G kc c
2 +
#R& 3 R 3
" %
2
!.$ 2 2
R
# & = 8 G kc c
2 +
#R& 3 R 3
" %
= w ( R(t))
w
Note: we could also include the -term in the total energy density.
2
!.$ 2 2
R
# & = 8 G kc c
2 +
#R& 3 R 3
" %
= w ( R(t))
w
radiation w = 1/3 (R) R 4
collisionless matter w=0 (R) R 3

2
!.$ 2 2
R
# & = 8 G kc c
2 +
#R& 3 R 3
" %
= w ( R(t))
w
radiation w = 1/3 (R) R 4
collisionless matter w=0 (R) R 3
2
!.$ ! ! $
3
! $
4 $
! $
2
2
R 8 G R R R
# m,0 # & + r,0 # & & kc # & + c
=> ## && =
2
R 3 #" " R0 % " R0 % &% " R0 % 3

" %
2
!.$ ! !R$
3
!R$ $
4
! $
2
2
R
# & = 8 G R
# m,0 # & + r,0 # & & kc # & +
2 c
#R& 3 #" " R0 % " R0 % &% " R0 % 3
" %
2
!.$ ! !R$
3
!R$ $
4
! $
2
2
R
# & = 8 G R
# m,0 # & + r,0 # & & kc # & +
2 c
#R& 3 #" " R0 % " R0 % &% " R0 % 3
" %
the cosmological parameters

8 G
matter density m,0 = m,0
3H 02
8 G
radiation density r,0 = r,0
3H 02
c2
vacuum energy ,0 = 2

3H 0
c2
curvature k,0 = 2 k
H0
$.'
R
expansion rate H0 = & )
&R)
% (0
2
!.$ ! !R$
3
!R$ $
4
! $
2
2
R
# & = 8 G R
# m,0 # & + r,0 # & & kc # & +
2 c
#R& 3 #" " R0 % " R0 % &% " R0 % 3
" %
the cosmological parameters

8 G
3H 02
8 G
3H 02
c2

3H 0
3H 02 c2
critical density crit,0 = curvature k,0 = 2 k
8 G H0
$.'
R
&R)
% (0
! density parameters Friedmann Equations in most memorizable form
H 2 = H 02 (r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 )
!!
RR 1
q = 2 = m (z) + r (z) (z)
R! 2 the cosmological parameters
8 G
3H 02
8 G
3H 02
c2

3H 0
c2
curvature k,0 = 2 k
H0
$.'
R
&R)
% (0
H 2 = H 02 (r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 )
!!
RR 1
q = 2 = m (z) + r (z) (z)
R! 2 the cosmological parameters
H2 = (obvious) R 1 8 G
=
R0 1+ z
!!
R 4 G " 3p % c 2 3H 02
= $ + 2 ' +
R 3 # c & 3 8 G
"
4 G $ 3 i i c 2 % c 2 radiation density r,0 = r,0
=
3 $#
i + c 2 '' + 3 3H 02
&
4 G c2 c2
=
3
(
i + 3i i + ) 3

4 G c2
3H 0
= (1+ 3i ) i + 3
3 c2
H2 curvature k,0 = 2 k
=
2
( )
(1+ 3i ) i (z) + H 2 (z) H0
H2
=
2
( )
(1+ 3i ) i (z) H 2 (z) $.'
R
=
H2
(m (z) + 2r (z)) H 2 (z) expansion rate H0 = & )
2 1 &R)
!!
RR 1
2
H % (0
2 = m (z) + r (z) (z)
R! 2
H 2 = H 02 (r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 )
!!
RR 1
q = 2 = m (z) + r (z) (z)
R! 2
(z)?
H 2 = H 02 (r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 )
!!
RR 1
q = 2 = m (z) + r (z) (z)
R! 2
! evolution of density parameters:

8 G
(z) = 2
(z)
H (z)
H 2 = H 02 (r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 )
!!
RR 1
q = 2 = m (z) + r (z) (z)
R! 2

3(1+ )
8 G 8 G 0 (1+ z )
(z) = 2 (z) = 2
H (z) H 0 (r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 )
0 3(1+ )
= (1+ z )
(r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 )
! 2 2 R 1 $
# H = H 0 (...), = &
" R0 1+ z %
H 2 = H 02 (r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 )
!!
RR 1
q = 2 = m (z) + r (z) (z)
R! 2

radiation w = 1/3
0 3(1+ )
(z) = ( )
1+ z matter w=0
(r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 ) vacuum energy w = -1
c2 i i,0 (n n )
( (z) = = ; same results as for = -1. Further useful: = (1+ z) i j )
3H 2 (z) (r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 ) j j,0
H 2 = H 02 (r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 )
!!
RR 1
q = 2 = m (z) + r (z) (z)
R! 2

radiation w = 1/3
0 3(1+ )
(z) = ( )
1+ z matter w=0
! actually only 3 independent density parameters:

1 = r,0 + m,0 + k,0 + ,0 for z = 0
H 2 = H 02 (r,0 (1+ z)4 + m,0 (1+ z)3 + k,0 (1+ z)2 + ,0 )
!!
RR 1
q = 2 = m (z) + r (z) (z)
R! 2

radiation w = 1/3
0 3(1+ )
(z) = ( )
1+ z matter w=0
! actually only 3 independent density parameters:

1 = r,0 + m,0 + k,0 + ,0
Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
Friedmann Models Friedmann Models
2 8G 2 c 2 2
2
R = R kc + R
3 3
4 G & 3p ) c 2
R= R( + 2 + + R
3 ' c * 3

! Friedmann Equations - general behaviour
2 8G 2 c 2 2
2
R = R kc + R
3 3
4 G & 3p ) c 2
R= R( + 2 + + R
3 ' c * 3
= 0 2
R R 23(1+ ) kc 2 as R3(1+ )
3p
R<0 as + 2
> 0 ( p = c 2 , > 0)
c

Note : 2 3(1+ ) < 0

2 8G 2 c 2 2
2
R = R kc + R
3 3
4 G & 3p ) c 2
R= R( + 2 + + R
3 ' c * 3
= 0 2
R R 23(1+ ) kc 2 as R3(1+ )
3p
R<0 as + 2
> 0 ( p = c 2 , > 0)
c
past:
observed
" %
R < 0 & $ R R' > 0
# &0
=> R(t) has been monotonically increasing! => tc with R(tc) = 0 => singularity!

Note : 2 3(1+ ) < 0

2 8G 2 c 2 2
2
R = R kc + R
3 3
4 G & 3p ) c 2
R= R( + 2 + + R
3 ' c * 3
= 0 2
R R 23(1+ ) kc 2 as R3(1+ )
3p
R<0 as + 2
> 0 ( p = c 2 , > 0)
c
future:
2
k = 0: R R 23(1+ ) R t 2 3(1+
## ) => indefinite expansion!
2
k > 0: R R 23(1+ )
kc 2
##
R(ts ) = 0 => recollapse!
2 2
k < 0: R R 23(1+ )
+kc 2
R > 0 R(t)
## => increased indefinite expansion!
Note : 2 3(1+ ) < 0, R! / R > 0

0
2 8G 2 c 2 2
2
R = R kc + R
3 3
4 G & 3p ) c 2
R= R( + 2 + + R
3 ' c * 3
< 0 2 2
8 G c 2 8 G
R = R 2 kc 2 R = m+ R 2 kc 2
3 3 3
4 G # 3p c &
2 2

4 G # 3p & c
R= R% + 2 ( R= R %% + 2 + (( < 0
3 $ c ' 3 3 $ c 12 G '
2 8G 2 c 2 2
2
R = R kc + R
3 3
4 G & 3p ) c 2
R= R( + 2 + + R
3 ' c * 3
< 0 2 2
8 G c 2 8 G
R = R 2 kc 2 R = m+ R 2 kc 2
3 3 3
4 G # 3p c &
2 2

4 G # 3p & c
R= R% + 2 ( R= R %% + 2 + (( < 0
3 $ c ' 3 3 $ c 12 G '
+ => attractive force!

2 8G 2 c 2 2
2
R = R kc + R
3 3
4 G & 3p ) c 2
R= R( + 2 + + R
3 ' c * 3
< 0 2 2
8 G c 2 8 G
R = R 2 kc 2 R = m+ R 2 kc 2
3 3 3
4 G # 3p c &
2 2

4 G # 3p & c
R= R% + 2 ( R= R %% + 2 + (( < 0
3 $ c ' 3 3 $ c 12 G '
+ => attractive force!

=> R(t) starts monotonically increasing & R(t s ) = 0
=> recollapse happens even earlier due to attractive force!

2 8G 2 c 2 2
2
R = R kc + R
3 3
4 G & 3p ) c 2
R= R( + 2 + + R
3 ' c * 3
> 0 2 2
8 G c 2 8 G
R = R 2 kc 2 R = m+ R 2 kc 2
3 3 3
4 G # 3p c &
2 2

4 G # 3p & c
R= R% + 2 ( + R= R %% + 2 (( < 0
3 $ c ' 3 3 $ c 12 G '
- => repulsive force!
forever expanding!*
(Note: drops while remains constant)
*careful: there are (, ) combinations possible where this is not necessarily true
Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
! Friedmann Equations - solutions
" . %2
$ R ' = H 2 ( (1+ z) 4 + (1+ z) 3 + (1+ z) 2 + )
0 r,0 m,0 k,0 ,0
$ R'
# &

" . %2
$ R ' = H 2 ( (1+ z) 4 + (1+ z) 3 + (1+ z) 2 + )
0 r,0 m,0 k,0 ,0
$ R'
# &

flat model with m = 1
" %2 3
$ R ' = H 2 "$ R0 %'
0
$ R' #R&
# &
2/3
R

"R % 3/2 R(t) " t % 2
= H 0$ 0 ' => =$ ' t0 =
R #R& R0 # t 0 & 3H 0

R
R 3 / 2 = H 0 R03 / 2
R

R1/ 2 dR = H 0 R03 / 2 dt
" . %2
$ R ' = H 2 ( (1+ z) 4 + (1+ z) 3 + (1+ z) 2 + )
0 r,0 m,0 k,0 ,0
$ R'
# &

flat model with r = 1
" %2 4
$ R ' = H 2 "$ R0 %'
0
$ R' #R&
# &
1/ 2
R

"R % 2 R(t) " t % 1
= H 0$ 0 ' => =$ ' t0 =
R #R& R0 # t 0 & 2H 0

R
R 2 = H 0 R02
R

RdR = H 0 R02 dt
" . %2
$ R ' = H 2 ( (1+ z) 4 + (1+ z) 3 + (1+ z) 2 + )
0 r,0 m,0 k,0 ,0
$ R'
# &

flat model with = 1
" %2
$ R' = H2
0
$ R'
# &

R => R(t) = e H 0 t
= H0
R
inflationary Universe!
dR
= H 0 dt
R

" . %2
$ R ' = H 2 ( (1+ z) 4 + (1+ z) 3 + (1+ z) 2 + )
0 r,0 m,0 k,0 ,0
$ R'
# &

general model with m 0, = 0, r = 0
m,0 > 1
" %2 " 3 2%
$ R ' = H 2 $ "$ R0 %' + "$ R0 %' ' R = a(1 cos ) a=
m,0
0 $ m,0
$ R' # #R& k,0
# R & '& 2(m,0 1)
# &
m,0
2 " 2
% t = b( sin ) b=
2 2 " R0 % " R0 % 2H 0 (m,0 1) 3 / 2
R = R H 0 $ ' $m,0 $ ' + k,0 ' =>
#R& # #R& &
"R % m,0 < 1
R = H 0 R0 m,0 $ 0 ' + (1 m,0 ) m,0
#R& R = A(cosh 1) A=
2(1 m,0 )
"R %
R = H 0 R0 m,0 $ 0 1' + 1 t = B(sinh ) B=
m,0
#R & 2H 0 (1 m,0 ) 3 / 2
" . %2
$ R ' = H 2 ( (1+ z) 4 + (1+ z) 3 + (1+ z) 2 + )
0 r,0 m,0 k,0 ,0
$ R'
# &

flat model with m + = 1, r = 0
$ $ 1 '3 $ 1 '3 '

2 1
t(z) = ln&& ,0
& ) + ,0
& ) +1)) (exercise)
3H 0 ,0 % m,0 % 1+ z ( m,0 %1+ z ( (

" . %2
$ R ' = H 2 ( (1+ z) 4 + (1+ z) 3 + (1+ z) 2 + )
0 r,0 m,0 k,0 ,0
$ R'
# &

general model with m 0, 0, r = 0
no analytical solution for the general case!

3
1.1 1.
0
0.9 0.8 0.7
2.5 c e =
un t 0H
0
2
Bo
1.5
0.6
1 r a t ing
ele
Acc ating
el e r
Dec
0.5
Expansion
0
Cl Recollapse
os 0 .5
Op ed
-0.5
en
-1
(exercise)
-1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
M
(bounce: H = 0 & H > 0)
Friedmann Models
derivation
geodesics
expanding Universe
derivation
equation of state
adiabatic expansion
density parameters
! Friedmann Models
general trends
horizons
horizons
! 30 2. Inflation
comoving particle outside

the particle horizon at p
future
event horizon at p
p
now
particle horizon at p
past
Figure 2.1: Spacetime diagram illustrating the concept of horizons. Dotted lines show the worldlines of
comoving objects. The event horizon is the maximal distance to which we can send signal. The particle
horizon is the maximal distance from which we can receive signals.
Particle horizon.Eq. (2.1.2) tells us that the maximal comoving distance that light can
travel between two times 1 and 2 > 1 is simply = 2 1 (recall that c 1). Hence, if
the Big Bang started with the singularity at ti 0,2 then the greatest comoving distance
from which an observer at time t will be able to receive signals travelling at the speed of
! horizons: distances
" dx 2 %
2 2 2
ds = (cdt) R (t)$
#1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
( )d 2
)'&
" dx 2 %
2 2 2
ds = (cdt) R (t)$
#1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
( )d 2
)'&
! photons follow null-geodesics
" dx 2 %
2 2
0 = (cdt) R (t)$
#1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
( )d 2
)'&
" dx 2 %
2 2
ds = (cdt) R (t)$ 2
#1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
( )d 2
)'&
" dx 2 %
2
0 = (cdt) R (t)$2
#1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
( )d 2
)'&
xE t0
dx cdt
f (xE ) = = R(t)
0 1 kx 2 tE
" dx 2 %
2 2
ds = (cdt) R (t)$ 2
#1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
( )d 2
)'&
" dx 2 %
2
0 = (cdt) R (t)$ 2
#1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
( )d 2
)'&
!
#
#
# xE k=0
xE
dx
t0
cdt # 1
dC = f (xE ) = 2
= R(t) f (xE ) = " arcsin( k xE ) k=1
0 1 kx tE # k
#
# 1
arcsinh( k xE ) k=-1
# k
$
" dx 2 %
2 2
ds = (cdt) R (t)$ 2
#1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
( )d 2
)'&
" dx 2 %
2
0 = (cdt) R (t)$ 2
#1 kx
2
+ x 2
( d 2
+ sin 2
( )d 2
)'&
!
#
#
# xE k=0
xE
dx
t0
cdt # 1
dC = f (xE ) = 2
= R(t) f (xE ) = " arcsin( k xE ) k=1
0 1 kx tE # k
#
t # 1
R(t) R(t) 0 cdt arcsinh( k xE ) k=-1
dp =
R0
dC =
R0 tE R(t)
# k
$
t
R(t) R(t) 0 cdt
dp =
R0
dC =
R0 tE R(t)
t
R(t) R(t) 0 cdt
dp =
R0
dC =
R0 tE R(t)
different bounds define different horizons

Friedmann Models 30 2. Inflation Friedmann Models
! horizons event horizon at p
particle horizon: max. distance particle can have travelled since decoupling particle horizon at p
tcdt!
Rp (t) = R(t)
tdec
R(t!) Particle horizon.Eq. (2.1.2) tells us that the maximal comoving distance that light can
particle horizon: max. distance photon can have travelled since big bang (there are events we have not have seen yet)
light is given by Z t
dt
ph ( ) = i = . (2.1.3)
ti a(t)
This is called the (comoving) particle horizon. The size of the particle horizon at time
cdt! t may be visualised by the intersection of the past light cone of an observer p with the
Rp (t) = R(t) spacelike surface = i (see fig. 2.1). Causal influences have to come from within this
region. Only comoving particles whose worldlines intersect the past light cone of p can
0
R(t!) send a signal to an observer at p. The boundary of the region containing such worldlines
is the particle horizon at p. Notice that every observer has his of her own particle horizon.
Event horizon.Just as there are past events that we cannot see now, there may be future
events that we will never be able to see (and distant regions that we will never be able to
event horizon: max. distance particle can travel from now onwards (there may be events we will never see)
influence). In comoving coordinates, the greatest distance from which an observer at time
tf will receive signals emitted at any time later than t is given by
Z tf
dt
cdt! eh ( ) = f = . (2.1.4)
a(t)
t
Re (t) = R(t) This is called the (comoving) event horizon. It is similar to the event horizon of black
holes. Here, f denotes the final moment of (conformal) time. Notice that this may be
t
R(t!) finite even if physical time is infinite, tf = +1. Whether this is the case or not depends
on the form of a(t). In particular, f is finite for our universe, if dark energy is really a
cosmological constant.
2
Notice that the Big Bang singularity is a moment in time, but not a point space. Indeed, in figs. 2.1 and 2.2
we describe the singularity by an extended (possibly infinite) spacelike hypersurface.
tcdt!
Rp (t) = R(t)
tdec
dt
ph ( ) = i = . (2.1.3)
ti a(t)
0
Z tf
dt
cdt! eh ( ) = f = . (2.1.4)
a(t)
t
t
2
(comoving) Hubble radius: distance at which recessional velocity equals speed of light
c R0 c
RH (t) = ; RcH (t) =
H R H
tcdt!
Rp (t) = R(t)
tdec
dt
ph ( ) = i = . (2.1.3)
ti a(t)
0
Z tf
dt
cdt! eh ( ) = f = . (2.1.4)
a(t)
t
t
2
(comoving) Hubble radius: distance at which recessional velocity equals speed of light
1
c R c universe dominated by fluid with p=c2 (1+3 )
RH (t) = ; RcH (t) = 0 RcH (t) R 2
H R H R! 2 R 23(1+ )
in the sky. The homogeneity of the CMB spans scales that are much larger than the particle
horizon at the time when the CMB was formed. In fact, in the standard cosmology the CMB is
Friedmann Models
made of about 104 disconnected patches of space. If there wasnt enough time Friedmann Models
for these regions
to communicate, why do they look so similar? This is the horizon problem.
! horizon problem our worldline

50 1100 10 3 1 0 1 3 10 1100
now 1.0
0.8
ne
40
co
conformal time [Gyr]
0.6
ht
lig
scale factor
0.4
30
0.2
20
ere
0.1
ph
le s
10
bb
Hu
0.01
p q 0.001
CMB
0
-40 -20 0 20 40
comoving distance [Glyr]
Figure 2.2: The horizon problem in the conventional Big Bang model. All events that we currently observe
are on our past light cone. The intersection of our past light cone with the spacelike slice labelled CMB
corresponds to two opposite points in the observed CMB. Their past light cones dont overlap before they
hit the singularity, a = 0, so the points appear never to have been in causal contact. The same applies to
any two points in the CMB that are separated by more than 1 degree on the sky.
2.2 A Shrinking Hubble Sphere

Our description of the horizon problem has highlighted the fundamental role played by the
in the sky. The homogeneity of the CMB spans scales that are much larger than the particle
horizon at the time when the CMB was formed. In fact, in the standard cosmology the CMB is
Friedmann Models
made of about 104 disconnected patches of space. If there wasnt enough time Friedmann Models
for these regions
to communicate, why do they look so similar? This is the horizon problem.
! horizon problem our worldline

50 1100 10 3 1 0 1 3 10 1100
now 1.0
0.8
ne
40
co
0.6
ht
lig
scale factor
0.4
30
0.2
20
ere
0.1
ph
le s
10
bb
Hu
0.01
p q 0.001
CMB
0
-40 -20 0 20 40
comoving distance [Glyr]
Figure 2.2: The horizon problem in p and

the q are causally
conventional Big disconnected
Bang model. All events that we currently observe
(applies to any two points
are on our past light cone. The intersection of our past light separated by more
conethanwith
1o!) the spacelike slice labelled CMB
corresponds to two opposite points in the observed CMB. Their past light cones dont overlap before they
hit the singularity, a = 0, so the points appear never to have been in causal contact. The same applies to
any two points in the CMB that are separated by more than 1 degree on the sky.
2.2 A Shrinking Hubble Sphere

Our description of the horizon problem has highlighted the fundamental role played by the
33 2. Inflation
! horizon problem: solution via inflation
50 1100 10 3 1 0 1 3 10 1100
now 1.0
0.8
ne
40
co
0.6
ht
lig
scale factor
0.4
30
0.2
20
ere
0.1
ph
le s
10
bb
Hu
0.01
CMB 0.001
reheating
-10
inflation
-20
-30
-40
causal contact
Figure 2.3: Inflationary solution to the horizon problem. The comoving Hubble sphere shrinks during

02 Friedmann Models

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02 Friedmann Models

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Friedmann Models

Alexander Knebe (Universidad Autonoma de Madrid)

! Friedmann Equations Friedmann derived equations for R(t) in 1929,

! Robertson-Walker-Metric Robertson (1935) & Walker (1935):

! Friedmann Equations Friedmann derived equations for R(t) in 1929,

! principle of general relativity

! principle of general relativity

! principle of general relativity

! principle of general relativity

space is homogeneous and isotropic

! principle of general relativity

space is homogeneous and isotropic

=> fulfilled by Robertson-Walker-Metric (to be derived below)

! principle of general relativity

space is homogeneous and isotropic

=> fulfilled by Robertson-Walker-Metric (to be derived below)

isotropy <=> CMB

isotropy <=> CMB

homogeneity <=> galaxy surveys*

example for 3D Euclidean space: ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 g = 1

! metric of curved space-time

with x = (ct, x i ) = space-time vector

Note: Greek-index => four-vector (space-time),

! metric of curved space-time

with x = (ct, x i ) = space-time vector

ij should describe a homogeneous and isotropic 3D space, i.e.

! metric of curved space

1D space hypersurface in 2D space

dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 => 1D distance on 2D hypersurface

! metric of curved space

1D space hypersurface in 2D space

dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 => 1D distance on 2D hypersurface

we like to get rid

! metric of curved space

1D space hypersurface in 2D space

dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 => 1D distance on 2D hypersurface

Friedmann Models Robertson-Walker-Metric

! metric of curved space

1D space hypersurface in 2D space

dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 => 1D distance on 2D hypersurface

Friedmann Models Robertson-Walker-Metric

! metric of curved space

1D space hypersurface in 2D space

dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 => 1D distance on 2D hypersurface

Friedmann Models Robertson-Walker-Metric

! metric of curved space

1D space hypersurface in 2D space

dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 => 1D distance on 2D hypersurface

Friedmann Models Robertson-Walker-Metric

! metric of curved space

3D space hypersurface in 4D space

dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 + dz 2

! metric of curved space

3D space hypersurface in 4D space

spherical 3D space: dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 + dz 2

hyperbolic 3D space: dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 dz 2

Euclidean 3D space: dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32

! metric of curved space

3D space hypersurface in 4D space

spherical 3D space: dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 + dz 2

hyperbolic 3D space: dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 dz 2

Euclidean 3D space: dl 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32

homogeneity: dl is invariant under translations xi xi + D

! metric of curved space