Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1 DC Motor
1.1.1 Introduction of DC Motor

Direct current (DC) motors comprise one of the most common types of actuator designed
into electromechanical systems. They are a very straightforward and inexpensive means of
creating motion or forces. In a dc motor, an armature rotates inside a magnetic field.
Basic working principle of DC motor is based on the fact that whenever a current carrying
conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, there will be mechanical force experienced by that
conductor. All kinds of DC motors work in this principle only. Hence for constructing a dc
motor it is essential to establish a magnetic field. The magnetic field is obviously established
by means of magnet. The magnet can by any types i.e. it may be electromagnet or it can be
permanent magnet. When permanent magnet is used to create magnetic field in a DC motor,
the motor is referred as permanent magnet dc motor or PMDC motor. Have you ever
uncovered any battery operated toy, if you did, you had obviously found a battery operated
motor inside it. This battery operated motor is nothing but a permanent magnet dc
motor or PMDC motor. These types of motor are essentially simple in construction. These
motors are commonly used as starter motor in automobiles, windshield wipers, washer, for
blowers used in heaters and air conditioners, to raise and lower windows, it also extensively
used in toys. As the magnetic field strength of a permanent magnet is fixed it cannot be
controlled externally, field control of this type of dc motor cannot be possible. Thus
permanent magnet dc motor is used where there is no need of speed control of motor by
means of controlling its field. Small fractional and sub fractional kW motors now constructed
with permanent magnet.

1.1.2 Construction of Permanent Magnet DC Motor

As it is indicated in name of permanent magnet dc motor, the field poles of this motor are
essentially made of permanent magnet. A PMDC motor mainly consists of two parts. A stator
and an armature. Here the stator which is a steel cylinder. The magnets are mounted in the
inner periphery of this cylinder. The permanent magnets are mounted in such a way that the N
pole and S pole of each magnet are alternatively faced towards armature as shown in the

1
figure below. That means, if N pole of one magnet is faced towards armature then S pole
of very next magnet is faced towards armature. In addition to holding the magnet on its inner
periphery, the steel cylindrical stator also serves as low reluctance return path for the
magnetic flux. Although field coil is not required in permanent magnet dc motor but still it is
sometimes found that they are used along with permanent magnet. This is because if
permanent magnets lose their strength, these lost magnetic strengths can be compensated by
field excitation through these field coils. Generally, rare earth hard magnetic materials are
used for these permanent magnet.

fig 1.1 DC Motor

Rotor : The rotor of pmdc motor is similar to other DC motor. The rotor or armature of
permanent magnet dc motor also consists of core, windings and commutator. Armature core is
made of number of varnish insulated, slotted circular lamination of steel sheets. By fixing
these circular steel sheets one by one, a cylindrical shaped slotted armature core is formed.
The varnish insulated laminated steel sheets are used to reduce eddy current loss in armature
of permanent magnet dc motor. These slots on the outer periphery of the armature core are
used for housing armature conductors in them. The armature conductors are connected in a
suitable manner which gives rise to armature winding. The end terminals of the winding are
connected to the commutator segments placed on the motor shaft. Like other dc motor, carbon
or graphite brushes are placed with spring pressure on the commutator segments to
supply current to the armature.

1.1.3 Working Principle of Permanent Magnet DC Motor

As we said earlier the working principle of PMDC motor is just similar to the
general working principle of DC motor. That is when a carrying conductor comes inside

2
a magnetic field, a mechanical force will be experienced by the conductor and the direction of
this force is governed by Flemings left hand rule. As in a permanent magnet dc motor, the
armature is placed inside the magnetic field of permanent magnet; the armature rotates in the
direction of the generated force. Here each conductor of the armature experiences the
mechanical force

F = B.I.L Newton

where B is the magnetic field strength in Tesla (weber / m2), I is thecurrent in Ampere
flowing through that conductor and L is length of the conductor in metre comes under
the magnetic field. Each conductor of the armature experiences a force and the compilation of
those forces produces a torque, which tends to rotate the armature.

1.1.4 Equivalent Circuit of Permanent Magnet DC Motor

fig 1.2 Equivalent circuit

As in PMDC motor the field is produced by permanent magnet, there is no need of

drawing field coils in the equivalent circuit of permanent magnet dc motor. The
supply voltage to the armature will have armature resistance drop and rest of the
supply voltage is countered by back emf of the motor. Hence voltage equation of the motor is
given by,

V=IR+Eb

Where I, is armature current and R is armature resistance of the motor. Eb is the back emf and
V is the supply voltage.

3
1.1.5 Advantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

PMDC motor have some advantages over other types of dc motors. They are :

1. No need of field excitation arrangement.

2. No input power in consumed for excitation which improve efficiency of dc motor.

3. No field coil hence space for field coil is saved which reduces the overall size of the
motor.

4. Cheaper and economical for fractional kW rated applications.

1.1.6 Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

1. In this case, the armature reaction of DC motor cannot be compensated hence the
magnetic strength of the field may get weak due to demagnetizing effect armature
reaction.

2. There is also a chance of getting the poles permanently demagnetized (partial) due to
excessive armature current during starting, reversal and overloading condition of the
motor.

3. Another major disadvantage of PMDC motor is that, the field in the air gap is fixed and
limited and it cannot be controlled externally. Therefore, very efficient speed control of
DC motor in this type of motor is difficult.

4
1.2 Pulse Width Modulation
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a powerful technique for controlling analog circuits
with a microprocessor's digital outputs. PWM is employed in a wide variety of applications,
ranging from measurement and communications to power control and conversion. PWM is a
way of digitally encoding analog signal levels. Through the use of high-resolution counters,
the duty cycle of a square wave is modulated to encode a specific analog signal level. The
PWM signal is still digital because, at any given instant of time, the full DC supply is either
fully on or fully off. The voltage or current source is supplied to the analog load by means of
a repeating series of on and off pulses. The on-time is the time during which the DC supply is
applied to the load, and the off-time is the period during which that supply is switched off.
Given a sufficient bandwidth, any analog value can be encoded with PWM. Ton denotes the
on-time and Toff denotes the off time of signal. Period is the sum of both on and off times and
is calculated as shown in the equation below:

TTOTAL=TON +TOFF

Duty cycle is calculated as on-time to the period of time. Using the period calculated above,
duty cycle is calculated as:

D=

PWM signal when used at a different duty cycles gives a varying voltage at the output.
Voltage regulation is done by averaging the PWM signal. Output voltage is represented by the
following equation:

Vout=D*Vin
Electric motor speed is controlled by increasing and decreasing the effective voltage to the
motor. More voltage and the motor rotates faster, less voltage and the motor slows down. The
instinctive way to control motor speed is to connect a rheostat between the motor and the
power supply to adjust the voltage, but this method has several shortcomings which will be
discussed in this lesson. A better method of managing motor speed is to switch the power to
the motor on and off very quickly. Rather than slowing a motor down by reducing the motor
supply voltage from the full rated voltage, PWM produces digital pulses at the full motor
rated voltage. Pulse Width Modulation, or PWM, is a technique for creating the series of on-
off pulses. This on-off square wave pattern changes the portion of the time the signal is on
versus the time that the signal is off.

5
 For better understanding of PWM these diagrammatic representations can be used. These
figures represent the waveforms obtained as output at different voltage requirements.

Signal with voltage (90%): The green part of the signal represents the ON time and the white
part of it represents time when it is not receiving any voltage.

Fig 1.1. Signal with Voltage 90%

Signal with half voltage (50%):

Fig 1.2. Signal with Voltage 50%

Signal with low voltage (10%):

Fig 1.3 Signal with Voltage 10%

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1.2.1 Advantages of PWM

The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low.
When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on, there is almost no
voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and current, is thus in
both cases close to zero. PWM works also well with digital controls, which, because of their
on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle. Using pulse width modulation has several
advantages over analog control. Using PWM to dim a lamp would produce less heat than an
analog control that converts some of the current to heat. Also, if you use PWM, the entire
control circuit can be digital, eliminating the need for digital-to-analog converters. Using
digital control lines will reduce the susceptibility of your circuit to interference. Finally,
motors may be able to operate at lower speeds if you control them with PWM. When you use
an analog current to control a motor, it will not produce significant torque at low speeds. The
magnetic field created by the small current will be too weak to turn the rotor. On the other
hand, a PWM current can create short pulses of magnetic flux at full strength, which can turn
the rotor at extremely slow speeds.

The technology has become more pervasive as low cost microcontrollers incorporate
PWM control. Microcontrollers offer simple commands to vary the duty cycle and
frequencies of the PWM control signal. PWM is also used in communications to take
advantage of the higher immunity to noise provided by digital signals. So by getting these
pulses generated by a microcontroller we can increase the efficiency, accuracy and thus the
reliability of the system. The most commonly used microcontroller is 8051 that has been used
in this project for production of pulses.

1.3 Speed control methods in a DC motor:

The motor speed can be controlled by controlling armature voltage and armature current. It
is obvious that speed control is possible by varying

Flux per pole , (Flux control)

Resistance Ra of armature circuit (Rheostatic Control)

Applied voltage V (Voltage Control)

in the controller resistance. Hence, efficiency is decreased. It needs expensive arrangement for
dissipation of heat produced in the controller resistance. It gives speeds below the normal
speed. By these data that are acquainted we can draw a conclusion that these electric and

7
electromechanical methods are less adaptive so electronic techniques are used for speed
control. These methods provide higher efficiency, greater reliability, quick response, higher
efficiency. One such technique is Pulse Width Modulation. We apply this technique in our
project so as to control the speed of the DC motor. The above methods have some demerits
like a large amount of power is wasted.
Since the motor is at full voltage during the ON pulse, the motor runs at full torque during
the ON pulse. A 25% duty cycle reduces the power applied to the motor close to 25%, yet the
speed may not be reduced to 25% of the maximum speed. A PWM signal is at a fixed
frequency. A very low PWM frequency will make the motor rotate in a sequence of 'jerks', a
slightly higher frequency will cause the motor to make an audible humming sound. The
frequency of a PWM motor signal should be 20 kHz or more to ensure that the motor whine is
outside the normal human hearing range (20 20,000 Hz). If your motor driver circuitry uses
MOSFETs, the PWM frequency should never exceed the switching speed of the MOSFET.
Because of the weight of the motor armature and its inertia, the motor speed won't vary
noticeable between each on and off pulse, provided the pulses are short enough and close
enough together. Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) is a way of controlling the power of an
electric circuit that wastes very little electrical energy. The signal is fed through a transistor
switch which has little resistance while in the ON state. Power MOSFETs generally have a
drain to source resistance in the ON-state (RDS(ON)) measured in the hundredths of an ohm.
Since the resistance is so small, little energy is consumed by the transistor switch while in the
ON-state.

8
 Chapter 2
Block Diagram

fig 2.1 Block Diagram

9
 Chapter 3
Circuit Diagram
3.1 Circuit Diagram

fig 3.1 Circuit Diagram

3.2 Circuit Diagram Description

Microcontroller (ATmega 16):

The Microcontroller(ATmega 16) is a 16 pin device.

Pin number 11 and 31 are Power supply pins.

Pin number 10 and 30 are grounded.

Pin number 12 and 13 are connected to oscillator. The pin 12 and 13 have a Crystal oscillator
along with capacitor of 22pF and then are grounded. The value of crystal is 11.0592MHz.

Pin number 9 is reset which has one resisor and capacitor it is called as power in reset. As
soon as we switch on the power supply a pulse of microcontroller will go then controller will
be reset and then program will start from zero memory locations.

Ports:

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It has four ports which are:

1.Port A

2.Port B

3.Port C

4.Port D

3.2.1.Port B:

If Mobile is not available then at Port B two push buttons are provided so that we can
control it manually.

The two buttons are

a. Speed Up

b. Speed Down

3.2.2.Port C:

The LCD display is connected to this port. The display is 16*2 that is 16 Characters and 2
Rows.

It has a Vcc of 5 Volts and also a ground. Also it has a contrast pin by which brightness of
LCD can be increased or decreased.

Then the Port C has three control pins

1.Rs- Data Command

2. R/W- Read Write

3. Enable

The above three control pins are attached to the LCD.

Also the LCD has Data Bus from D0 to D7. But we use only four Data Bus which are D4, D5,
D6 and D7. It is called as 4 bit mode.

In 4 bit mode 4 bit Data is been send for two times and then 8bit data is obtained at LCD and
advantage is that at one Port the whole LCD is been joined.

The value of PWM in percentage will be displayed on the LCD.Now for controlling the motor
we use the Port PD.6. At PD.6 MOSFET is connected in shunt to motor. DC motor used is of
12 Volts. The Gate of MOSFET is connected to microcontroller pin PD.6.

PWM will be given at port PD.6

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MOSFET we are using IRF250 N-Channel MOSFET.

N-channel is used because when at 0 it is OFF and when at 1 it is ON.

Also, IRF250 can handle current up to 25 Amp.

3.2.3.Port D:

It has two pins Rx and Tx. It is used for Bluetooth Module(HC-05).

Bluetooth has 5 Volts supply and ground also has a built in Antenna and has Rx and Tx.

3.3 Operation and Working

For controlling the speed of the motor we need microcontroller which can do all this
operations. So we are using ATmega16 it is called as AVR controller. AT-Atmail company
Mega- series16-16KB memory. It is advance version of 8085 microcontroller. It has built in
PWM generator. Through which we can control motor speed. For starting the controller we
require three basic things that are power supply, clock and reset. Pin no. 11 and 31 are ground
pins. And pin no. 10 and 30 are power supply.

Pin no. 12 and 13 are oscillator pins. It is connected with crystal oscillator. also it has two
capacitor of 22 f. Value of Crystal Oscillator is 11.0592MHz. It will generator the clock.
Through this clock C language program inside the microcontroller get executed. Two
capacitor of 22f helps in executing programme. Now we have given power supply and clock.
Pin no. 9 is reset pin one resistor and capacitor are connected to this pin. pin no. 9 is also
called as power on reset. As soon as we given power supply to microcontroller one pulse is
going to microcontroller. Microcontroller get reset and program will start with its zero
memory location.
Microcontroller has four ports. port A, port B, port C, and port D. Port D has first two pins
Rx and Tx for serial communication. Port B has two push buttons. speed up and speed down
namely. Mode selection switch is connected to pin no. 3 of port B. Through this mode
selection switch we can select the mode through which we can control the speed of motor. i.e.
manually or automatically.

Bluetooth module of HC-05, Which get supplied by Vcc. It has antenna, Rx & Tx pins for
serial communication. It is connected with Rx & Tx of microcontroller of port D. through
which we can serially send the data or received the data. Now whatever command we have

12
given, data is receiving or not? for indication of it, we have connected LCD display at port C.
It is 16*2. i.e. 16 character and 2 rows. It has 3 pins Rx, Read Write ,Enable (RX for data
command) All 3 pins are attached to port C data bus is 8 bit. But 3 pins from port C are used,
so instead of 8 bit we are connecting only 4 bit D4, D5, D6, D7 it is called as four bit module.
In four bit module 4 bit data sent twice and 8 bit data joint and displayed on LCD.

Now we want to control the speed of motor so we required one MOSFET. We have taken a
DC motor of 12 V so we have to give supply of 12 V from source to drain of MOSFET.
Unless and until pulse is not given to the Gate pin MOSFET will not work and motor will not
start running. So Gate of MOSFET is connected to microcontroller pin of port D. Motor is of
higher rating so we have used IRFZ44 N channel MOSFET. N channel MOSFET is used
because of when 0 it is OFF and when 1 it is ON. IRFZ44 can handle current of 25Amp.We
are using N-Channel IRFZ44 because when motor gets started its give spike and current can
increase to 3 to 4 times of its rated current. So to avoid damage we have used IRFZ44. Signal
is mostly of 10KHz.Suppose 10KHz high frequency signal has duty cycle of 50% so average
power available is 50%. If pulse width is 10% it will generate 10% power. If pulse width is
90% so average power will be 90%.

We need to install C language program in the microcontroller to do all these operations it

will read the bit value and according to the program it will vary pulse width (From 0 to 100).
According to it duty cycle will be generated. We need power supply for whole assembly we
use step down transformer of 230/12 Volts. It is AC so to convert it to DC a bridge rectifier is
used. Then filtering of the current is done by the filter. For IC 5volts supply is necessary so
we use voltage regulator which can regulate the supply at 5volts then filter and spike
suppressor. Then connect this module with Bluetooth. Bluetooth device has seven pins but we
use only 2 pins UP and Down in this case. So we can control the motor speed by using
Bluetooth and by using manual connection.

13
 Chapter 4
Microcontroller
4.1 Pin Diagram

Fig 4.1. ATmega 16

4.1.1 Overview:
The ATmega16 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced
RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega16
achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system designer to optimize
power consumption versus processing speed.

4.2 Pin Descriptions

VCC-Digital supply voltage.

14
GND-Ground.
Port A (PA7..PA0)-Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter. Port A also
serves as an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. Port pins can
provide internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port A output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. When pins PA0
to PA7 are used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current if the internal
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running.

Port B (PB7..PB0)- Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors
(selected for each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Port B also serves the functions of
various special features of the ATmega16 as listed on page 55.

Port C (PC7..PC0)-Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors
(selected for each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. If the JTAG interface is enabled,
the pull-up resistors on pins PC5(TDI), PC3(TMS) and PC2(TCK) will be activated even if a
reset occurs. Port C also serves the functions of the JTAG interface and other special features
of the ATmega16 as listed on page 58.

Port D (PD7..PD0)-Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors
(selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Port D also serves the functions of
various special features of the ATmega16.

RESET-Reset Input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will
generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. The minimum pulse length is given in Table
15 on page 35. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset.

15
AXTL1-Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2-Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.

AVCC- AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be
connected to VCC through a low-pass filter.

AREF- AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter

4.3 Features
High-performance, Low-power AVR 8-bit Microcontroller
Advanced RISC Architecture
131 Powerful Instructions. Most Single-clock Cycle Execution
32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
Fully Static Operation
Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz
On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
Non-volatile Program and Data Memories
16K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash
Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles
Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits
In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program
True Read-While-Write Operation
512 Bytes EEPROM
Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles
1K Byte Internal SRAM
Programming Lock for Software Security
JTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface
Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard
Extensive On-chip Debug Support
Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the JTAG Interface
Peripheral Features
Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes

16
One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture
Mode
Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
Four PWM Channels
8-channel, 10-bit ADC
8 Single-ended Channels
7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only
2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x
Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
Programmable Serial USART
Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
On-chip Analog Comparator
Special Microcontroller Features
Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
External and Internal Interrupt Sources
Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby
and Extended Standby
I/O and Packages:
32 Programmable I/O Lines
40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad MLF
Operating Voltages:
2.7 - 5.5V for ATmega16L
4.5 - 5.5V for ATmega16
Speed Grades:
0 - 8 MHz for ATmega16L
0 - 16 MHz for ATmega16

17
 Chapter 5
Developing PCB Using
ExpressPCB

5.1 Four Steps to PCB design

1. Draw the schematic.
2. Designing the PCB.
3. Printing the PCB layout
4. Etching

5.1.1 Drawing the Schematics

1. Draw the schematic of the circuit on a computer using the required software
2. Design the PCB on the computer using the required software
3. Print the PCB design through a laser printer
4. Take the impression of the circuit on a copper-clad board
5. Remove the excess copper by etching here we will use ExpressSCH for drawing the
schematic. ExpressPCB (which includes ExpressSCH) is available on the Internet.

Fig 5.1 Schematic on software

18
5.1.2 Designing the PCB

Fig 5.2 Design on software

Fig. 5.2 shows the PCB of the circuit designed in ExpressPCB. Yellow lines show the
silkscreen layer (component layout), red lines show the top copper layer and green portion is
the bottom copper layer. The steps are as follows:
1. Rotate the component as well as the text by 90
2. Rotate only the component by 90
3. Move a selected item to the bottom copper layer
4. Move a selected item to the top copper layer
5. Component manager (opens the library window)
6. Options (can change the colour codes as well as all the dimensions and measurements)
7. Zoom to previous state
8. Zoom to fit the screen
9. Zoom out
10. Zoom in
11. Undo
12. Save file
13. Open file
14. General-purpose pointer, select and moving tool
15. Zoom into selected area
16. Place a pad (either through-hole or surface-mount pad). It is helpful in creating multilayer
PCBs

19
17. Place a component. It will not open the library window
18. Place a trace or wire
19. Put a corner in a trace
20. Disconnect a trace
21. Place text in the layout
22. Place a rectangle
23. Place a filled power or ground plane
24. Place a circle or an arc
25. Insert an edge segment in the board perimeter
26. Pad information
27. Highlight net connections. For using this tool, you need to link the schematic of the circuit
to this PCB. So go to FileLink Schematic to PCB and choose the respective schematic file.
Now while this tool is enabled, if you click a pin of the component it will show the pin to
which it is connected. This is very helpful for complex circuits
28. Toggle display of the silkscreen layer
29. Toggle display of the top copper layer
30. Toggle display of the bottom copper layer
31. Toggle snapping to grid.

5.1.3 Printing the PCB Layout

Go to FilePrint. A window as shown will open. Select Layers to Print. Keep Enlarge
to Fit Page option unchecked as it will not give the exact layout of the components. Print the
PCB layout from a laser printer. The Print of the PCB is as shown in the fig

fig 5.3 print of PCB

20
5.1.4 Etching

1.Cut the copper-clad board to a size matching the size of the PCB design printout. You can
also use a glass epoxy board but its costlier than a copper-clad board shows a full-size
copperclad board.
2.Put the paper printout on the board with the printed side facing the copper side. Affix the
paper to the board using cellotape so that the paper does not
move while ironing.

fig 5.4 Ironing of print

3.Now take your household electric iron and set its temperature to the maximum. Press the
hot iron on the paper and carefully move it across the paper for about four minutes. While
doing so, check for impressions.
4.Continue ironing until the complete impression of the circuit comes on the copper side.
5.Complete the blanks, if any, with a good permanent marker. If any line is not dark enough,
redraw it on the board using the permanent marker.
6.Wash the board in normal tap water.
7.Drill IC holes using a 1mm hand PCB drill as shown in fig.

fig 5.5 drill

8.Redraw the lines using the permanent marker if they have been defaced by the drill.

9.Now mix some FeCl3 (ferric chloride) powder in hot water. The reaction is vigorous, so
take safety precaution.

10.Put the copper-clad board in the solution and constantly tilt the container from side to side
without spilling its contents. This is done to speed up the reaction. It takes five to six minutes

21
to wash away all the excess copper.

11.In between, keep checking the board. Ensure that the marker or carbon of the

impression does not wash away.

12.Take the board out and wash it under tap water to remove the permanent marker ink.
Remove carbon by using nail polish remover. Use a scrubber to gently scrub the copper

surface till it shines. The PCB is ready.

22
 Chapter 6
Embedded C Language Program
#include <mega16.h>

#include <delay.h>

#include <stdio.h>

#asm

.equ __lcd_port=0x15 ;PORTC

#endasm

#include <lcd.h>

char lcd_buffer[33];

int pwm,t,s;

char in;

void main(void)

TCCR1A=0xB1;

TCCR1B=0x03;

TCNT1H=0x00;

TCNT1L=0x00;

ICR1H=0x00;

ICR1L=0x00;

OCR1AH=0x00;

OCR1AL=0x00;

OCR1BH=0x00;

OCR1BL=0x00;

23
UCSRA=0x00;

UCSRB=0x18;

UCSRC=0x86;

UBRRH=0x00;

UBRRL=0x47;

lcd_init(16);

lcd_clear();

lcd_putsf(" S.I.G.C.O.E");

lcd_gotoxy(0,1);

lcd_putsf(" ");

delay_ms(2000);

lcd_clear();

lcd_putsf("Guided By:Prof. ");

lcd_gotoxy(0,1);

lcd_putsf(" Rama Pantar");

delay_ms(2000);

lcd_clear();

lcd_putsf(" Speed Control of");

lcd_gotoxy(0,1);

lcd_putsf(" Dc Motor");

delay_ms(2000);

// Global enable interrupts

#asm("sei")

while (1)

if(PINB.2==1)

24
 {

in=getchar();

if(PINB.0==0)

{if(pwm<255)

{pwm=pwm+5;

OCR1AL=pwm;

delay_ms(250);

if(PINB.1==0)

{if(pwm>0)

{pwm=pwm-5;

OCR1AL=pwm;

delay_ms(250);

if(in==49)

{if(pwm<255)

{pwm=pwm+5;

OCR1AL=pwm;

if(in==50)

{if(pwm>0)

{pwm=pwm-5;

25
 OCR1AL=pwm;

delay_ms(50);

lcd_clear();

sprintf(lcd_buffer,"PWM:%u ",pwm);

lcd_puts(lcd_buffer);

};

26
 Chapter 7
Android DC Motor Control Device
7.1 Introduction
There are different methods of controlling speed of DC motor. The method which we are
using is android based bluetooth controlled device. The device which usually used is a mobile
device which supports android operating system. we use "Motor control" software to control
the speed of PMDC motor automatically.
First we set toggle switch on bluetooth mode. Now software is open and the bluetooth device
is paired with bluetooth model HC-05 of hardware. After pairing both the devices are
connected to each other. In this software there are two touch buttons speed up and speed down
as shown in fig. 7.1.

fig 7.1 Speed Control Software

Now to increase the speed we touch the Speed up button, due to which data is transferred
and received by the Bluetooth model. And to decrease the speed the Speed Down button is

27
touched and the speed of the motor is decrease by the variation of the pulse width. According
to the received signal program is executed and the value of PWM generated is displayed on
the LCD.

28
 Chapter 8

Hardware Equipments
8.1 Power Supply
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices. A
power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular
function.

fig 8.1 Power supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

1.Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

2.Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.

3.Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.

4.Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

8.1.1 Transformer:

fig 8.2 transformer

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

29
8.1.2 Transformer + Rectifier

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable
for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

fig 8.3 transformer+Rectifier

8.1.3Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

fig 8.4 Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

8.1.4Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

fig 8.5 Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

30
 The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic
circuits. The fig. above shows the circuit diagram of the power supply unit. This block
mainly consists of a two regulating IC 7805 and a bridge rectified and it provides a regulated
supply approximately 5V.The transformer used in this circuit has secondary rating of 7.5V.
The main function of the transformer is to step down the AC voltage available from the main.
The main connections are given to its primary winding through a switch connected to a phase
line. The transformer provides a 7.5V AC output at its secondary terminals and the maximum
current that can be drawn form the transformer is 1 Amp which is well above the required
level for the circuit.

The bridge rectified the AC voltage available from the secondary of the transformer, i.e.
the bridge rectifier convert the AC power available into DC power but this DC voltage
available is not constant. It is a unidirectional voltage with varying amplitude. To regulate the
voltage from the bridge rectifier, capacitors are connected.

8.2 Voltage Regulator

8.2.1 Introduction :

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC
voltages. With the exception of shunt regulators, all voltage regulators operate by comparing
the actual output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified
and used to control the regulation element. This forms a negative feedback servo control loop.
If the output voltage is too low, the regulation element is commanded to produce a higher
voltage. If the output voltage is too high, the regulation element is commanded to produce a
lower voltage. In this way, the output voltage is held roughly constant.

31
 fig 8.6 Pinout Diagram of LM7805

8.2.2 General Description:

The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several fixed output
voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One of these is local on card
regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single point regulation. The
voltages available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems, instrumentation, HiFi,
and other solid-state electronic equipment. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages
and currents. The LM78XX series is available in an aluminumTO-3 package, which will
allow over 1.0A load current if adequate heat sinking is provided. Current limiting is included
to limit the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistor is
provided to limit internal power dissipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high
for the heat sinking provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from
overheating. Considerable effort was expanded to make the LM78XX series of regulators
easy to use and minimize the number of external components. It is not necessary to bypass the
output, although this does improve transient response. Input bypassing is needed only if the
regulator is located far from the filter capacitor of the power supply. For output voltage other
than 5V, 12V and 15V the LM117series provides an output voltage range from 1.2V to 57V.

8.2.3 FEATURES

Output current in excess of 1A

Internal thermal overload protection

32
No external components required

Output transistor safe area protection

Internal short circuit current limit

Available in the aluminium TO-3 package

8.3 MOSFET
8.3.1 Features:

1.Avalanche Rugged Technology

2.Rugged Gate Oxide Technology

3.Lower Input Capacitance

4.Improved Gate Charge

5.Extended Safe Operating Area

6. 175C Operating Temperature

7. Lower Leakage Current: 10mA (Max.) @ VDS = 60V

fig 8.7 IRFZ44

There are three terminal of the MOSFET they are Gate, Drain and Source. The power supply
of 12V is given to the motor through source to drain and then grounded. The gate terminal of
the MOSFET is connected to the Microcontroller.

33
8.4 Bluetooth Module
8.4.1 Overview

HC-05 module is an easy to use Bluetooth SPP (Serial Port Protocol) module, designed for
transparent wireless serial conection setup.

Serial port Bluetooth module is fully qualified Bluetooth V2.0+EDR (Enhanced Data Rate)
3Mbps Modulation with complete 2.4GHz radio transceiver and baseband. It uses CSR
Bluecore 04-External single chip Bluetooth system with CMOS technology and with
AFH(Adaptive Frequency Hopping Feature). It has the footprint as small as 12.7mmx27mm.
Hope it will simplify your overall design/development cycle.

fig 8.8 Bluetooth Module

8.4.2 Hardware features

Typical -80dBm sensitivity

34
Up to +4dBm RF transmit power

Low Power 1.8V Operation ,1.8 to 3.6V I/O

PIO control

UART interface with programmable baud rate

With integrated antenna

With edge connector

8.5 Resistor
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by
producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in
accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).

35
 fig 8.9 Resistor

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less
well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the
maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical
resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical
dimensions; it's determined by design.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated
circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers;
resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

8.6 Capacitor
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the

36
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel,
narrowly separated conductors.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is

measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount
of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

fig 8.10 Capacitors

The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and quality
factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic
circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.

8.7 Diodes
Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.

1.Maximum forward current capacity

2.Maximum reverse voltage capacity

3.Maximum forward voltage capacity

37
 fi

fig 8.11 Diodes

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the
market are as follows:
Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have
maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity of 1
Amp.
Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more
capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be
used in place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007
can be used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made
by company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to
diodes IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

8.8 LCD Display

Liquid crystal Display (LCD) displays temperature of the measured element, which is
calculated by the microcontroller. CMOS technology makes the device ideal for application in
hand held, portable and other battery instruction with low power consumption.

GENERAL SPECIFICATION:

Drive method: 1/16 duty cycle

Display size: 16 character * 2 lines

Character structure: 5*8 dots.

38
Display data RAM: 80 characters (80*8 bits)

Character generate ROM: 192 characters

Character generate RAM: 8 characters (64*8 bits)

Both display data and character generator RAMs can be read from MPU.

Internal automatic reset circuit at power ON.

Built in oscillator circuit.

fig 8.12 LCD display

39
 Chapter 9
Result

1. When hexa- decimal value of gate control signla goes near the range of 90-100
Motor starts running and at the maximum value of PWM= 255 the motor achieves its
maximum speed.

fig 9.1 Result on LCD display

2. We are controlling the speed of motor by using the Push Up and Push Down button
and also by using the Bluetooth module(HC-05) by switching the modes through
manual switch.

3. We control the speed by armature voltage control method.

40
 Chapter 10
Conclusion
Pulse width modulation is a power technique which has found its use in numerous
industrial applications. Having this in mind, our projects initial idea was to help it improve in
a certain aspect its flexibility. In motors as well as in Variable Voltage Power Supply,
always there is little space to move from producers given parameters. Our idea was to
introduce computer software applications to help it increase flexibility, meaning controlling
and changing the output performance. Additionally, in many production lines, when there is
needed to increase production volume, often engineers go machine by machine in production
line, changing/increasing Motor Invertors frequency. Instead the motors could be controlled
from a software applications where collectively or individually can be accessed and
parameters could be adjusted.

41
 References

1.http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.php?example=Atmega16&section=microcontroll
er

2.Basic Electronics- B. Ram.(2001), second Edition,

3. Bolton, H. R. & Ashen R.A. (1984) Influence of motor design and feed current
waveform on torque ripples in a dc motor. IEE Proceeding, 131 (3): 82.

4. Duane, H. (2002) Permanent Magnet Motor Design. University of Maine, Orno, USA, 2nd
ed.

42
 Acknowledgement
It is indeed a matter of great pleasure and proud privilege to be able to present this project on

"Speed Control Of DC Motor Using PWM"

The completion of the project work is a milestone in student life and its execution is
inevitable in the hand of guide. We are highly indebted the project guide Prof. Rama Pantar
for her invaluable guidance and appreciation for giving form and substance to this report. It is
due to her enduring efforts; patience and enthusiasm, which has given a sense of direction and
proposed fullness to this project and ultimately made it a success. We would like to tender our
sincere thanks the staff members for their co-operation. We would also like to express our
deep regards and gratitude to the Principal Dr. Sunil Chavan. We would wish to thank the
non-teaching staffs and our friends to have helped us all the time in one way or the other.
Really it is highly impossible to repay the debt of all the people who have directly or
indirectly helped us for performing the project.

43