HOW TO WRITE BETTER ESSAYS

3RD EDITION, PALGRAVE

ESSAYS
Interpret question
Research gather evidence
Planning
Writing
Revision

CRITICAL THINKING
Concept mat/can be expressed in the most commonplace words
How many different ways can the works be used.

OPEN CLOSED CONCEPTS

Meaning changes in response to different experiences
How do I use this concept
Do I use it in more ways than one?

THREE STEP TECHNIQUE

Gather the evidence

5-6 typical examples
find similarities and differences
Analyse
isolate main characteristics
visualise a concept
pattern of core characteristics
Create/test your own concept
Ask how do I use the concept
Do I use it in more than one way?
What sort of things am I referring to?
How does it differ from other things?
Analyse the examples check similarities/dissimilarities
What actions were involved?
What were the results?
Who was responsible?
What weer their motives and intentions?
What were their effects on others?

TEST CONCEPT -CONSIDER

Borderline cases
Contrasting cases
Doubtful cases
Redefine concept if needed

BRAINSTORMING
Analysis
Think through analysis and the implications of the questions
Write down your ideas to the question
Brain dump all ideas and knowledge
Track flow of ideas
Note anything else that is relevant
INSTRUCTIONAL VERBS

ANALYSE Separate an argument, a theory of claim into its elements or

component parts; to trace the cause of a particular event; to reveal
the general principle underlying phenomena.

COMPARE Look for similarities and differences between two or more things,
problems or arguments. Perhaps, although not always, reach a
conclusion about which you think is preferable.

CONTRAST Set in opposition to each other two or more things, problems or

arguments. Perhaps, although not always, reach a conclusion about
which you think is preferable.

CRITICISE Identify weaknesses of certain theories, opinions or claims and give

your judgement about their merit. Support your judgements with a
discussion on the evidence and reasoning involved.

DEFINE Outline the precise meaning of a word or phrase. In some cases it

may be necessary or desirable to examine different possible, or
often used, definitions.

DESCRIBE Give detailed or graphic account keeping you the facts to the
impressions that a event had upon you. In history this entails giving
a narrative account of the events in the time sequence in which they
occurred.

DISCUSS Investigate or examine by argument; sift through the arguments and

the evidence used to support them, going reasons for and against
both sides; examine the implications. It means playing devils
advocated by arguing not just for the side of the argument that you
support, but for the side with which you may have little sympathy.

EVALUATE Make and appraisal of the worth of something, an argument or set

of beliefs, in the light of their truth or usefulness. This does involve
making your own value judgements, but not just naked opinion, they
must be backed up by argument or justification.

EXPLAIN Make plain, interpret and account for the occurrence of a particular
event by giving its causes. Unlike the verb to describe, this does
not mean that it is sufficient describe what happened by giving a
narrative of the events. To explain an event is to give the reasons
why it occurred. Usually this involves giving your own judgement.

ILLUSTRATE Explain or clarify something by the use of diagrams, figure or

concrete examples.

INTERPRET Reveal what you believe to be the meaning or significance of

something; to make sense of something that might otherwise be
unclear, or about which there may be more than one opinion. So
usually this involves giving your own judgement.

JUSTIFY Show adequate grounds for a decision or a conclusion by

supporting it with sufficient evidence and argument. Answer the
 main objections that are likely to be made to it.

OUTLINE Give the main features or the general principles of a subject,

omitting minor details and emphasising its structure and
arrangement.

RELATE This usually means one of two things. In some questions it means
narrate a sequence of events outline the story of a particular
event. Alternatively, it can mean show how certain things are
connected or affect each other, or show to what extent they are
alike.

REVIEW Examine closely a subject or a case that has been put forward for a
certain proposal or argument. Usually, although not always, this
means concluding with your own judgement as to the strength of
the case. However, if it involves examining just a subject or topic,
and not an argument or a proposal, it will mean just examining
some details all the aspects of the topic.

STATE Outline briefly and clearly the facts of the situation or a side of an
argument. This doesnt call for argument or discussion, just the
presentation of the facts or the arguments. Equally it doesnt call for
a judgement from you, just reportage.

SUMMARISE Give a clear and concise account of the principle points of a

problem or an argument, omitting the details, evidence and
examples that may have been given to support the argument or
illustrate the problem.

TRACE Outline the stages in the development of a particular issue or the

history of a topic.

ANALYSE > SYNTHESISE > DISCUSS

Synthesise ideas
Constriuct consistent arguments
Use evidence to evaluate

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Does the author have enough reliable evidence?
It is represented accurately?
Are their hidden factors?
Is the author using jargon? If they do, and you remove the jargon, does their argument still
hold up?
QUESTIONS TO ASK

ARGUMENTS
1.1 Does the conclusion follow from the reasons given?
Qualifiers
Distributing terms
Converting claims
Affirming and denying
1.2 are there hidden assumptions in the argument?

EVIDENCE
2.1 Does the author have enough reliable evidence?
Untypical examples/insufficient or weighted evidence
2.2 Does he represent the evidence accurately?
Statistics
2.3 Does he draw reliable inferences from it?
Analogies
Oversimplifying (stereotypes etc)
Invalid causal references (post hoc fallacy, cause/correlation, multiple underlying causes)
2.4 Does he draw relevant inferences from it?
Attacking the person, popularity, authority, fear, compromise.

LANGUAGE.
3.1 Is the authors meaning clear?
Jargon
Loaded language?
Begging the question?
3.2 Does she use the words consistently?
Equivocation

PLANNING

INTRO
Sentences beginning of each paragraph guides the reader,
If the reader follows the argument, higher marks.
First three sentence outline the main issues outlined in the question.
See/understand the implication of the question.
Point to 1-2 central concepts, which need to be analysed.
Show structure of the answer/essay.

PARAGRAPHS

Tie paragraphs together with major issues

Topic sentence needs to cover what your doing, why its relevant, use transitions.
In contrast
However,
Moreover
Therefore
Similarily
Likewise
Paragraphs in three steps, topic sentence, development of the argument, evidence.
Development of the evidence includes the description, analysis, criticism, evidence,
evaluation.

CONCLUSION
Summarise the main points
Pick up the theme from the intro and the evidence raised in the essay
Suggest wider implications
FLUENCY THROUGH TRANSITIONS

CONTRAST But, however, on the other hand, yet

ILLUSTRATION For example, for instance, that is
EXTENSION Similarly, moreover, furthermore, in addition, by extension, what is more
CONCLUSION therefore, consequently, as a result, thus
THE NEXT STEP Then, after that, it follows
CONJUCTION And, moreover, an although, and in one respect, and once, and so, and while
some, and as it is
EXTENSION So, even though, it follows then, in this way, from that angle, by the same
token, on that account, given this
ENDORESEMENT Not surprisingly, of course, an moreover, most important, eve more,
in particular
CONTRAST But instead, but at the same time, and yet, but even, but then again,
but perhaps, yet still, but while
NARRATIVE Following this, and after that, but then, so began, but so far, more recently

More Likewise, correspondingly, hence, accordingly, nevertheless, incidentally,

otherwise, none the less, obviously.

PLAGIARISM SIX POINT CODE

WHEN TO CITE
Distinctive ideas
Distinctive structure or organising strategy
Information or data from a particular source
Verbatim phrase or passage
If its not common knowledge
Whenever, in doubt, cite it!