An Analysis of Coping in a Middle-Aged Community Sample

Author(s): Susan Folkman and Richard S. Lazarus

Source: Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 21, No. 3 (Sep., 1980), pp. 219-239
Published by: American Sociological Association
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An AnalysisofCopingin a Middle-Aged
Community
Sample
SUSAN FOLKMAN
RIcHARDS. LAZARUS
Universityof California,Berkeley

of Healthand Social Behavior1980,Vol. 21 (September):219-239

Journal

Thisstudyanalyzes the ways 100 community-residing menand womenaged 45 to 64 coped with

the stressfulevents of daily living during one year. Lazarus's cognitive-phenomenological
analysis ofpsychologicalstressprovidesthetheoreticalframework. Informationabout recently
experiencedstressfulencounterswas elicitedthroughmonthlyinterviewsand self-report ques-
tionnairescompletedbetween interviews.At the end of each interviewand questionnaire,the
participantindicatedon a 68-itemWays of Coping checklistthose coping thoughtsand actions
used in the specificencounter.A mean of 13.3 episodes was reportedby each participant.Two
functionsof coping, problem-focusedand emotion-focused,are analyzed withseparate mea-
sures.
Bothproblem-and emotion-focusedcoping wereused in 98% ofthe1,332episodes, emphasiz-
ing thatcopingconceptualizedin eitherdefensiveorproblem-solving termsis incomplete-both
functionsare usually involved. Intraindividualanalyses show that people are more variable
than consistentin theircoping patterns.
The contextof an event,who is involved,how it is appraised, age, and genderare examined
as potentialinfluenceson coping. Contextand how the eventis appraised are the mostpotent
factors. Work contextsfavor problem-focusedcoping, and health contextsfavor emotion-
focused coping. Situations in whichtheperson thinkssomethingconstructivecan be done or
thatare appraised as requiringmoreinformation favorproblem-focusedcoping, whereas those
havingto be acceptedfavor emotion-focusedcoping. Thereare no effectsassociated withage,
and genderdifferencesemergeonlyinproblem-focusedcoping: Men use moreproblem-focused
coping than women at work and in situations having to be accepted and requiringmore
information.Contraryto the culturalstereotype,thereare no gender differencesin emotion-
focused coping.

There is a growingconvictionthatthe ways withunusualor special events(such as tor-

people cope withstressaffecttheirpsychologi-
cal, physical,and social well-being(forreviews
see Antonovsky, 1979; Coelho et al., 1974;
Cohen and Lazarus, 1979; Janis and Mann,
1977; Moos, 1977). Despite the groundswell of
interestin coping, littleis knownabout how it
plays this mediatingrole. A major reason is
thatmost coping research has been concerned
with unusual populations (for example, those
exhibitingsome formof pathologyor, less fre-
quently, exceptionally good adjustment) or
Thisarticleis basedon a dissertation
submitted
by
thefirstauthorto theUniversity Berk-
ofCalifornia,
eley.The secondauthorwas chairman ofthedisser-
tationcommittee anddirected thestudy.The inves-
tigationwas supportedby a researchgrantto the
secondauthorfromtheNationalInstitute on Aging
(AG 00799).Thethoughtful andextensive comments
of an anonymous revieweron an earlierversionof
thisarticlewereverymuchappreciated.
Address communications to: Susan Folkman,
Stressand CopingProject,Department of Psychol-
ogy,University of California,
Berkeley,CA 94720.
nadoes, parachutejumps, doctoral exami-
nations,and spinalinjuries).Withtheexcep-
tionofa studybyPearlinand Schooler(1978),
attentionhas notbeengivento thewaysmost
people-those who do not exhibiteitherpa-
thologyor superperson characteristics-cope
with the ordinarystressfulevents of their
day-to-daylives. Measuresdevisedto assess
copinghavebeen inadequateor inappropriate
forthislattertask. Withoutsuitableassess-
mentstrategies,littleprogresscan be madein
understanding how copingmediatesthe re-
lationshipbetweenthe stressesof everyday
livingand psychological,physical,and social
well-being.
Our purposehere is twofold:to reporta
studyoftheways100community-residing men
and womenaged45-64 coped withthestress-
fuleventsofdailylivingduringthecourseofa
topresentan approachtothe
year,andthereby
assessmentof coping that we thinkholds
promiseforcopingresearch.

219

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220 JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
In this studywe soughtto answer two basic
questions about the coping process. First, to
what extent are people consistent in coping
with the diverse stressfulevents of ordinary
living? If coping is determinedprimarilyby
person variables, intraindividualcoping pat-
terns should be highly consistent across
stressfulencounters. On the other hand, if
situationvariables are the majordeterminants,
coping patternswill be situation-specific, and
there will be low consistency. Second, what
are the actual factorsthatinfluencethe coping
process? Five were considered: certain situa-
tional factors, includingwhat the event was
about, who was involved, and how the event
was appraised, and two demographic vari-
ables, age and gender.
This reportdoes not examine the relation-
ships between coping processes and adap-
tational outcomes, such as morale, social
functioning,and somatic illness. Before this
can be done, it is necessaryto have a workable
approach to the measurementof coping,and to
have at least a preliminaryunderstanding ofthe
consistencyof the copingprocess across stress-
ors and of some of the determinants of coping.
This reportshould, therefore,be regardedas a
necessary firststep in programmaticresearch
on coping and adaptationaloutcome.
Approaches to the Measurementof
Coping
Current approaches to measurement are
based on three broad perspectives, namely,
coping conceptualized in terms of ego pro-
cesses (e.g., Haan, 1977; Vaillant, 1977), cop-
ing conceptualized as traits(e.g., Lazarus et
al., 1974), and coping conceptualized in terms
of the special demandsof specifickindsof situ-
ations, such as illness (e.g., Moos, 1977),natu-
ral disasters (e.g., Lucas, 1969), and bereave-
ment(e.g., Parkes, 1972). A briefdiscussion of
each of these perspectiveswill make clear why
the measures of coping that have evolved are
unsatisfactory.
Conceptualizingcopingin termsofdefensive
or ego processes poses several difficulties for
our understandingof the relationshipbetween
the coping process and the adaptational out-
come.
Usually defenses are hierarchicallyorgan-
ized on an evaluative dimension. Vaillant
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(1977), forexample, orders defense processes
from primitiveto mature according to their
"relative theoreticalmaturityand pathological
import" (p. 80). Menninger(1963) speaks of
five orders of regulatorydevices representing
levels of disorganization, and Haan (1977)
ranks ego processes as indicatingego-failure,
defense, or coping according to their adher-
ence to an objective reality.The placementof
an ego process on an evaluative dimensionis
oftenmade on the basis of informationabout
how well the person functions.This leads to
the firstmajor difficulty, namely,a confound-
ing between the process and the adaptational
outcome.
Two examples are the studiesof Wolffet al.
(1964) concerning"well-defended" parentsof
children with terminalillness, and the more
recentwork of Vaillant(1977). In the studyby
Wolffet al., the parents' degree of defense
("well-defendedness") was used to predict
theirstresshormonelevel. However, the mea-
sure of well-defendednesswas based partially
on evidence of lack of distress. It is no great
surprise,therefore,thatthe outcome measure
of stress level, corticosteroidsecretion, was
also correlatedwith well-defendedness.
Vaillant's procedure for assigning defense
level scores to behaviors in his longitudinal
studyof the adaptive processes of male gradu-
ates of an Eastern universityalso illustrates
thisproblemof theconfoundingofprocess and
outcome. Behaviors at timesof crisis and con-
flict in each man's life were described, and
these behaviorswere assigned a defenserating
according to their relative maturity.Raters
were given a life-stylesummaryto assist them
in ratingthe behavior-in other words, a de-
fense was rated in the context of the man's
overall functioning.Level of defense (i.e.,
maturityof defense) was subsequentlyused to
distinguishoutcome groups. However, when
there is interdependencebetween the process
and the adaptationaloutcome, as in the case of
Vaillant's study,the process cannot be used to
explain the outcome.
Anotherdifficulty is thatadequate interrater
reliabilityin assigninglabels to ego processes is
difficultto attain. This problem is noted by
Vaillant (1971) and by Morrissey(1977) in his
review of studies employingHaan's tripartite
arrangementof ego processes. Raters' dis-
agreementsstemin largepartfromthe amount
COPING IN A MIDDLE-AGED COMMUNITY SAMPLE 221

of inference thatis oftenrequiredto label an and Ihilevich(1969)are examplesof defense-

ego process.For example,Vaillant(1977)de- orientedmeasuresalso based on a traitap-
finesreactionformation as proach.(For a comprehensive reviewof trait
behaviorin a fashiondiametrically opposed measures of coping, see Moos, 1974.)Traits
to an unacceptedinstinctual impulse.This differ fromdefensiveprocesses,however,in
mechanismincludes overtly caring for thattheyrefernotto a defensive responseper
someoneelse whenone wishesto be cared se, but to the dispositional or personality at-
foroneself,"hating"someoneor something tributes thatlead to theresponse(cf. Lazarus
one reallylikes,or "loving"a hatedrivalor et al., 1974).
unpleasantduty.(p. 385) Overall,traitmeasuresare poor predictors
Altruism, on theotherhand,is definedas ofcopingprocesses(CohenandLazarus,1973;
vicariousbutconstructive and instinctuallyLazaruset al., 1974).Traitmeasuresarebased
gratifyingserviceto others.It includesbe- on theassumption thatpeoplearebehaviorally
nignand constructive reactionformation,(also attitudinally and cognitively) consistent
philanthropy, and well-repaidservice to across situations.However,substantialcon-
others. Altruismdiffersfrom . . . reaction sistencyhas seldombeenfoundin personality
formation in thatit leaves thepersonusing research. There are argumentsthat most
thedefensepartlygratified. (p. 386) peopleare consistent undercertainsituational
Gratification seemsto be thekeyto knowing conditions,but even the use of person-by-
whena behaviorrepresents one ortheotherof situation interactionsdoes notgreatly improve
thedefenses, buthowwouldan observerknow theextentto whichtraitspredictbehavior(cf.
whetherthe personwas reallygratified (al- Bowers,1973;Ekehammar, 1974;Magnusson
truism)or merelypretendinggratificationand Endler, 1977; Pervinand Lewis, 1978).
(reactionformation)? To reducetheamountof The consistencyof the copingprocess has
inferencerequiredto answerthis question, never been addressedsystematically in re-
Vaillantlooksforinformation abouttheconse- search,buthas been,in themain,assumed.
quencesoftheeventinsubsequent lifehistory. Further, theunidimensional qualityof most
This, of course, leads to the problemmen- traitmeasuresdoes notadequatelyreflect the
tionedearlier,namely,confounding of out- multidimensional qualityof actualcopingpro-
comewithprocess. cesses. Naturalisticobservation(e.g., Me-
Finally,bytreating copingas a defensesys- chanic,1962;Murphy,1974;Visotskyet al.,
temwhose purposeis to reducetensionand 1961)indicatesthatcopingis a complexamal-
restoreequilibrium, attentionis focusedon gamofthoughts andbehaviors(cf.Lazarus,in
tensionreduction ratherthanproblem-solving.press). Moos and Tsu (1977), for example,
Although maintaining emotionalequilibrium is pointoutthatin copingwithphysicalillnessa
an important function of coping(Cohen and patientmustdeal withmanysourcesofstress,
Lazarus, 1979; White,1974),so is problem- including painand incapacitation, hospitalen-
solving(see Janisand Mann,1977;Mechanic, vironments, and thedemandsimposedby the
1962;Murphy,1974).A comprehensive defini- professionalstaffand spepialtreatment proce-
tionof copingneedsto includebothemotion- dures.Atthesametime,thepatientmustalso
regulating and problem-solving functions. preserveemotionalbalance, a satisfactory
A secondwaytoconceptualize copingis as a self-image, and good relationships withfamily
personality trait.Thisoverlapsthefirst typeof and friends.These multipletasks requirean
conceptualization wheneverthetraitsare de- arrayof copingstrategies, the complexity of
rivedfromdefensetheory, as, forexample,in whichsimplycannotbe capturedin a unidi-
thecase ofrepression-isolation (cf.Gardneret mensionalmeasure.
al., 1959;LevineandSpivack,1964;Luborsky Coping is also a shiftingprocess (cf.
et al., 1965; Schafer, 1954), repression- Lazarus,in press)in whicha personmust,at
sensitization (cf. Byrne,1964;Welsh, 1956), certaintimes,relymoreheavilyon oneformof
and coping-avoidance (Goldstein,1959,1973). coping,say,defensivestrategies, and at other
Byrne's(1964) repression-sensitization scale, timeson problem-solving strategies,as the
Goldstein's(1959) sentence-completion test, statusofthesituation changes.It is difficult
to
anda defensemechanisms inventory byGleser see howtheunfolding natureofmoststressful

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222 JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

encounters,and the concomitantchangesin developing test-taking skills,andalso regulated

coping,could be adequatelydescribedby a feelingstatesthroughthe use of comforting
presumablystaticmeasureofa generaltraitor cognitions,favorable social comparisons,
personality
disposition. humor,beinga member ofa supportive group,
Situation-orientedresearchersapproach the andthesearchforsupport fromotherstudents,
studyofcopingfroma thirdperspective. They friends, the spouse,faculty,the investigator,
usuallydescribethe ways people cope with "and sometimes anyonepresent"(p. 140).
specificsituations, forexample,withcancer There are problemswith this approach,
(e.g., Weismanand Worden,1976-77),polio however.Becausethesestudiesareusuallyde-
(Visotskyet al., 1961),burns(e.g., Andreasen signedto identify copingstrategies thatmedi-
and Norris,1972), spinal cord injury(e.g., ate adaptationaloutcomesin unusual situa-
Bulman and Wortman, 1977), parachute tions, and not to analyze coping cross-
jumping(Epstein,1962),and changesin in- situationally, findings tendnotto be generaliz-
stitutional residence(Aldrichand Mendkoff,able to other contexts. In other words,
1963).In thesestudies,copingstrategies are situation-oriented researchon coping tends
oftengroupedintofunctional categories,for also to be situation-specific.
example,strategies formaintaining orrestoring In thisconnection, a recentstudybyPearlin
interpersonal relationships, seekinginforma- and Schooler(1978)differs in important ways
tion,feelingbetter,maintaining self-esteem,fromothersituation-oriented research.Rather
and makinggood decisions. Althoughthe than focusingon unusualevents,these re-
copingstrategies oftenincludedefenses,they searcherswere concernedwiththe ordinary
are notorganizedarounddefensetheory.In- stressespeopleencounter. Further,ratherthan
stead,defensesare describedin termsof the studying a singleevent,theyaskedtheirsub-
particular function theyserveina specificsitu- jects aboutthewaystheycoped withstresses
ation.The "comforting cognitions"described associated with four social roles: marriage
by Mechanic(1962) in his studyof doctoral partner, householdeconomicmanager, parent,
studentspreparing fortheirqualifying exami- and worker.Pearlinand Schoolerfoundthat
nationsrepresenta good example.They in- peopleused a broadrangeofstrategies incop-
clude self-statements suchas: ing withthe demandsassociatedwiththese
I'm as brightand knowledgeable as other roles.Theyidentified 17 copingfactors,each
studentswho have passed these exami- made up of at least three specificstrategies.
nations;I've handledtestsituationsin the Certaincopingresponses,suchas engaging in
past-there'snogoodreasonwhynotnow;I selectiveperception and makingpositivecom-
amdoingall I can to prepare-therestis not parisons,were foundin all fourrole areas,
up to me; I wouldn'thave gottenthisfar suggesting thattheyhave fairlyuniversalap-
unlessI knewsomething; I'm well likedin plication, whereasothersappearedonlyinone
thisdepartment; I've alreadydemonstratedarea. Such differences are important because
mycompetence on pastwork,theywillpass theyimplythattheremaybe bothconsistency
me; You can'treallyfailtheseexaminations and variability whencopingis viewedacross
unlessyou reallymessup. (p. 121)
situations(see also Moos, 1974;Sidle et al.,
Thesestatements are specificto theexamsitu- 1969).
ationandaregroupedbyfunction, inthiscase, Thereare twolimitations to thePearlinand
thereduction of anxiety. Schooler (1978) study. First, most of the
The situation-oriented approachhas certain analyseswere based on questionsthatasked
virtues.By notlimiting thedefinition ofcoping how therespondents usuallycoped withgen-
todefensive ortrait-relevant processes,a more eral sourcesof stress,and nothowtheyactu-
inclusiveand comprehensive descriptionof ally coped in specificsituations.Questions
copingis possible.Thisis particularly evident about sourcesof stressand copingare illus-
in Mechanic's (1962) study,in which de- trative.One questionasked:
scriptions are givenabouthow studentsman- How strongly do youagreeor disagreethat:
agedthesourceofstress,i.e., theexamination, 1. I cannotcompletely be myself aroundmy
by allocatingtime,choosingtest areas, and spouse? 2. My marriagedoesn't give me

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COPING IN A MIDDLE-AGED COMMUNITY SAMPLE 223

enoughopportunity to become the sortof present study falls within the cognitive-
personI'd liketo be? 3. My spouseappre- phenomenologicaltheoryof psychological
ciatesmejust as I am? (p. 19) stressdevelopedbyLazarusandhiscolleagues
And anotherasked: (e.g., Lazarus,1966;Lazarus,inpress;Coyne
and Lazarus, in press; Folkmanet al., 1979;
How oftendo you: 1. Tell yourselfthat Lazarus et al., 1980; Lazarus and Launier,
marital difficulties
arenotimportant? 2. Try 1978). The overall theoreticalframework is
to overlookyourspouse'sfaultsandpayat- transactional in thatthepersonand theenvi-
tention onlyto goodpoints?3. Tryto ignore ronment are seeninan ongoingrelationship of
difficultiesby lookingonlyat good things? reciprocalaction,each affecting and in turn
(p. 20) beingaffectedby theother.Lazarus has de-
Whena situational sourceofstressis defined finedtwoprocessesthatmediatethisrelation-
in termsof a generalquality,such as social ship:appraisaland coping.
atmosphere, we learnaboutan enduring aspect Appraisalis the cognitiveprocessthrough
of a clusterof specificsituationsthatin this whichan eventis evaluatedwithrespectto
case includesopportunity forself-expression,whatis at stake(primary appraisal)and what
and spousalappreciation or thelack thereof. coping resourcesand optionsare available
These are general,abstractqualitiesof situa- (secondaryappraisal).Thereare threemajor
tionsand do notinform us of thespecificde- typesof stressful appraisals:harm-loss, which
mandswithwhichthepersonis coping.Simi- refersto damagethathas alreadyoccurred;
larly,whena personis askedabouthowhe or threat, whichrefers toharmorlossthathasnot
she usually copes, information is being so- yetoccurredbutis anticipated; andchallenge,
licitedabouta personality disposition.At this whichrefersto an anticipated opportunity for
level of abstraction, measurement poses the mastery or gain.The degreeto whicha person
same problemsencounteredin the traitap- experiencespsychological stress,thatis, feels
proach to measurementdiscussed above. harmed,threatened, or challenged,is deter-
Overall,thereis usuallya poor relationship minedby therelationship betweentheperson
betweenwhatpeoplesay theyusuallydo and andtheenvironment inthatspecificencounter
whattheyactuallydo inspecificinstances. The as itis defined bothbytheevaluation ofwhatis
bestway to learnaboutthedemandsof situa- at stakeand theevaluation ofcopingresources
tions(such as a personalcriticism or a man- and options.
ifestation ofinterpersonalcoolnessorhostility) Copingis definedas thecognitiveand be-
and how people cope with them(e.g., by havioralefforts made to master,tolerate,or
counterhostility, avoidance,or withdrawal of reduceexternal andinternal demandsandcon-
interest)is to describehow people actually flictsamongthem.Such copingefforts serve
cope in specific stressfulencounters. twomainfunctions: themanagement or altera-
The second limitation of Pearlin and tion of the person-environment relationship
Schooler'sstudyis itsconcernwithpersistent thatis the sourceof stress(problem-focused
life-strains,thatis, enduring and henceunre- coping)andtheregulation ofstressful
emotions
solvedproblems"thathave thepotentialfor (emotion-focused coping).These functions of
arousingthreat. . ." (p. 3). Subjects were not copingare also recognizedby George(1974),
askedaboutstressestheyhadresolvedorwere Kahn et al. (1964), Murphyand Moriarty
successfulin overcoming. As a result,a large (1976),Murphy (1974),White(1974),Mechanic
domainofcopingresponses,thoseeffective in (1962),and Pearlinand Schooler(1978).
changingthe situation out of which the Copingefforts aremadeinresponseto stress
strainfulexperiencearose, was ignored.This appraisals. However, appraisal and coping
orientation towardenduringproblemsmight continuously influenceeach otherthroughout
helpexplainwhyresponsesto modify thesitu- an encounter.For example,an appraisalof
ationrepresented only3 of the 17 copingre- harm/loss, threat,or challengestimulates cop-
sponseselicited,a finding thatseemedto sur- ingefforts thatchangetheperson-environment
prisetheauthors. relationship by alteringthe relationship itself
The conceptualization ofcopingused in the (problem-focused coping)and/or by regulating

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224 JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

emotionaldistress(emotion-focused coping). and social health in Alameda County

Thechangedrelationship leadsto newapprais- (Hochstim,1970). The samplingframecon-
als or reappraisals,whichin turnengender sistedofall (over7,000)adultsaged20 orover
furthercopingefforts, and so on. The identifi-livingin a probability samplearea of 4,735
cationofappraisalas a determinant ofcoping, housingunits.Thispopulation was resurveyed
or copingas a determinant ofappraisal,is thus byHPL in 1974,anditwas fromthe1974panel
provisionaldependingupon whereone inter- sample(N = 4,864)thatourparticipants were
ruptsthe ongoing,dynamicrelationship be- drawn.A total of 216 people were initially
tweenthetwo. contactedbyphone,109ofwhomagreedto be
Thetermcopingprocessesrefers towhatthe inthestudy.Overthecourseofthestudy,nine
personactuallythinksand does in a particular ofthesedroppedout.A comparison ofthe109
encounter andtochangesintheseefforts as the in theoriginalsamplewiththosewho refused
encounterunfoldsduringa singleepisodeor to participateon income,religion,physical
acrossepisodesthatareinsomesensepartofa status,and educationrevealedthatthosere-
commonstressfulencounter,as in bereave- fusing werelesseducated(X2 = 11.21,df= 3, p
ment.Thisstudyfocusesonjust one aspectof < .02),withmorefalling withintheeducation
these processes, namely,what the person levelof 8-12 years.Of theninewhodropped
thinksand does to cope withthedemandsofa out,fourwerewomen,andtheycamefromthe
specificstressful encounter.Shortlywe shall youngestthreeage groups(threefromeach).
explainhow we combinea person'scomplex
copingefforts to providea summary descrip-
tionof copingprocessesin thatparticular en- The Response Measure: The Ways of
counter.Whatwe do nothaveis a description Coping2
ofhowthecopingefforts areorderedintimeor
The "Ways of Coping"is a checklistof 68
how theychangein relationto shiftsin the
itemsdescribing a broadrangeof behavioral
person-environment relationship.We are cur- thatan individ-
andcognitive copingstrategies
rentlyanalyzing open-ended interviewmaterial ual
mightuse in a specificstressful episode.
witha view to studying thesecomplextime-
The strategies were derivedfromthe frame-
related changes in coping processes. The
worksuggested by Lazarusandhiscolleagues
analysiswe reporthereshouldbe regardedas
(Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus and Launier,1978)
an effortto set the stageforthismoreambi- in thecopinglit-
andfromsuggestions offered
tiousundertaking.
erature(Mechanic,1962; Sidle et al., 1969;
WeismanandWorden,1976-77).Theyinclude
itemsfromthe domainsof defensivecoping
METHODS isolation,
(e.g., avoidance,intellectualization,
Sample suppression),information-seeking, problem-
solving,palliation,inhibitionof action,direct
The sampleconsistedof 100respondents (52
action,and magicalthinking. The checklistis
women,48 men),aged45-64,whoparticipated
binary, yesorno,andis alwaysansweredwith
in a 12-month studyof stress,coping,and
a specificstressfuleventin mind.
emotions.The participants were whiteand
The itemson theWaysof Copingchecklist
primarily Protestant(93; 6 Catholic and 1
were classifiedintotwo categories:problem-
Jewish),hadat leasta ninth-grade levelofedu- The problem-
focusedand emotion-focused.
cation(mean= 13.7years)and at least "ade-
focusedcategoryincludesitemsthatdescribe
quate" income($7,000or abovein 1974;mean efforts and behav-
= $11,313),and were not severelydisabled. cognitiveproblem-solving
ioral strategiesfor alteringor managingthe
Age was further intofour5-yearpe-
stratified
= =
sourceof theproblem.Examplesare:
riods: 45-49 (N 27), 50-54 (N 25), 55-59
(N = 24), and 60-64 (N = 24). These persons Got thepersonresponsible to changehis
were selectedfroma populationpreviously or hermind.
surveyedby the Alameda County Human Made a plan of actionand followedit.
PopulationLaboratory(HPL).1 In 1965,the Stood yourgroundand foughtforwhat
HPL completeda surveyof physical,mental, you wanted.

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COPING IN A MIDDLE-AGED COMMUNITY SAMPLE 225

The emotion-focused categoryincludesitems andusinga varimax rotation,alsolentempirical

thatdescribecognitiveand behavioralefforts support fortherationally derivedscales.Ofthe
directedat reducingor managingemotional 27 itemsclassifiedas problem-focused, 21, or
distress.Examplesare: 78%, correlatedmorestrongly withthe first
Looked for the "silver lining,"so to empiricalfactor.Of the41 itemsclassifiedas
emotion-focused, 28, or 68%, werecorrelated
speak;triedtolookon thebright sideof
morestrongly withthesecondempirical factor.
things.
Accepted sympathyand understanding Thus,while theempiricallyconstructed factors
fromsomeone. werenotpurelyproblem- or emotion-focused,
indicatingthatcertainitems might be sensitive
Triedto forgetthewholething.
tothesituationalcontextas notedabove,there
The internal consistency oftheclassificationwas clearsupportfora problem-focused scale
of itemswas evaluatedby severalmethods. (P-scale) and an emotion-focused scale (E-
First,an interdisciplinary groupconsisting of scale).
10 people familiarwiththe projectand its Fourth,the internalconsistencyof the P-
theory,includingundergraduatestudents, andE-scaleswas examined,usingCronbach's
graduate students,and facultymembers, (1951)alpha,byrandomly twoadmin-
selecting
classifiedeach itemas problem-or emotion- istrations andtreating eachindependently. The
focused.Therewas 91% agreement amongthe mean alpha coefficient forthe two adminis-
raters.Of the 68 items,27 wereclassifiedas trations of theP-scalewas .80 and fortheE-
problem-focused(P) and 41 as emotion- scale, .81.
focused(E). The item-totalcorrelations generated bythe
Second,additionalsupportforthe internal internalconsistency programwere examined
consistencyof the P- and E-scales was ob- to see iftherewereitemsthatcorrelated espe-
tainedin an experimental studywithunder- ciallyweakly(r < .25) withtheirrespective
graduatepsychologystudents(Leigh, 1979). scales. If an itemcorrelatedweakly,its re-
Subjectswere presentedthreevignettesde- lationship to otheritemsand to theempirical
pictingstressfulsituations.Thedirections indi- factorswas examined.The frequencywith
cated two aspects of the predicament that whichtheitemwas used andtheevaluationof
could be addressed:theproblemitselfor the theitembyraterswerealso considered.Ifsev-
emotionalresponseto the problem.Subjects eralof thedata sourcesindicatedthatan item
wereaskedto markeach itemon theWaysof was weak, thatitembecamea candidatefor
Copingchecklist according to theaspectofthe deletion.It was decidedtomoveoneitemfrom
predicament to whichhe or she wouldapply the P-scale to the E-scale, and to drop two
thatstrategy. Overthethreetests,an average itemsfromeach scale.The revisedP-scalehad
of 78% of theitemswereidentified as having 24 itemsand therevisedE-scale had 40.
thefunction thatagreedwiththeirscale mem- Revisionsofthescalesweremadeverycon-
bership(.05 levelofsignificance). Fivepercent servatively becauseofthedangerofartificially
of the itemswere significant in the opposite creatingrelationships by modifying scales on
direction-that is, a problem-focused itemwas the basis of data to whichtheywere to be
used for regulation of emotion, or an applied.These scales ultimately mustbe used
emotion-focused itemwas used to managea withotherpopulationsin similarresearchso
problem.These itemsapparently reflecteda that theirfactorstructure,internalconsis-
sensitivityto the situationalcontextof the tency,and the frequency of itemuse can be
vignette.For example,the item"you went comparedwiththeresultsofthisstudy.Mod-
overtheproblemagainandagaininyourmind ifications can thenbe madeina mannerwhich
to try to understandit" was seen in a willminimize thedangerofdeleting itemsthat
problem-focused sensewhenthevignette dealt appearvaluelessin one populationor context
withan upcomingharm(threat),but in an butare in factvaluablein another.
emotion-focused sensewhentheharmhad al- Finally,thecorrelation betweentheP- and
readyoccurred(as in a failedexamination). E-scales was examined,usingthreeadminis-
Third,a principal factoranalysisoftheWays trations of theWaysof Copingchecklistran-
ofCopingchecklist data,callingfortwofactors domlyselectedfromthe groupof adminis-

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226 JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

notusedin thescale revisionprocess. wereused in theanalysisforreasonsgivenin

trations
betweentheP- and E-scales thenextsection.
The correlations
were.35(N = 81), .52
intheseadministrations
(N = 63), and .44 (N = 83). The mean correla-
Classificationof Coping Episodes
tion was .44. Because both scales measure
processesbelievedto be used together
in nor- Each copingepisode was classifiedas to
malcoping,a relationshipbetweenthetwowas whatitwas about,whowas involved,andhow
expected.However,sincethemeanr2was .19, it was appraised.
thereis enoughvariancenotsharedbythetwo Fourbroadcategorieswereusedto describe
scales to supporttheirindependent
use, along whateachcopingepisodewas primarily about:
withthe theoreticalor rationalreasons for health,work,family matters,andother.These
doingso. categoriesdescribethe"context"ofan event.
Four categorieswere also establishedto de-
scribewho was involved:selfonly,person(s)
Reportingof StressfulEvents
at work,familymember(s), andothers.These
Participants wereinterviewed seventimesat categoriesdescribethe"personinvolved."
4-weekintervalsabout stressfuleventsthat The classificationof episodes as to their
had occurredduringthepreviousmonthand contextandthepersoninvolvedwas madebya
were perhaps still going on. Details were teamofthreecoders-one ofthewriters (SF),
soughtaboutwhathadledup totheevent,who a graduatestudent, and an undergraduate stu-
was involved,whatit was about,whathap- dent.In theearlystagesofcoding,agreement
pened,whatwas at stake,and the ways the amongthecodersrangedfrom.85 to .96. Any
participant coped. At theconclusionoftheac- episodethatwas notcodedthesamewaybyall
count,theparticipant indicated on theWaysof threecoders was discussedand a code was
Copingchecklist thosestrategies thathadbeen agreedupon. A reliability check was made
or were beingused in the event.In thefirst afterapproximately 600 episodes had been
interview, participantswereaskedto describe coded,and therangeof agreement was .87 to
threeevents. In subsequentsessions, they .97. A thirdreliability checkwas made after
wereaskedto describeone event. 1,200had beencoded; therangeofagreement
In addition,participants filledout a Coping was .90 to .97.
Questionnaire duringthethirdweekfollowing Episodeswereclassifiedas to "appraisal"
each interview.The Coping Questionnaire bytheparticipants, whoindicatedon thefinal
askedthepersonto thinkofthemoststressful pageoftheWaysofCopingchecklist whichof
eventexperienced duringthemonth,to givea four statementsdescribedthe situationfor
written descriptionof it, and thento indicate whichtheyhadjust completedthechecklist:
on theWaysof Copingchecklistthosestrate- In general,is thissituation one
gies thatwere used in the episode. Initially 1. thatyou could changeor do something
participants were asked to fillout two ques- about?
tionnaireseach month.However,aftertwo 2. thatmustbe acceptedor gottenused to?
monthsthenumberwas reducedto one. 3. thatyouneededto knowmoreaboutbe-
Most participants did not report the foreyou could act?
maximumnumberof stressfulincidentsour 4. in whichyou had to holdyourselfback
interviewand questionnaire proceduresper- from doingwhatyou wantedto do?
mitted.Sometimes a participant woulddiscuss In manyinstancesthe participants checked
thesameincident inan interview thathe or she morethanone statement, in whichcase they
had reported on a questionnaire, and at other wereaskedto underline theone thatbestde-
timesa participant wouldreportthatnothing scribedthe situation.
stressful had happenedin thepreviousmonth. Onlythoseepisodesthatcouldbe codedfor
As a consequence,thenumber ofepisodesre- allthreefactors-context, thepersoninvolved,
portedbytheparticipants variedfrom4 to 18. and appraisal-wereincludedin theanalysis.
In all, 1,524episodeswerecollected,an aver- In all, 192,or 13%, wereeliminated because
age of 15.2 foreach person,althoughnot all theycould notbe coded forall threefactors;

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COPING IN A MIDDLE-AGED COMMUNITY SAMPLE 227

1,332remained,an averageof 13.3 foreach studyoffer strongsupport forthispositionand

person. demonstrate its usefulnessin understanding
thecopingprocess.The degreeofconsistency
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ofcopingpatterns is a keyfeature ofthisissue,
sincethehighersuchconsistency, thegreater
The Dual Functions of Coping
theroleindependent personfactorsmusthave
One ofthemajortheoretical tenetsunderly- as determinants.
ingthisinvestigation is thatthecopingprocess A copingpatternwas definedhere as the
involvesbothproblem-focused and emotion- combined proportion of problem- and
focusedfunctions. Therefore, thefinding that emotion-focused coping used in a specific
both problem-and emotion-focused coping episode. Scores on the P-scale (24 items)
were used in virtuallyevery stressfulen- rangedfrom0 to 23, witha meanof 8.6, a
counteris important.Of the 1,332 coping medianof8.4, anda standard deviation of4.4.
episodesanalyzed,therewereless than2% in Scoreson theE-scale(40 items)rangedfrom0
whichonlyone typeofcopingwas used. This to 37, witha meanof 13.4,a medianof 13.2,
pointsup dramatically the earlierthemethat and a standarddeviationof6.1. Sincethetwo
conceptualizing copingsolelyin termsof de- distributions werenormal,each withan N of
fensiveprocesses or problem-solving pro- 1,332 episodes, they were dividedinto ap-
cessesis inadequate.Defensiveprocessesrefer proximately equal thirds.The operational defi-
primarily to the emotion-focused function of nitionofpattern thusinvolvedclassifying each
coping,butinthestressful encounters reported P-scoreand E-scoreas high,medium,or low
here,problem-focused copingwas also usedin andcombining therankings to formninepossi-
nearlyeveryinstance.Similarly, researchers blepatterns ranging fromhighon bothscalesto
whoemphasizetheproblem-solving aspectof low on bothscales.
copingare dealingwitha limitedaspectofthe Consistency scoreswerecalculatedthrough
copingprocessas itpresentsitselfin ordinary a combinatorial analysisin whichthenumber
living.Forexample,inJanisandMann's(1977) of patternrepetitions was calculatedintrain-
decision-making model,althoughemotionis dividually as a proportion ofmaximum possible
seen as a source of interference withgood repetitions. Perfectconsistency (a scoreof 1)
decision-making, littleattentionis givento the was definedas the repetition of one pattern
strategies peopleuse to regulateit. Snyderet acrossall episodes.Perfect variability(a score
al. (1962)andGeorge(1974)havecalledatten- of 0) was definedas theabsenceof anyrepe-
tionto theneedto lookat copingdevicesthat titions.This methodof analysistookintoac-
decision-makers can use to minimize thepsy- countthe varyingnumbersof episodes that
chologicaltensionsaccompanying decision- individualsreported byusingthatfigure as the
makingunderemergency conditions or under denominator in theratio.For example,foran
conditions ofuncertainty or ambiguity. Thisis individual reporting 16episodes,theincreased
notto saythatthereis no placeforresearchon likelihoodof patternrepetitions owingto the
defensive processesordecision-making. How- largenumberof episodesis controlled forby
ever,whencopingis thesubjectof investiga- the increasednumberof possiblerepetitions
tion,it is best seen as a complexprocessin- thelargenumberof episodeswouldcontain.
volving both the problem-solving and The distribution of consistencyscores de-
emotion-regulating functions, as Lazarus (in rivedthrough thisanalysisis shownin Figure
press;Note 1) has argued. 1. Scoresrangedfrom.073to 1.00,witha mean
of .265, indicating thatalthougha degreeof
Consistencyof Coping Patterns consistency was present, thispopulationwas
characterized by morevariability thanconsis-
A second major theoreticaltenet is that tencyin its patternsof coping.3
copingis bestunderstood as beingdetermined As is evidentin Figure1, a smallnumberof
bytherelationship betweenthepersonandthe participants werehighly consistent intheiruse
environment, ratherthanby independent per- of coping patterns.A closer look at the
son or situationfactors.The findings of this episodesreported bythe5% ofthesamplewith

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 FIGURE 1. Distributionof consistencyscores describingthe extentto which people were consistentor variable in the

19
18
17
16
15
14

13
tO 12
4-)
11 N =100

> 10 Mean = .256

? 9 Standard deviation
48 Range = .073 -1.00

z>
6
5
4
3

20
1>

.00 .07 .110.150.190.230.270.310.350.390.430.470.510.550.590.630.670.710.750.790.830.870.910.9

Consistency Scores

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COPING IN A MIDDLE-AGED COMMUNITY SAMPLE 229

the highestconsistencyscores (rangingfrom It maybe thatto identify copingstylesthat

.714 to 1.00) revealedthatfor each person transcend situational contexts,we mustlookat
therewas greatvarietyamongepisodeswith anotherlevel of abstraction forways people
respectto whattheywereabout,whowas in- thinkaboutthemselves or relateto othersofa
volved,and how theywere appraised.This particular sort,forexample,the powerful or
suggests thathighconsistency is a functionofa powerless,friendly or hostile,controlling or
personalityfactorortraitrather thantheresult permissive.Intuitively,we sensethe existence
of thepersonexperiencing thesame situation of suchstyles.For example,mostofus know
overandoveragain.However,theconsistency peoplewho seemto be assaultiveyetsimulta-
scoresof mostof thesamplesuggestthat,on neouslyvulnerable,a patternof copingthat
thewhole,copingpatterns are notgreatlyde- allowsthemto be demanding and at thesame
termined by personfactors,norare theyde- timewardsoffcounterdemands by implying
termined entirelyby situationfactors. that such counterdemands would "do them
Thesegeneralizations withrespectto coping in." We are persuadedthatsuchcomplexand
consistency mustbe tentative, forwe haveex- subtlecopingstylesdo exist,butitmaynotbe
aminedonly one of severalpossiblecoping possibleto identify themthrough theWaysof
patterns."Pattern"hererefersto therelative Copingchecklist.
proportionsof problem- and emotion-focused In thepresentdata set, such stylesare not
copingused in a episode.As such,it readilyapparent.Whenpattern
particular is definedsim-
ignoresthe specificproblem-and emotion- ply in termsof proportions of problem-and
focusedstrategies broughtto bear in a given emotion-focused coping,variabilityrather than
encounter.For example,withintheemotion- consistency predominates, and as thefindings
focusedcategoryare numerous, morespecific will show, problem-and emotion-focused
copingstrategies, suchas trying to see humor copingare differentially influenced by situa-
in the situation,avoidance,detachment, as- tionalfactors-i.e.,who was involvedin the
signment ofblame(to selfor others),fatalism, copingepisode,whatitscontextwas,andhow
projection,and fantasy.Specific strategies theepisodewas appraised-andbytheage and
withinthe problem-focused categoryinclude genderof theparticipant.
seekinginformation, tryingto get help, in-
hibitingaction, and takingdirect action. The Influenceof Situational Factors on
Furtheranalysisof these or otherspecific Coping
strategieswould providethe possibilityfor
testingconsistencyor variability in patterns Although all participantsreported numerous
otherthanthose employed here. coping episodes, they did not necessarily re-
Similarly, the problem-focused and portepisodesineverysituational category. For
emotion-focused functionsof coping were example,approximately one-third of thesam-
selectedforstudybecauseoftheirtheoretical ple did notworkoutsidethehomeand there-
importance as reflectedin relatively indepen- fore had no episodes in work-related
dent major research literatures, e.g., categories. Othersreported nohealthepisodes.
industrial-socialpsychology(Kahn et al., Approximately 80% ofthesamplehad at least
1964),sociology(Mechanic,1962),and devel- one categoryforwhichtheydid notreportan
opmentalpsychology(Murphy,1974). How- event.Estimating dataforso manycellswould
ever,theyare onlytwo of severalfunctions have distortedwhatwas actuallyhappening.
thatcould have been considered.Otherpos- On theotherhand,ifonlythosesubjectswho
sibilities
includewhether copingis directedat had episodesin everycategorywereused in
oneselfor another,whetherit is active or the analysis,80% of the samplewouldhave
passive (cf. Rothbaumet al., 1979), and been lost.
whetherit producesa solution(an "exit," to The solutionto theproblemcaused by un-
use thetermofMilleret al., 1960)or merelya equalcellswas to use pairedt-tests to examine
deferralof solution.Examinationof these differencesin the use of problem- and
functions mightincreasethelikelihoodof ob- emotion-focused copingwithin eachsituational
serving copingstyles,whichcan be thought of factor. The paired t-test preserves the
as clustersof patterns or profiles. maximumnumberof cases by includingall

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230 JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

pairs forwhichthereare no missingvalues.It episodesinvolving people at workgenerated

is also an appropriatetestfordependentdata increasedproblem-focused copingcompared
generatedby assessingthe same personre- withepisodesinvolving theselfonlyor family
peatedlyand permitswithin-person compari- members.There was no effecton emotion-
sonsacrosscategories.Whena participant had focusedcoping.
morethanone episodein a category, meanP- Thecontext.Thecontextoftheepisode,that
and E-scoreswerecalculatedandenteredinto is,whether itwas work-related, family-related,
thepairedt-test. or health-related,differentially influenced
Threesets of analyseswereperformed on problem-and emotion-focused coping. As
problem- and emotion-focused copingscores. shownin Table 2, workwas associatedwith
The firstset examinedtheeffects ofwhowas higherlevelsof problem-focused coping,and
involvedin theepisode(personinvolved),the health was associated with increased
second examinedthe effectsof what it was emotion-focused coping.
about (context),and the thirdexaminedthe The increasein problem-focused copingas-
effectsofhowitwas appraised(appraisal).The sociatedwiththeworkcontextis particularly
category"other"within thefactorsofcontext interesting when the findings about workin
and personinvolvedwas not includedin this PearlinandSchooler's(1978)studyareconsid-
analysis,sincethemeaningof anydifferencesered.PearlinandSchoolerwerepuzzledbythe
forthiscategorywouldnot have been clear. infrequent use of strategiesdirectedat chang-
Withineveryset of analyses,each category ing the situation,and by the resistanceof
was enteredintomultiplecomparisons-e.g., problemsat work to ameliorationthrough
episodesthathadto do withhealthwerecom- copingefforts. Theysuggested thatthismight
pared withepisodes thatwere work-relatedbe due to theimpersonal andchronicnatureof
and withepisodes thatwere family-related.problemsin theworkarena.As notedearlier,
Because of the multiple testing, the another reasonmight be thata domainofinter-
significancelevelforrejectingthenullhypoth- personalwork-related problems inwhichthere
esis of no differencebetweenthemeanswas existedthepotential forproblem-solving, or at
set conservatively at .02 to reduce the in- least problem-managing, was not tapped in
creasedchanceof a Type I error. theirresearch.
Theperson involved. Of the threesituational Of the 310 workepisodesin the studyre-
factorsconsidered, thepersoninvolvedin the portedhere, 184 (59o) involveda specific
copingepisodewas thefactorhavingtheleast otherperson.In addition, 32% oftheproblems
influenceon coping.As shownin Table 1, at workwere appraisedas permitting some-

TABLE 1. Differencesin Coping Due to Person Involved

Mean 2-tailed
Category Mean Difference df T-value Probabilitya
Coping
Problem-focused
Weofrk 9.780 -1.05 56 -2.61 .012

Self 8.15 -.08 85 -.25 .805

Family 8.23
Work 9.65 1.52 45 2.75 .009
Family 8.13
Emotion-focused
Coping
Self 12.69 -.44 57 -.83 .409
Work 13.13-.340
Self 12.95 -.18 86 -.49 .623
Family 13.13
Work 12.87 5469632
Family 12.28 59 46 .96 .342
a Decisionrule:rejectnullhypothesis of T s.02.
ifprobability

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COPING IN A MIDDLE-AGED COMMUNITY SAMPLE 231

thingto be done to changethem.Pearlinand groupedwithinthiscategory.Family-related

Schoolermaybe correctin sayingthatimper- episodes rangedfromminorconcernsabout
sonal,chronicproblems at work,suchas noise holidaymealsandfamily celebrationsto major
and depersonalization, may be resistantto concernsaboutfinancial security
andthewel-
amelioration,and may thereforegenerate fareof agingparents.These diverseexperi-
emotion-ratherthanproblem-focused forms of ences shouldeach be consideredseparately;
coping.Butwork-related problems can also be however,therewerenotenoughinstancesin
andcan be appraisedas holding each categoryto permittheirseparationfor
interpersonal,
the potential for amelioration through purposesof analysis.In any futureinvestiga-
problem-focusedcoping. tion withlargersamples,such a breakdown
The increasein emotion-focused copingas- shouldbe made.
sociatedwithhealthproblemsis consonant Appraisal. Lazarus and his colleagues
withfindingsfromsituation-orientedstudiesof (Folkmanet al., 1979;Lazarus,1966,in press;
copingwithphysicalillnessanddisabilities(for Lazarus et al., 1970, 1974; Lazarus and
reviews see Cohen and Lazarus, 1979; Launier,1978)ascribegreatimportance to ap-
Lipowski,1970; Moos, 1977).These studies praisaland considerit thecriticaldeterminant
have shown that much coping is directed of thecopingprocess.According to appraisal
towardmanaging feelingsofanxiety, fear,and theory,in a threateningor harmful situation
dread,and towardrestoration of self-esteemthatis appraisedas holdingfewpossibilitiesfor
and interpersonal
relationships.To a largeex- beneficialchange, the person will employ
tent,thesecopingefforts fallundertherubric emotion-focused modes of coping. On the
of emotion-focused coping. However,even otherhand,whena situationis appraisedas
thoughemotion-focused copingwas particu- havingthepotential forameliorationbyaction,
larly frequentin health-relatedstressful thepersonwilluse problem-focused copingto
episodes,we mustnotlose sightofthefactthat alterthe troubledrelationship thatproduced
problem-focusedcopingwas also usedinthese theemotionaldistress.
episodes. Studies of illness and disability Preciselyas thisanalysispredicts,situations
shouldinvestigatebothformsof coping. inwhichsomething couldbe done
constructive
The familycontext,that is, stressfulen- and in whichmore information was needed
countersinvolvingfamilyconcerns,did not generatedhigherlevels of problem-focused
have a clear impacton eitherproblem-or copingthansituations thathadtobe accepted.
emotion-focused coping(see Table 2). This Situations thathadtobe accepted,on theother
maybe due to the heterogeneity of episodes hand,andinwhichthepersonhadtoholdback

TABLE 2. Differencesin Coping Due to Context

Mean 2-tailed
Category Mean Difference df T-value Probabilitya
Problem-focusedCoping
Health 7957 -2.02 51 -4.12 .000

FHealilh 8.5 -.59 71 -1.49 .141

Work 9.54
1.06 62 2.89 .005
Family 8.48
Emotion-focusedCoping
Health 14.09 .5518608
Work 12.94 1.15 51 1.86 .068
Health 134.04 1.47 71 2.65 .010

FWaomkly 12.69 .14 63 .27 .787

a
Decision rule: reject null hypothesisif probabilityof T:.02.

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232 JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

from acting, generated higher levels of turnedout to be the mostpotentsituational

emotion-focused copingthanthose in which factorsin accountingfor copingvariability.
somethingconstructive could be done (see However,thewayan eventis appraisedmight
Table 3). Thesefindings offerclearsupport for be relatedto its context,resulting in a con-
thetheoryofcognitive appraisalas a determi- founding. Health-related episodes,forexam-
nantof coping. ple,might mostoftenbe appraisedas havingto
Not onlyare ourfieldstudyfindings on ap- be accepted,and work-related episodesmight
praisal and copingnicelyin accord witha mostoftenbe appraisedas permitting onetodo
cognitive-phenomenological model of stress something constructive. Indeed,examination
process,buttheyare also consistent withthe of the relationship betweencontextand ap-
findingsofa number oflaboratory studies.For praisalindicated (x2= 34.3,df= 9,
a significant
example,giventhechance,mostsubjectswill p = .03) but weak (Cramer's V = .09) relation-
attempt to controlan aversivestimulus as long ship.4Because thelargesamplesize (number
as itdoes notcause conflict insomeotherarea ofepisodes= 1,332)influences thesignificance
(e.g., Averillet al., 1977;Averilland Rosenn, of thechi-squarestatistic(Marascuilo,1971),
1972);on theotherhand,underconditions of attentionwas giventotheestimated strengthof
no control,palliative(emotion-focused) forms the relationship as opposed to the level of
of copingincreaseand appear successfulin significance. The strength oftherelationship as
loweringdistressand somatic disturbance estimated by Cramer'sV statistic (.09) was so
(Folkins,1970;Monatet al., 1972). weak thatit is reasonableto considerthetwo
How an eventwas appraisedanditscontext factorsvirtually unrelated.Thusthecontextof

TABLE 3. Differencesin Coping Due to Appraisal

Mean 2-tailed
Category Mean Difference df T-value Probabilitya
Problem-focusedCoping
Could do something 9.08 1.15 90 4.31 .000
Must accept 7.93
Could do something 9.28 _ 54 55 -1.26 .213
Needed more information 9.82
Could do something 9.46 .14 51 .34 .735
Had to hold back 9.32
Must accept 8.11 -1.71 60 -4.32 .000
Needed more information 9.82
Must accept 8.51 -.71 58 -1.76 .083
Had to hold back 9.22
Needed more information 10.05 1.00 36 1.76 .088
Had to hold back 9.05
Emotion-focusedCoping
Could do something 12.13 -1.21 91 -3.74 .000
Must accept 13.34
Could do something 12.65 -.05 54 - .09 .926
Needed more information 12.70
Could do something 12.82 -1.58 51 -2.43 .019
Had to hold back 14.40
Must accept 13.85 1.03 59 1.97 .053
Needed more information 12.82
Must accept 14.34 -.57 58 -1.08 .284
Had to hold back 14.91
Needed more information 12.76 -1.40 36 -1.82 .077
Had to hold back 14.16
a
Decision rule: reject null hypothesisif probabilityof Ts.02.

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COPING IN A MIDDLE-AGED COMMUNITY SAMPLE 233

an eventand how it is appraisedseem rela- betterunderstoodas a functionof changesin

tivelyindependent
in affecting
thecopingpro- sourcesof stressor of changesin personality.
cess.
The Influence of Gender on Coping

The Influence of Age on Coping Conventional wisdomhas it thatmen are

taughtto emphasizeinstrumental, analytic,
The participants in thisstudywerebetween problem-solving skills,andthatwomenare so-
theagesof45 and64. Two one-wayanalysesof cializedto be moreemotionally sensitive,ex-
variance,usinga meanP- andE-scoreforeach pressive,and dependent thanmen(cf.Bakan,
person as dependentvariables,were per- 1966;Bem, 1974;Parsonsand Bales, 1955).In
formedto examinethe relationship between thelanguageofcoping,mencanbe expectedto
age andcoping.Whenwe usedfour5-yearage use moreproblem-focused copingand women
groups,no effect was foundineitherproblem- moreemotion-focused coping.
or emotion-focused coping.Sinceitwas possi- In thisstudy,womenreported morestressful
ble that5-yearperiodsofage stratification
are episodeshavingto do withhealth(61%ofsuch
too smallto reflectage effects,analyseswere episodes were reportedby women,39M by
also performed withtwo10-year groups.There men) and more familyepisodes (68% by
was stillno relationshipbetweenage and cop- women,32% by men)thanmen.Men,on the
ing. otherhand,reported moreworkepisodesthan
Such negativeresultsabout age mustbe women(69.5% by men,30.5% by women).A
taken as suggestiveat best because of the chi-squareanalysis6indicatedthatthesedif-
highly restrictedage rangeofthesample.Had ferencesweresignificant (X2= 101.76,df= 3,
our sampleincludeda widerage distribution,p = .000)andreflected a moderate relationship
extendedbothat the olderand youngerage (Cramer's V = .28).
levels,theremight wellhavebeenage effects. In contrast,menand womendiffered very
For example, even though a chi-square littlein the way theyappraisedevents.For
analysisindicatedtherewas very littlere- example,374 episodeswereappraisedas per-
lationshipbetweenwhatan episodewas about mitting to be doneto alterthesitua-
something
(x2= 19.7,df= 9, p= .02,Cramer'sV= .07)or tion.Of these,176,or 47%, werereported by
howitwas appraised(x2= 17.4,df= 9, p= .04, men.Similarly, 681 situationswereappraised
Cramer'sV = .07) and age,5therewas a trend as havingtobe accepted,ofwhich301,or44%,
in which older participantsreportedmore werereportedby men.A chi-squareanalysis
health-related episodesand fewerfamilyand confirmed theweakrelationship (X2= 8.79,df
workepisodesthanyoungerones. This sug- = 3, p = .03, Cramer's V = .08) between
geststhatas sourcesofstressbeginto change genderandappraisal.Nevertheless, becauseof
with advancingage, differencesin coping thegenderdifferences inthefactorofcontext,
mightemergeas a functionof changes in genderdifferences in copingwere examined
sources of stress.That is, emotion-focusedwithin eachofthesituationalfactors toprevent
copingmightincreaseand problem-focusedconfounding genderdifferences in sourcesof
coping decrease because of more concern stresswithdifferences in coping.
abouthealthand less concernaboutwork. T-testswereused to comparemalesand fe-
Suggesting thatchangesin copingmay be maleswithrespectto problem- and emotion-
associatedwithage-related changesin sources focusedcopingwithineach of the situational
of stressis differentfromsuggestingthatcop- factors.Since thesedid not involvemultiple
ingchangesas a directfunction ofage, thatis, testswiththesamecategories, thesignificance
as a function of personalitydevelopment (cf. level forrejectingthe null hypothesis of no
Clark and Anderson,1967; Gutmann,1974; difference betweenthemeanswas set at .05.
Jung,1933). Comparisonswithmoreelderly The resultsare shownin Tables4, 5, and 6.
samplesare neededto determine ifthereare Theresultsofferrelativelylittleconfirmation
indeed changes in coping associated with forthe genderdifferences thatconventional
aging,and if so, whetherthese changesare wisdomleads us to expect.Men diduse more

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234 JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

TABLE 4. Gender Differencesin Coping for the Factor of Person Involved

Number of 2-tailed
Category Cases Mean df T-value Probabilitya
Problem-focusedCoping
Self Only
Male 47 8.83 97 1.74 .085
Female 52 7.81
People at Work
Male 35 10.06
56 .81 .421
Female 23 9.17
Family Members
Male 37 8.08 84 -.34 .734
Female 49 8.34
Emotion-focusedCoping
Self Only
Male 48 12.83 9 .6.7
Female 52 13.40 98 -.56 .574
People at Work
Male 42 13.00 56 -.22 .824
Female 29 13.35
Family Members
Male 42 12.37 85 -1.31 .194
Female 51 13.73
a Decision rule: reject null hypothesisif probabilityof
T--.05.

problem-focused copingthanwomen,butonly differences in theuse ofemotion-focused cop-

toourstereotypic
(appraised ing(Tables4, 5, 6). Contrary
at work(Table 5) and in situations
as) requiringacceptanceandmoreinformationbeliefs,menandwomencopedquitesimilarly.
(Table 6). Furthermore,therewereno gender Moreover,gender differencesin problem-
TABLE 5. Gender Differencesin Coping for the Factor of Context

Number of 2-tailed
Category Cases Mean df T-value Probabilitya
Problem-focusedCoping
Health
Male 34 7.82 75 -.16 .874
Female 43 7.95
Work
Male 42 10.19 69 2.08 .041
Female 29 8.44
Family
Male 41 8.39 90 .02 .981
Female 51 8.37
Emotion-focusedCoping
Health
Male 34 14.38 75- .18 .859
Female 43 14.60
Work
Male 42 13.00 69 .13 .897
Female 29 12.82
Family
Male 42 12.14 91 -1.47 .146
Female 51 13.67
a Decision rule: reject null hypothesisif probabilityof
T--.05.

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COPING IN A MIDDLE-AGED COMMUNITY SAMPLE 235

TABLE 6. Gender Differencesin Coping for the Factor of Appraisal

Number of 2-tailed
Category Cases Mean df T-value Probabilitya
Problem-focusedCoping
Could do something:
Male 42 9.07 901297
Female 50 8.98 90 .12 .907
Must accept:
Male 47 8.76 97 .51 .014
Female 52 7.31
Needed more information:
Male 31 10.90 59 2.51 .015
Female 30 8.70
Had to hold back:
Male 30 8.87 57 -.88 .383
Female 29 9.59 -.8.8
Emotion-focusedCoping
Could do something:
Memale 540 11.59 90 -.86 .394

Must accept:
Male 48 13.31 98 -.47 .636
Female 52 13.73
Needed more information:

Female 30 12.30 58 .69 .496

Had to hold back:
Male 30 13.90 57 -1.41 .165
Female 29 15.96
a Decision rule: reject null hypothesisif probabilityof T--K05.

focusedcopingin theworkcontextprobably disposedto thinkabouttheproblem morethan

reflect
genderdifferencesinjobs ratherthana women.The dataanalyzedhereofferno clues
generaldisposition
on thepartofmalesto use aboutthesealternative possibilities.
more problem-focused copingthanfemales. The important pointis thatto addressthe
Womenmoreoftenthanmenholdlower-level issue of genderdifferences in coping, dif-
jobs wherethereare feweropportunities to ferencesin sourcesof stressmustbe distin-
engageinproblem-solving processes(cf.Colli- guishedfromthose in coping.If one looked
ganandMurphy,1979;Kreps,1976).To prop- onlyat coping,it would appeartherewas a
erlyexaminegenderdifferences in copingat differencedue to genderin emotion-focused
workwouldrequirehavinga sampleof males coping.Actually,thesedifference are attribut-
and femalesdrawnfromsimilarjobs and set- ableto sourcesofstressrather thangenderper
tings.Whetherdifferences in coping are a se. For example, women reportedmore
function of genderper se (throughsocializa- health-related
episodesthanmen,and health,
tion)or thepressuresoftheworksetting could as was noted,was associatedwithelevated
thenbe determined morerigorously. emotion-focusedcoping.Within health-related
Themostpuzzlinggenderdifference was the episodes,however,therewereno genderdif-
findingthatmenused moreproblem-focusedferencesin emotion-focused coping.In other
copingthanwomenin situations thathadto be words,womenand mendo notdiffer in their
accepted. Perhaps men persevere in use of emotion-focused copingwithinsimilar
problem-focused copinglongerthan women contextsof living,but theydo differin the
beforedecidingthatnothing can be done; and contextsin whichtheirstressfulencounters
evenwhennothing can be done,menmaybe occur.

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236 JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

FINAL COMMENTS ON THE in press).The largerstudyfromwhichthepres-

MEASUREMENT OF COPING ent findings come also containsinformation
frominterviews inwhichtherewas theoppor-
As we have noted,the measurement ap- tunity to makesuchinferences. At somepoint
proachusedinthisstudyneedsto be extended it shouldtherefore be possibleto comparethe
inseveralways.Verysimplepatterns ofcoping self-report materialwithclinicalobservation.
and onlytwo of manycopingfunctions were Whateverits shortcomings, and thereare
analyzed.Different, possiblymore complex many,themeasurement approachdescribedin
patterningsmust be examined,and other thisresearchis offeredas an alternative for
functionsshould be considered,perhapsin studying the copingprocess.We believethe
combination withthetwowe havedefined.In adoptionofthisapproach,and thetheoretical
addition,efforts have to be made to capture framework withinwhich it was developed,
thewaysthatcopingefforts changethroughoutcould greatlyfacilitateobtaininganswersto
an encounter.Until the dynamicqualityof manyoftheperplexing questionsaboutstress,
copingis described,our assessmentproce- coping,and adaptationaloutcomethathave
dureswillremainincomplete. hitherto been difficult to address.
Despiteitspresentlimitations, however,the
approachto measurement adoptedhere,the NOTES
Ways of Copingchecklist,offerscertainad-
We appreciate the generosityof the Alameda
vantagespresently unavailableto thosewho 1. County Human Population Laboratory staff,
wishto studycoping.First,it is designedto who made their archives available to us and
assess copingin a specificencounter, and can helped facilitatethis research.
be used for both intraindividual and com- 2. The assessmenttools used in thisresearchwere
parativeanalyses.Second,itallowstheperson developed during 1976-77 as a group effortin
which Patricia Benner, Judith Cohen, Susan
to characterize hisor hercopingthoughts and Folkman, Allen Kanner, Richard S. Lazarus,
actionscomplexly,since for any given en- Catherine Schaefer, JudithWrubel, and others
counterthepersoncan indicateas manysuch participated.However, the major responsibility
thoughts andactionsas arerelevant.Third,as for collectingand formulating the items on the
Ways of Coping checklist was borne by
a checklist,the measureis easy to use and CatherineSchaefer.
requireslittletraining. 3. Because therewere only 9 patterns,people who
Assessingcopingconfronts us withthediffi- reported more than 9 episodes had to repeat
culties of gettinginformation frompeople copingpatterns.For example, with13 episodes a
personwould have to repeatpatternsa minimum
abouthowtheycope. It is probably notfruitful of fourtimes. Since thereare 78 possible repe-
to ask themto tell us this directly,forwe titionswith13episodes(v), thelowestpossible
cannotexpectpeopleto knowwhatwe mean consistency score would thereforebe 4/78 or
by coping,or to tellus, forexample,whether .051. For 18 episodes, the maximum number
theyused intellectualization, avoidance,de- reported by an individual,the lowest possible
consistencyscore is .059. However, all scores
nial,or directaction.The approachused here were greater than .072; therefore,even with
is a bitmoreindirect, butnotgreatlyso. We these limitationstaken intoaccount, no one had
askedparticipants whattheythought anddidin the minimumconsistency (or maximumvaria-
recentencounters, and thenappliedthe con- bility)possible.
4. These tests of independencewere performedon
ceptsof copingto thesestatements. copingepisodes, and noton persons. As a result,
Thefindings ofthisstudydepend,therefore, thereis some degree of dependence in the data.
on self-reports. By usingrecentencounters we That is, thereare 100 independentsets of data,
minimizedthe problemof memoryand ret- each set representinga person, but withina set
rospective falsificationin thesereports.Also, are dependentdata due to person,whichviolates
the assumptionof independencerequiredforthe
byrepeatedly sampling theperson'sdomainof chi-square test. However, because (1) the
copingstrategies (an averageof 13 times),we analyses were performedto gatherinformation
theoretically increasedthe reliability of our and notto testhypotheses,(2) therewere a large
findings (cf. Epstein,1977, 1979). However, numberof independentsets ofdata, and (3) there
was variabilitywithineach set, the best alterna-
theassessmentof copingwillalwayshave to tivewas to use thechi-squareprocedurein order
face the issue of self-report versusobserva- not to lose a major portion of the data.
tionaland inferential techniques(cf. Lazarus, Moreover, in the cases of age and gender,these

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COPING IN A MIDDLE-AGED COMMUNITY SAMPLE 237

analyses were used to separate sources of varia- Cohen, F., and R. S. Lazarus
bility, and the inflationof relationships that
mighthave been caused by the dependency in
the data only led to more cautious statistical
procedures,as can be seen in thecase ofgender.
5. See Note 4.
6. See Note 4.
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