BMOS MENTORING SCHEME (Senior Level)

February 2012 (Sheet 5)

Solutions

These solutions represent one way of solving the questions. They are not the only way,
and just because your solution is different does not mean that it is worse or wrong. You
will get most from the solutions if you have at least attempted the questions. Only then
will you appreciate the difficulties that a problem posed and how they were addressed by
the solution. Relevant theorems have been identified where possible, and references to
further information on the Web have been given. If you are still unclear, ask your mentor.
A. Rzym & J. Cranch UKMT
c 2012.

1. Applying the Cosine Rule to triangle a4 b3 d1 and c1 d2 b2 (separately) gives

a2 = b2 + d2 2bd cos
and c2 = b2 + d2 2bd cos .

where = b4 d2 a1 and = c2 b3 d3 . But = 180 and therefore cos = cos , so

adding the above equations yields a2 + c2 = 2(b2 + d2 ), from which the result follows. 

2. Modulo 11, 2012 1 therefore:

20122012 12012 1. 

Similarly:

2009 1
2009 1
       
2011 2010 2011 2010
2012 1
 
2009  1
12010


1
12009 = 1. 

3. Rearranging the equation to be proved gives (in what follows, all sums and products are
for k = 1 to n)
p
n
Q pn
Q
pk qk
pn
Q + p
n
Q 1,
(pk + qk ) (pk + qk )
rY rY
pk qk
i.e. n
+ n 1.
pk + qk pk + qk

We observe that the LHS is the sum of two geometric means, and furthermore that the
sum of all the terms is 1. Therefore our proof proceeds as follows:
n o
p1 pn
Applying the AM-GM to the set p1 +q1 , . . . , pn +qn gives
P pk rY pn
Q
pk +qk pk pk
n
= p . (1)
n pk + qk n
Q
(pk + qk )

Supported by the Man Group plc Charitable Trust

 n o
q1
Similarly applying the AM-GM to the set p1 +q1
, . . . , pnq+q
n
n
gives
P qk rY pn
Q
pk +qk qk qk
n
= p . (2)
n pk + qk n
Q
(pk + qk )

Adding (1) and (2) gives

P pk P qk p p
+ n
Q n
Q
pk +qk pk +qk pkqk
p + p
n n
Q n
Q
(pk + qk ) (pk + qk )
 qY qY 
1 n
1 pn
Q pk + n qk
(pk + qk )
qY qY qY
n
(pk + qk ) n pk + n qk . 

4. Modulo 13, the cube of an integer can only take one of the values {0, 1, 5, 8, 12} and the
fourth power of an integer can only take one of the values {0, 1, 3, 9}.

Considering all possible sums (one integer taken from the first set, one integer taken from
the other), we deduce that, modulo 13, the possible values of a3 +b4 are {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}

However we have

1919 193 .1916 63 .616 = 8.108 8.94 8.32 7 (mod 13)

and we see that 7 is not one of the possible values of a3 + b4 mod 13. We conclude that
there do not exist integers a and b such that a3 + b4 = 1919 . 

5. We will assume the contrary (i.e. that there exists a finite collection of points arranged
so that every line through two points also goes through a third) and derive a contradiction.

We are given that the number of points is finite, therefore the set L of lines drawn between
each and every pair of points has a finite number of elements.

For any point a A and line l L, define d(a, l) to be the shortest distance between a
and l. Since not all points are collinear, of the finite number of values that d(a, l) takes,
some of them must be positive (i.e. not all values can be zero). Let  be the smallest
nonzero value of d(a, l), corresponding to the point a and line l .

Let o be the point on l such that o a is perpendicular to l . Of the three (or more) points
on l there must be two points which are on the same side of o (with possibly one point on
o itself). Of these two such points, denote the one furthest from o as p and the other as q.

By construction, the line lpa through p and a is in L, however the distance from q to
lpa , d(q, lpa ), is positive but strictly less than d(a , l ).

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 This contradicts our original assumption that there was a minimum positive value of
d(a, l) and therefore if the number of points is finite, and there are never just two points
in a line, then d(a, l) is always zero, i.e. all the points are collinear. Since the points are
not collinear, there must be two points such that a third does not lie on the same line. 

6. Denote the floor function by bc, defined to be the largest integer less than or equal to
. Denote the frac function by {}, defined such that {} = bc. By definition
0 {} < 1 for all .

Now consider the n + 1 reals, k = {k}, for integer k in the range 1 . . . n + 1 inclusive.
We know 0 k < 1 therefore by the pigeonhole principle there exist members i , j
such that {i j } < 1/n. That is:

{i j } = {{i} {j}} = {(i bic) (j bjc)} < 1/n

{i j} < 1/n
(i j) b(i j)c < 1/n

Now (i j) is an integer, as is b(i j)c. It follows that there is a non-zero multiple of

that comes within 1/n of an integer. 

7. Denote the primes as p1 , p2 , . . . in the obvious way (i.e. p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5 etc.).

Define the set A such that an integer n A iff the following 3 conditions are satisfied:
n2
The power of each prime factor of n is 1
If n has q prime factors, then pq is not a factor of n
For example, 1
/ A, 4
/ A, 30
/ A (since 30 has 3 prime factors and p3 |30), 42 A.

Assuming the elements of S to be in ascending order and discarding the value 2 if it

occurs, denote the remaining elements as {ps1 , ps2 , ps3 , . . .}.

Set k = s1 and consider two products:

n = ps1 ps2 . . . psk

m = ps2 ps3 . . . psk+1

We observe:
n and m are both products of k distinct elements of S
n has k prime factors and pk = ps1 is one of them. Therefore n
/A
m has k prime factors and pk = ps1 is not one of them. Therefore m A
Thus by construction we have shown that k, m, n and A exist. 

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References

Law of Cosines:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law of cosines

Arithmetic mean-Geometric mean inequality:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means

Pigeonhole principle:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeonhole principle