ES - Pressure Vessels and Piping System

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
College of Engineering and Technology

Chemical Engineering Department
Pressure Vessels
Piping Systems
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in

EQUIPMENT DESIGN
Submitted by:
Dizon, Glyzel G.
Mingaracal, Michelle Leigh I.
Nuval, Jayson B.
Submitted to:
Engr. April Anne Tigue
July 2016
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Pressure Vessels
Objectives:
1. To identify and describe the potential materials of construction for pressure
vessels
2. To determine the fabrication techniques for pressure vessels
3. To design a pressure vessel by considering shell thickness, head thickness,
and plate thickness
I. Introduction
Pressure vessel is a closed vessel having an internal pressure between 15

psig to 3000 psig (Perry and Green, 1997). Whereas, atmospheric and low pressure
tanks are designed to operate at pressures between atmospheric to 0.5 psig and,
0.5 to 15 psig respectively (Kohan, 1987). The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code contains rules for the design,
fabrication and inspection of boilers and pressure vessels. Section VIII Division I of
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code deals specifically with pressure vessels.
Pressure vessels may include reflux drum, storage tanks, heat exchangers,
chemical reactors, distillation columns, absorption tower, stripping columns and
many more.
Several types of equipment which are used in the chemical industry have
an unfired pressure vessel as a basic component. Such units are storage vessels,
kettles, distillation columns, heat exchangers, evaporators, autoclaves, etc.
II. Operating Conditions
Pressure vessels are usually spherical or cylindrical with domed ends. They
are provided with openings or nozzles with facilities for making threaded or
flanged joints. Various methods are used for supporting the vessel. The operating
conditions, may be specified as those resulting from the operation during
maximum or normal conditions, as well as those that exist during starting up or
shutting down or during change in loading.
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A. Normal Conditions
These include
a) Operating pressure, (internal or external) existing during normal operation.
The maximum pressure is generally not more than 10% in excess of the
normal value.
b) Operating temperature is decided by the contained fluid. The maximum
and the minimum temperature have to be specified.
c) Influence of environment, including possible corrosion chemical attack
from the fluid contained and from the atmosphere. Similarly effects of
erosion caused by high velocity of flow and effects of irradiation have to
be considered.
d) External loading such as Bind and snow. Other external loadings are those
resulting from the reaction of piping systems attached to pressure vessels,
dead weight of agitator system, pumps, valves, etc., supported by the
vessel and in general all forms of local loading imposed during service.
B. Transient Conditions
These may be repetitive, for example, those occurring during starting up

and shutting down. It is necessary to know the anticipated modes of operation,
including rates of change of fluid temperature, procedure for starting up and
shutting down and finally possible emergency operation, and loads due to
earthquakes.
III. Selection of Material
Pressure vessels form a major part of the equipment used in the chemical
industry. It is therefore, desirable to consider the suitability of the different materials
for construction of pressure vessels operating under different conditions. Such
conditions are temperatures in the range of 600C to 200C, pressures in range
of vacuum conditions to as high as 3000 kg/cm 2, corrosive effects due to acid
and alkalis, steady or cyclic loading etc. Apart from the mechanical properties
and corrosion resistance of the material, fabrication problems, commercial
availability of the material and the cost will have to be critically assessed in the
final selection of the material.
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Metallic materials may be divided into three groups:

a) Low cost Cast iron, cast carbon and low alloy steel, wrought carbon and
low alloy steel.
b) Medium cost High alloy steel (12% Cr and upwards) aluminum, copper,
nickel and their alloys, lead.
c) High cost platinum, silver, tantalum, titanium, and zirconium.
The materials in the second and third groups can be used in the form of
cladding or bonding for materials in the first group. Similarly non-metallic linings
such as rubber, plastic, etc., may also be used.
The most common materials of construction used are:

A. Steel
Low carbon steel (mild steel) is the most commonly used engineering
material. It is cheap; is available in a wide range of standard forms and sizes; and
can be easily worked and welded. It has good tensile strength and ductility.
The carbon steels and iron are not resistant to corrosion, except in certain
specific environments, such as concentrated sulphuric acid and the caustic
alkalies. They are suitable for use with most organic solvents, except chlorinated
solvents; but traces of corrosion products may cause discoloration. Mild steel is
susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking in certain environments.
The corrosion resistance of the low alloy steels (less than 5% of alloying
elements), where the alloying elements are added to improve the mechanical
strength and not for corrosion resistance, is not significantly different from that of
the plain carbon steels.
B. Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
Pure aluminum lacks mechanical strength but has higher resistance to

corrosion than its alloys. The main structural alloys used are the Duralumin (Dural)
range of aluminum-copper alloys (typical composition 4% Cu, with 0.5% Mg)
which have a tensile strength equivalent to that of mild steel. The pure metal can
be used as a cladding on Dural plates, to combine the corrosion resistance of the
pure metal with the strength of the alloy. The corrosion resistance of aluminum is
due to the formation of a thin oxide film (as with the stainless steels). It is therefore
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most suitable for use in strong oxidizing conditions. It is attacked by mineral acids,
and by alkalis; but is suitable for concentrated nitric acid, greater than 80%. It is
widely used in the textile and food industries, where the use of mild steel would
cause contamination. It is also used for the storage and distribution of
demineralized water.
C. Copper and Copper Alloys
Pure copper is not widely used for chemical equipment. It has been used
traditionally in the food industry, particularly in brewing. Copper is a relatively soft,
very easily worked metal, and is used extensively for small-bore pipes and tubes.
The main alloys of copper are the brasses, alloyed with zinc, and the bronzes,
alloyed with tin. Other, so-called bronzes are the aluminum bronzes and the silicon
bronzes.
Copper is attacked by mineral acids, except cold, dilute, unaerated

sulphuric acid. It is resistant to caustic alkalis, except ammonia, and to many
organic acids and salts. The brasses and bronzes have a similar corrosion
resistance to the pure metal. Their main use in the chemical industry is for valves
and other small fittings, and for heat-exchanger tubes and tube sheets. If brass is
used, a grade must be selected that is resistant to dezincification.
The cupro-nickel alloys (70% Cu) have a good resistance to corrosion-

erosion and are used for heat-exchanger tubes, particularly where sea water is
used as a coolant.
D. Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Nickel has good mechanical properties and is easily worked. The pure
metal (>99%) is not generally used for chemical plant, its alloys being preferred for
most applications. The main use is for equipment handling caustic alkalis at
temperatures above that at which carbon steel could be used; above 70C.
Nickel is not subject to corrosion cracking like stainless steel.
E. Titanium
It is now used quite widely in the chemical industry, mainly for its resistance
to chloride solutions, including sea water and wet chlorine. It is rapidly attacked
by dry chlorine, but the presence of as low a concentration of moisture as 0.01%
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will prevent attack. Like the stainless steels, titanium depends for its resistance on
the formation of an oxide film.
Alloying with palladium (0.15%) significantly improves the corrosion

resistance, particularly to HCl. Titanium is being increasingly used for heat
exchangers, for both shell and tube, and plate exchangers; replacing cupro-
nickel for use with sea water.
IV. Vessels Operating at Low Temperatures
The ductility of some metals, including carbon and low alloy steels is
significantly diminished when the operating temperature is reduced some critical
value. The critical temperature, commonly described as the transition
temperature, depends upon the material, method of manufacture, previous
treatment and kind of stress system present. Fracture occurs at temperatures
above the transition temperature only after considerable plastic strain or
deformation, while below transition temperature, fracture may take place in a
brittle manner with little or deformation. Brittle fractures are to be extensive and
may lead to catastrophic fragmentation of a vessel.
Construction producing a notch effect or sudden change of section are

particularly objectionable in vessels designed for low temperature operation,
since they may create a state of stress such what the material will be incapable
or relaxing high localized by plastic. For this, materials for low temperature service
are tested for notch ductility.
Carbon steels are used down to -60C. Control of notch ductility in materials
is through proper composition, steel making practice, heat treatment and
fabrication practice. They have low carbon content with increased manganese
carbon ratio. Various additions are made to promote fin grain size and improve
notch ductility, the most effective of which is aluminum. Notch ductility can also
be improved by normalizing. Between 50C to 100C low alloy steels are used.
1%Cr, 0.25% Mo steel and nickel steels containing between the ranges of 1% to
5% have been specified for this range. Below 100C, the choice is made from
among austenitic chromium or copper, 9% Ni steel, aluminum or copper. All these
materials are notch tough down to the lowest temperature.
V. Vessels Operating at Elevated Temperatures
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There are two main criteria in selecting a steel for elevated temperature
use, namely, strength and metallurgical stability. All carbon steels are reduced in
their strength properties due to rise in temperature and are liable to creep. Their
use is therefore, generally limited to 500C. High alloy steels can be used for higher
temperature up to 1000C with proper preconditioning. The other major
requirement for satisfactory use at elevated temperature is that the metal should
not deteriorate significantly in service. Metallurgical faults must be avoided and
corrosion rates must be controlled. Above 600C, carbon steel is oxidized at a very
high rate both in air and steam. Chromium in amounts of 3% and over significantly
reduces corrosion rates and heat resisting steels contain chromium for this reason.
It is better to use austenitic chromium-nickel steel for unstressed parts operating in
the range 500C to 600C. For higher stressed parts stabilized grades of this steel
are preferable due to their high tensile properties at higher temperature.
Embrittlement of carbon and alloy steer, may occur due to service at

elevated temperature. In most instances brittleness is manifest only when the
material is cooled to room temperature. Embrittlement is inhibited by addition of
molybdenum and also improves tensile and creep properties.
VI. Design Criteria
The methods of design are primarily based on elastic analysis. There are
however other criteria such as stresses in the plastic region, fatigue, creep, etc.,
which sometimes need consideration. Elastic analysis has been developed on the
assumption that the material is isotropic and homogeneous and that it is loaded
in the elastic range. In the plastic range, elastic analysis ceases to be applicable.
However, elastic analysis can still be used if the plastic flow is limited to small
regions in the neighborhood of structural discontinuities or other stress raisers, since
the deformation of such regions is forced by that of adjoining elastic material.
Similarly under cyclic variations of load, causing plastic flow, the material hardens
and the behavior of the material becomes purely elastic. This is the phenomenon
of shakedown or cessation of plastic deformation under cyclic loading. Elastic
analysis therefore, is the most important method of designing pressure vessel shells
and components. Beyond the elastic limit, the material yields and the plastic
region spreads without increased value or load. The value of the load for which
this occurs is called collapse load or bursting pressure. Limit analysis is concerned
with calculating the load or pressure at which flow of structure material occurs
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due to yielding. This method of analysis is seldom applied to the design of pressure
vessels. When vessels are subject to cyclic loading, it is necessary to consider the
requirements for elastic cycling of the material and the implications of this on
component behavior. In the case of a discontinuity of shape, the load may give
rise to a plastic yield limited to a small area. This will be under elastic and plastic
cycling. Under these conditions, a shakedown will occur. The maximum
shakedown load is twice the first yield load. Elastic analysis is therefore, valid up
to this range of load, under cyclic loading conditions. The fatigue strength is
assessed by means of curves representing the stress range versus full reversal
cycles to failure. A factor of safety of two is applied on the stress or a factor of
safety of twenty is applied on the number of cycles. A design stress is accepted
as the lower value.
A low-stress brittle fracture of a pressure vessel is possible as a result of the

following factors:
a) presence of a notch,
b) high localized stresses in the vicinity of a notch,
c) operation at a sufficiently low temperature, and
d) wrong selection or treatment of material.
To guard against this contingency, the presence of a notch acting as a

severe stress raiser or in a highly stressed region, at low temperatures, must be
avoided. In addition, an appropriate material must be selected for the specified
service conditions and must not suffer any unexpected damage during
fabrication or in operation. At elevated temperatures, in the so-called creep
range for metals, creep may precipitate plastic instability or it may cause
unacceptable deformations or ruptures.
VII. Fabrication
The methods used for fabrication of the components of vessel may differ to
some extent depending on the materials of construction. However, in a majority
of the ferrous and non-ferrous vessels, the methods of fabrication are essentially
the same.
The most common methods used are welding, brazing, forging, flame
cutting, sheet metal forming and other machining operations. Fusion welding
forms a very important part of these methods. The various methods of fusion
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welding can be classified as (a) oxy-acetylene, (b) carbon arc, (c) metal arc, (d)
atomic hydrogen, (e) inert gas, (f) submerged arc, (g) thermit (h) resistance
welding.
Plates in various sizes and thicknesses are available for forming the shell and
the heads. These plates are cut to suitable sizes by oxy-acetylene flame or by
shearing in the case of thin plates. In the case of stainless steel, carbon arc
(reversed polarity) or hydrogen arc may be used for cutting operations. The edges
of these plates are then beveled by an oxy-acetylene torch or can be machined
to make them square.
The plates are then rolled to form a shell. In the case of thick plates the
edges need crimpling, prior to the rolling operation, since the edges cannot be
formed to the deserved curvature by the method of roiling alone. It is advisable
clamp together the two adjoining edges of the shell. The clamps can be removed
as soon as these edges are tack welded. Finally the longitudinal seam of the shell
is welded by any one of the fusion welding methods. For large diameter vessels
and heavy sections, the submerged arc method is most suitable. This method is
automatic, and gives a neat and regular weld which is free from any defects. In
the case of copper and some special steel shells, after the initial rolling and
welding, the shells are rolled again to give a uniform circular shape. The rollers on
such rolling machines are removable for insertion of the original shell. Vessels
having wall thickness above 5 cm are fabricated by forging.
The various types of dished heads are produced from blanks by either
pressing them in a hydraulic press or by spinning them to the desired shape. In the
second method, the blank is made to rotate, while a pair of rollers are made to
exert pressure on it. The blank is gradually moved in the radial direction
simultaneously. The pressure of the rollers is therefore, gradually transferred to
concentric areas on the blank. This pressure gives rise to the dished shape as
required. It may be necessary to form a bevel on the edge of the head, for
welding it to the shell. This can be produced by oxy-acetylene torch, which can
be attached to the tool post of a vertical boring machine. The head is slowly
rotated with the table of the machine, while the torch is being operated. The
head is connected to the shell by welding and the assembly may be heat treated
depending on the thickness.
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Holes in the shell or the head can be made by an oxy-acetylene torch

which is attached to a compass or a pantograph mechanism. The edges of the
holes may be upset by a hydraulic press, by heating the area around the hole
locally. The nozzles are welded to these openings as required. It is desirable to
tack weld these nozzles and check their correct position and alignments prior to
the final welding.
Nozzles may be fabricated from plates by the method of rolling and

welding or may be formed to the desired shape by forging. Flanges are produced
by forging with the help of a steam hydraulic press. After suitable heat treatment,
these are machined to give the final shape and size.
Post weld heat treatment is carried out in the case of carbon and low alloy
ferritic steels either by normalizing or by stress relieving. Special heat treatment is
necessary in case of alloy steels and non-ferrous metals. Thermal stress relieving is
necessary when the vessel is (a) intended for containing toxic or inflammable
material; (b) intended for operation below 0C; (c) intended for use with media
liable to cause stress corrosion cracking; (d) subject to excessive stress
concentration or risk of fatigue due to changing loads; (e) under risk of brittle
fracture; (f) to have dimensional accuracy and shape in service; (g) to be made
of plate thickness (including corrosion allowance) at any welded joint in the vessel
shell or head.
The vessel is stress relieved as a whole in an enclosed furnace wherever

practicable. Where it is not practicable to do so, special precautions will have to
be taken to heat the vessel in sections, To obtain good finish, the vessel is sand
blasted, ground and polished.
VIII. Design Calculation
A. Shell Thickness
In general, the minimum wall thickness of welded metal plates subject to

pressure, excluding corrosion allowances, should not be less than 2.4 mm (Peters
et al., 2004).
To provide for the vessel sufficient rigidity especially at low pressures, the
minimum wall thickness at different cylindrical shell diameters should be:
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Minimum Wall Thickness at Different Cylindrical Shell Diameters
Vessel inside Minimum wall thickness

diameter (ft) (inch)
Up to 4
4-6 5/16
6-8 3/8
8-10 7/16
10-12
Source: Seider, 2004
In practical designation, the shell is considered thin if the ratio of

circumferential radius of curvature to wall thickness is greater than 10. Many
pressure vessels are relatively thin, having radius of thickness ratio between 10 to
500 (Bhaduri, 1984).
A.1. Shell Thickness Working Equations
The needed shell thickness of pressure vessels is a function of the ultimate

tensile strength of the metal at operating temperature, operating pressure, vessel
diameter and welding joint efficiency (Peters et al, 2004). In the recent ASME
Code (VIII-I), the working equation for the determination of shell thickness of
cylinder subjected to internal pressure based on inside diameter is given as:
Where
tp = shell thickness required (inch) [m]
P = Internal gauge pressure (psig) [kN/m2]
R = Inside Radius (inch) [m]
S = Allowable stress (psi) [kN/m2]
E = Joint efficiency factor
C = Corrosion allowance (inch) [m]
Provided that
1. tp is less than or equal to R/2, and
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2. Pressure is less than or equal to 0.385 SE (Jawad and Farr, 1988).
Alternative ASME equation based on outside diameter of a cylindrical shell

is given as:
ASME Pressure Vessel Code formula excludes corrosion, wind and

earthquake allowances (Mulet, 1981) as cited by (Seider, 2004). The
recommended wall thickness, tv, requirement of vertical pressure vessel or tower
incorporating wind load based on wind velocity of 140 miles/hr, which is
substantially sufficient to handle additional earthquake load, is,
tv = tp [ 0.75 + 0.22 E ( L/Di)2/Pd ]
The above equation is applicable for 10 > ( L/Di)2/ Pd > 1.34. If the ratio is
less than 1.34, then tv = tp.
Nomenclature for Table 1

a = 2 for thickness <0.0254 m and 3 for thickness 0.0254 m
Cc = allowance for corrosion, m
Da = major axis of an ellipsoidal head, before corrosion allowance is added, m
Ej = efficiency of joints expressed as a fraction
IDD = inside depth of dish, m
La = inside radius of hemispherical head or inside crown radius of torispherical
head, before corrosion allowance is added, m
n = 1.2 for D 1.55m, 1.21 for D = 1.55-2.0 m, 1.22 for D = 2.0-2.7 m, and 1.23 for D
> 2.7 m
P = maximum allowable internal pressure, kPa (gauge)
r = knuckle radius, m
ri = inside radius of shell, before corrosion allowance is added, m
S = maximum allowable working stress, kPa
t = minimum wall thickness, m
= density of metal, kg/m3
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Design Equations and Data for Pressure Vessels based on the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
Recommended Design Equations for

Vessels under Internal Pressure Limiting Conditions
For cylindrical shells,
For spherical shells,
For ellipsoidal head,
For torispherical (spherically dished) head
0.5 (minor axis) 0 = 0.25Da
r = knuckle radius = 6% of inside

For hemispherical head,
crown radius, and is not less
Same as for spherical shells with ri = La
than 3t
(ASME, Peters et al., 2004)
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Shell Wall thickness for vacuum vessels may be calculated (Kalis, 1986) with
this equation:
Where:
Pc = Collapsing pressure (psi)
Te = Thickness to withstand external pressure (inch)
Do = Outside diameter (inch)
Em = Materials modulus of elasticity
Te must be high enough so that Pc is five times greater than the difference
between atmospheric pressure and design vacuum pressure.
Mulet et al, 1981, as cited by Seider, 2004, presented an alternative

equation for the calculation of cylindrical wall thickness at vacuum, tE,
tE = 1.3 ( PdL/EMDo )4
a correction factor is added ,tEC
tEC = L ( 0.18Di - 2.2 ) x 10-5 - 0.19
Thus, the wall thickness of vessels at vacuum incorporating wind and

earthquake loads is,
tV = tE + tEC
Where:
tp = wall thickness (for internal pressure)
Di = inside diameter L = cylindrical shell length
Pd = internal design gauge pressure
S = maximum allowable stress (lb/in2)
E = fractional weld efficiency
Po = operating gauge pressure
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tv = wall thickness of vessels incorporating wind and earthquake loads

tE = wall thickness of vessel or tower at vacuum
tEC = correction added to tE, (tV = tE + tEC)
The thickness of the shell plate, as designed for the maximum working
pressure should be increased by a uniform amount to provide for corrosive action.
This is called corrosion allowance. If possible, the effect of the corrosive action of
a particular substance on the vessel material should be obtained from the
manufacturer of the product, or from published sources. When the effects of
corrosion are indeterminate prior to the design of the vessel, although known to
be inherent to some degree in the service for which the vessel is to be used, the
best judgment of the designer must be exercised in establishing a reasonable
excess shell thickness.
To include corrosion allowance, tc, Seider (2004) recommended 1/8 inch

for noncorrosive conditions. Backhurst and Harker (1973) recommended 1/8 up
to 3/16 corrosion allowance for noncorrosive and for corrosive environments.
ts = tV + tc
Where:
ts = cylindrical wall thickness incorporating wind, earthquake and corrosion
allowances
For Spherical Shell, ASME code as cited by Kohan (1987) provide for
equation to calculate the maximum allowable internal working pressure.
where:
P = internal working gauge pressure (psig)
R = Inside Radius (inch)
tp = Minimum required thickness (inch)
E = Lowest joint efficiency
S = Max allowable stress (psi)
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In a noncorrosive environment, carbon steel and low alloy steel are

commonly used material of construction for pressure vessel at low temperature (-
20 to 650F) and high temperature (650 900F) respectively. Carbon steel (SA 285
grade C) has a maximum allowable stress of 13,750 psi, while a low alloy steel (SA
387B) has a maximum allowable stress of 15, 000 psi (Seider, 2004). Stainless steel
types 304 and 316 are also known as materials for pressure vessel (Peters et al.,
2004). Stainless steel 300 series could even be used up to 1,500F (Perry and Green,
1997). Maximum allowable stress varies from material to material and design
temperatures.
Recommended Stress Values (ASME, Peters et. al., 2004)

Recommended Stress Values
Joint Efficiencies
Metal Temp., C S, kPa
For double-welded butt joints Carbon Steel
If fully radiographed = 1.0 (SA 285, Gr. C) -29 to 343 94,500
If spot-examined = 0.85 399 82,700
If not radiographed = 0.70 454 57,200
In general, for spot examined Low-allow Steel for -29 to 427 94,500
If resistance weld = 0.85 resistance to H2 and H2S 510 75,800
If lap-welded = 0.80 (SA 387, Gr. 12C1.1) 565 34,500
If single-butt-welded = 0.60 649 6,900
High-Tensile Steel for -29 to 399 137,900
heavy-wall vessels 454 115,800
(SA 302, Gr. B) 510 69,000
538 42,750
High-alloy Steel for -29 128,900
cladding and corrosion 343 77,200
resistance, Stainless 304 437 72,400
(SA 240) 538 66,900
Stainless 316 -29 128,900
(SA 240) 345 79,300
427 75,800
538 73,100
38 46,200
Nonferrous metals 204 20,700
Copper (SB 11) 38 15,900
Aluminum (SB 204 6,900
209,1100-0)
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Modulus of Elasticity Values (EM) for Carbon Steel and Low-alloy Steel as a
Function of Temperature
psi x 106
Temperature,
Carbon Low-alloy
F
Steel Steel
-20 30.2 30.2
200 29.5 29.5
400 28.3 28.6
650 26.0 27.0
700 - 26.6
800 - 25.7
900 - 24.5
(Seider, 2004)
Recommended Design Pressure and Temperature
Design pressure used in the calculation of wall thickness should always be

greater than the operating pressure. Similarly, design temperature may be equal
to operating temperature plus 50F. The following are recommended design
pressures at different operating pressure (Seider, 2004):
Recommended Design Pressures at Different Operating Pressure
Operating Pressure, Po
Design Pressure, Pd (psig)
(psig)
05 10
P = exp{0.60608+0.91615[ln Po] +
10 1000
0.0015655 [ln Po]2}
1000+ 1.1Po
(Seider, 2004)
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Welding
Welding is a process whereby parts are permanently united by causing their

surfaces to flow together. Modern welding, as applied to metals, may be
accomplished by four principal processes: electric arc welding, oxygen-gas
welding, forge welding, and electrical resistance welding.
In the arc or gas process, the term weIding when the melting point of the
filler metal is within approximately 50F of that of the parts to be joined; when the
melting points differ by a greater the process is termed brazing, braze welding, or
soldering. Brazing and soldering are often used when a totally dissimilar filler metal
is required, and may eliminate many of the bad effects that might result from high
temperature treatment of the bonded parts. Copper alloys are usually employed
as metals for brazing, tin and other metal alloys for soldering processes. Sweating
is the process of joining parts by brazing or soldering where the filler metal flows
between capillary-thin spaces to make the bond. This process is referred to as
electric-furnace brazing when it is used in mass-production work, where the
electric furnace is employed to effect fusion.
Hard facing is a welding process in which an extremely hard, abrasion

resistant overlay, is deposited upon the wear surfaces of cutting tools and other
parts. A high carbon steel welding rod is necessary as an underlay or intermediate
welding material upon which the hard face overlay can be deposited. A wide
variety of impact and abrasion-resistant materials are available in welding rod
form, and the welds may be deposited in a succession of layers to meet the
requirements of the most exacting service and specifications. Since the welds are
extremely hard, any machining subsequent to welding is usually accomplished by
grinding or other abrasive processes.
In arc or gas welding the high local temperatures may induce warping or
distortion, or internal strain and stress in the parts joined. Thin sections subjected to
localized heating are more likely to warp and buckle than heavy sections, but the
latter are more subject to internal strain. Properly applied clamps or fixtures to hold
the parts in position during the welding process will minimize distortion and may
also serve as heat conductors. Stress relieving, which may be accomplished either
by furnace annealing or by peening or hammering, may be utilized to release
"locked-up" stresses. Stress relieving by annealing is mandatory for several classes
of unfired welded pressure vessels. In some instances, an increase of 6% in the
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allowable design stress is permitted if this process is used, since the vessel is
considered a more uniformly elastic body. The high temperatures employed in
arc and gas welding processes have a material effect upon the alloy structure of
the parts joined, and appropriate measures must be taken to compensate for
such incidental heat treatment. Annealing, subsequent heat treatment to obtain
a desired alloy structure, or the use of the proper filler metal is recommended.
Since many alloys are available for process equipment, it is imperative that the
welding method and the filler material be selected to insure a weld with as nearly
the same strength and chemical resistance as the basic metal. The welding of the
chemical processing equipment should be done with care and by persons
experienced in welding the particular metals to be joined. No single specification
can be devised for a variety of welds. General purpose welding and brazing rods
are available for experimental use or quick repair, but for exacting specifications
or for special service requirements it is advisable to obtain the recommendation
of reputable manufacturers of welding supplies and equipment.
Welding will heat the metal surrounding the welding area which could result
in warping, and shrinking of the welded area (Kennedy, 1982). It is for this reason
that at times, stress relieving is required to release locked-up localized stresses.
Stress relieving may be accomplished either by annealing or hammering. After
welding, test are often employed to locate weld defects and other structural
trouble inside the weld. Radiographing is often used to find these weld defects.
Radiography is an inspection test where welded joints are exposed to x-ray to
detect excessive porosity, defective fusion and other defects in the welding
process (Kennedy, 1982).
Weld efficiency, E, reflects the integrity of the welding. Carbon steel having
thickness up to 1.25 inch requires only a 10% spot X-ray check where the weld
efficiency is 85 %. However, for thicker walls, a 100% X-ray check is required,
allowing a value of 100% efficiency (Seider, 2004). Longitudinal joints are more
highly stressed than circumferential joints, and require a minimum butt welding.
Similarly, all vessels in lethal application shall have an all butt weld connection
and fully radiographed. Also, all vessels fabricated on carbon or low alloy steel
require post-heat treatment (Perry and Green, 1997). All welded joints of
cryogenic tanks must be butt welded, postweld heat treated and X- ray
examined (Kohan, 1987). Depending on the degree of radiograph examination
used to check the integrity of the welded joint, and the type of welded joint,
19 | P a g e
computation of wall thickness of pressure vessel will have different joint

efficiencies. ASME section VIII classifies radiographic examination as full
radiography, spot radiography and no spot radiography.
For double butt joint, the following are the corresponding efficiencies
Corresponding Efficiencies for Double Butt Joint
Radiography Efficiency
Full 100%
Spot 85%
No 70%
This decrease in joint efficiency from full to no spot radiography would result
to a more shell wall thickness. Hence , as a rule, when welded joint efficiency is
not known, assume a no spot radiography and use 70% joint efficiency if double
butt joint is to be used (Kohan, 1987). This will provide for an allowance on wall
thickness, but should later be check for the appropriate type of welded joint.
Maximum Allowable Joint Efficiencies for Arc and Gas Welded Joints
Degree of
Radiographic
Type Joint
Joint Description Limitations Examination
No. Category
a B C
Full Spot None
Butt joints as attained by double-
welding or by other means which
will obtain the same quality of
deposited weld metal on the
inside and outside weld surfaces A, B, C &
1 None 1.0 0.85 0.70
to agree with the requirements of D
UW-35; welds using metal
backing strips which remain in
place are excluded.
(a) None A, B, C &

2 0.90 0.80 0.65
D
20 | P a g e
Single welded butt joint with b) Circumferential

backing strip other than those butt joints with one
A, B & C 0.90 0.80 0.65
included in (1) plate offset
Circumferential
butt joints only. Not
Single-welded butt joint without
over 5/8in. thick NA NA 0.60
3 use of backing strip A, B & C
and not over 24in
outside diameter
longitudinal joints
not over 3/8in. A NA NA 0.55
thick
Double full fillet lap joint
4
circumferential
joints not over B&C NA NA 0.55
5/8in. thick
a) Circumferential
joints2 for
attachment of
heads not over
B NA NA 0.50
24in. outside
diameter to shells
not over 1/2in.
thick.
(b) Circumferential
joint for the
Single full fillet lap joints with plug
attachment to
5 welds confirming to UW-17
shells of jackets not
over 5/8in. in
nominal thickness
where the distance
C NA NA 0.50
from the center of
the plug weld to
the edge of the
plate is not less
than 1-1/2 times
the diameter of the
hole for the plug.
Single full fillet lap joints without (a) For the

A&B NA NA 0.50
6 plug welds attachment of
heads convex to
21 | P a g e
pressure to shells
not over 5/8in.
required thickness.
only with use of
fillet weld on inside
of shells
(b) For attachment

of heads having
pressure on either
side. To shells not
over 24in. inside
diameter and not
over 1/4in. required
thickness with fillet
weld on outside of
head flange only.
(Farr, J. R., and Jawad, M. H., 1988)
A.2. Hesse and Rushton Method
Shell Thickness
Shell thickness of welded pressured vessel may be calculated using the

given equation (Hesse and Rushton, 1975):
Where:
tp = shell thickness (inch)
P = Max allowable working pressure (psi)
D = Inside diameter (inch)
S = Max allowable tensile stress (psi)
e = Efficiency of welded joint
C = Corrosion allowance
The previously presented equation is applicable as long as the following

conditions are met:
1. tp < 0.10D
22 | P a g e
2. tp > tmin
Where:
Materials and Allowable Working Stresses for Unfired Pressure Vessels
Design Stress
Design stress, S maybe estimated using the given equation:
S = Su x Fm x Fs x Fr x Fa
Where:
Su = Minimum Specified Tensile Strength
Fm = Material Factor
Fm = 1 for Grade A material
Fm = 0.97 for Grade B material
Fm = 0.92 for Grade C material
23 | P a g e
Fs = Temperature Factor
Fr = Stress Relief (SR) Factor
Fr = 1.06 When SR is applied
Fa = Radiographing Factor
Fa = 1.12 when Radiographing is applied and subsequent repair of defects
Note: Both Stress Relief and Radiographing factors are equal to unity when not
applied on welded joints.
Welding may induce internal strain and stress on welded joints. In this case,
stress relieving such as by annealing or hammering may be employed to release
localized stresses. A 6% increase in the allowable design stress is allowed in some
cases.
Radiographing, on the other hand, is an application of X-ray on welded

joints to examine defective fusion and other defects that may affect the integrity
of the pressure vessel. If subsequent repair of a detected defect is done, a 12%
increase in the allowable design stress may also be allowed.
Stress relieving is mandatory for:

1. tp > 1
2. tp > (For thinner plates)

Where: D has a minimum value of 20 inches
3. ASTM A 150
4. ASTM A 149 (under certain conditions)
Whereas, Radiographing is mandatory for

1. ASTM A 150
2. ASTM A 149 (under certain conditions)
3. Lethal gases application
4. Nuclear Reactor applications
Types of Welded Joint and Corresponding Efficiencies
Efficiency Criteria
LAP WELD (for circumferential Joint)
24 | P a g e
Single Lap 55% tP < 5/8

Single Lap with plug weld 65% tP < 5/8
Double Lap 65% tP < 5/8
BUTT WELD (for circumferential and longitudinal joints)
Single Butt 70% tP < 5/8
Single Butt with Back-up Strip 80% tP < 1
Double Butt 80% tP < 1
Double Butt with reinforce at center 90% tP < 1
Temperature Factor
Metal Temperature, Plate and Forged Cast Steel,

F Steel, % %
Up to 650 25.0 16.7
700 23.7 16.4
750 21.0 14.7
800 18.0 12.9
850 15.0 11.1
900 12.0 9.3
950 9.0 7.5
1000 6.2 5.7
(Hesse, E., and Rushton, J. H., 1975)
B. Head Thickness
To estimate head thickness requirement for pressure vessel with internal

pressure load (concave), the following are the working equations for different
head configurations. For external pressure load, thickness computed from internal
pressure load is multiplied by 5/3.
Standard Ellipsoidal
25 | P a g e
Hemispherical
Standard Dished
Where
L = crown radius in inches = Do 6
Kr = knuckle radius = 0.06 Do
Values for W (dished heads)

Kr/L W
0.06 1.80
0.07 1.70
0.08 1.65
0.09 1.60
0.10 1.55
0.11 1.50
0.12 1.47
0.13 1.44
0.14 1.41
0.15 1.40
0.16 1.38
0.17 1.37
0.18 1.35
0.19 1.32
0.20 1.30
0.25 1.25
0.50 1.12
1.00 1.00
26 | P a g e
For flat heads designed to permit fastening by means of lap joints with or
without plug welds, the required head thickness is given by
Where:
t = head thickness
d = inner diameter of the flanged head
For flat heads which may be attached by single or double V butt welds, the
required head thickness is given by
And for flat heads cut from a solid plate, the required head thickness is
given by:
C. Plate Thickness Increments
It is noteworthy to emphasize that vessels fabricated from metal plates may

be assumed to come in the following increments (Seider, 2004). Final vessel wall
thickness is established by rounding off to the next increment.
Corresponding Efficiencies for Double Butt Joint
Metal plate Increments,

thickness, inch inch
3/16 to 1/16
5/8 to 2 1/8
2 ro 3 1/4
(Seider, 2004)
27 | P a g e
Piping System
Objectives:
1. To enumerate and describe the elements of a piping system
2. To identify the criteria for selecting a certain type of pipes, pipe supports,
valves, fittings, and instruments
3. To calculate for the pressure drop of a particular piping system
4. To prepare piping and instrumentation specification sheet and diagram
I. Introduction
A Piping System
Piping systems are like arteries and veins. They carry the lifeblood of modern
civilization. In a modern city, they transport water from the sources of water supply
to the points of distribution; convey waste from residential and commercial
buildings to the treatment facility or the point of discharge. In chemical plants,
paper mills, food processing plants, and other similar industrial establishments, the
piping systems are utilized to carry liquids, chemicals, mixtures, gases, vapors, and
solids from one location to another.
A piping system is a network of pipes, supports, valves, pumps, fittings,

instruments, etc. which is intended to transfer resources from ports to consumers,
from upstream to downstream facilities, and between processes within the facility.
It is evident that pipe is just one element of piping. Thus, pipe sections, when joined
with fittings, valves, and other mechanical equipment and properly supported by
hangers and supports, are called piping.
28 | P a g e
II. Elements of Piping System
The main elements of a piping system include pipes, pipe supports, valves,
pumps, fittings, and instruments.
A. Pipes
A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not necessarily of

circular section, used mainly to convey substances which can flow such as liquids,
gases, slurries, powders, and masses of small solids. In common usage, the words
pipe and tube are usually interchangeable, but in industry and engineering,
the terms are uniquely defined.
Pipe is measured by inside diameter (ID) while tube is measured by outside

diameter (OD). It should be noted that pipe size refers to a nominal, not actual,
inside pipe diameter. Schedule refers to the pipes wall thickness. The actual
physical OD is larger than its nominal OD. The dimensions provided for tubing, on
the other hand, refer to the actual outside diameter. In other words, the actual
physical OD of a tube is just the same as its nominal OD. The size of a tube will
keep the same OD no matter what the wall thickness is. For example, the actual
outside diameter of 1 pipe is 1.625 while 1 tube has a true 1.25 outside
diameter. Pipes are used to transport something and tubes to construct
something; hence, tubes are defined by the outside diameter and wall thickness
for construction stability, and pipes are measured by inside diameter to allow
calculations for fluid transport.
Difference between a Pipe and a Tube
29 | P a g e
A.1 Materials of Construction
Pipes can be categorized based on the materials of construction:
Ferrous Metal Piping Non-ferrous Metal Piping

Cast Iron Copper
Ductile Iron Brass
Carbon Steel Titanium
Stainless Steel Aluminum
Plastics Composites
Polyvinyl Chloride Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Concrete
High-Density Polyethylene Asbestos Cement
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene
Cross-Linked Polyethylene
A.1.1 Cast Iron Pipe
Commercially manufactured cast iron contains between 2 and 6.67

percent carbon. These metals are exceptionally strong in compression but are
very brittle. They have very low ductility and malleability, and cannot be drawn,
rolled, or worked at room temperature. They melt readily however, and can be
casted into complicate shapes and machined. This property suits them for some
valve bodies.
Because it is so brittle, it is not often used for pressure piping applications.

Cast iron pipe is now used primarily for drain, waste, and vent applications, which
is also known as soil pipe.
A distinction is drawn between cast iron and ductile iron. While ductile irons
are also cast, the terms distinguish the metallographic structures of the materials.
Cast iron describes a metallographic structure in which the carbon exists in the
form of graphite flakes. The larger the graphite flakes are, the weaker the metal
is.
A.1.2 Ductile Iron Pipe
Ductile iron pipe was developed in 1948 and soon replaced cast iron pipe
in pressure applications. The metallographic structure of ductile iron is such that
the graphite exists in the form of nodules. These compact nodules do not interrupt
30 | P a g e
the metallurgical matrix like the graphite flakes in cast iron. The result is a material
that is stronger and tougher than cast iron.
Like cast iron, ductile iron is used for sewage service. However, it finds
additional use in liquid service especially for potable water.
A.1.3 Carbon Steel Pipe
Carbon steel piping is the type that is most often used in industrial
applications. It has the advantage of wide availability, high strength, and myriad
connection systems and fittings.
Carbon steel piping is used for many liquid and gas services, both above
and below ground. It is also widely used for steam systems. It is inappropriate for
corrosive services but is used for caustic services. It may be used for potable water
if appropriate linings are applied to prevent iron dissolution.
A.1.4 Stainless Steel Pipe
Stainless steel pipe is used whenever corrosion resistance is desired. The

addition of chromium is primarily responsible for the corrosion resistant properties
of stainless steels. Even though stainless steel exhibits excellent corrosion
protection, it would be very unusual to use it in an underground application. A
more economical solution would be to use carbon steel with cathodic protection.
Stainless steel can either be austenitic, ferritic, or martensitic. Austenitic

stainless steels contain a maximum of 0.15 percent carbon and a minimum of 16
percent chromium, along with nickel and/or manganese. They are nonmagnetic
and have the best high-temperature strengths of all of the stainless steels. Ferritic
stainless steels, on the other hand, contain 14 to 27 percent chromium and are
magnetic. Lastly, martensitic stainless steels contain 11.5 to 18 percent chromium,
and are also magnetic. They are sometimes used in valve components.
Most stainless piping is of the austenitic variety. The most common grades
for piping are 304 and 316. Stainless steel is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking
and so exposure to chlorine compounds must be avoided.
Stainless steel piping is used wherever iron dissolution cannot be tolerated,

as in the production of foods, beverages, and pharmaceuticals. It is often used in
uninsulated industrial services to avoid the need to paint the exterior of pipes. The
31 | P a g e
added cost of stainless steel piping can often be offset by the cost of painting
and repainting the exterior of carbon steel pipes over the expected lifetime of
the installation.
A.1.5 Copper Tube
Copper tubing is essentially unalloyed pure copper. Copper is a ductile

material that can easily be drawn into tubing. It resists corrosion under many
conditions, and is therefore a suitable material for potable water service. Like
many metals, copper is a germicide.
Copper tubing is an excellent material for conveying both hot and cold
water so it is used primarily for plumbing and hydronics. It frequently finds use in
refrigerant piping. Due to its ease of fabrication and corrosion resistance, it is also
used for high-purity applications such as medical gases. In industrial settings,
copper is sometimes used for instrument air, vacuum, fuel oil, or fuel gas systems.
A.1.6 Brass Pipe
Brass pipe is manufactured from an alloy of 85 percent copper and 15

percent zinc. It is an uncommon piping material, but is sometimes used for
potable water pressure pipe where hot work is impractical. It is also sometimes
used for drainage due to its ability to resist specific corrosives.
A.1.7 Titanium Pipe
Titanium is often thought to be an exotic material for piping systems, yet it

is the ninth most common element in the earths crust. Among common piping
materials, only iron and aluminum are more abundant. There is approximately six
times more titanium present than copper. Titanium resists corrosion, has high
strength, and low weight.
Titanium piping is used in the petrochemical, pulp and paper, food

processing, and power generation industries. It is compatible with chlorides,
hydrogen sulfide, dilute hydrochloric acid, ammonia, and hydrogen.
A.1.8 Aluminum Pipe and Tube
32 | P a g e
Aluminum is a lightweight metal that is approximately one-third the density

of steel. It resists corrosion, and may be alloyed with magnesium, manganese, or
silicon.
Aluminum piping systems are not very common, but they are sometimes
used for pneumatic conveying and compressed gas applications, including
enrichment of uranium through centrifugal cascades. It resists corrosion, but is not
compatible with acids, mercury, or strong alkalis.
A.1.9 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipe
PVC is a thermoplastic polymer. PVC piping is used in pressure piping as well

as in plumbing drainage. It is widely available, relatively inexpensive, and the
subject of some controversy over its environmental impact. It is the most widely
used material for plastic piping.
The chlorine compound of PVC constitutes 57 percent of the weight of the

molecule, so less petroleum is required in the production of PVC than in other
plastics. PVC is widely used for cold water pressure piping and DWV piping. Since
it has lower modulus of elasticity than carbon steel, it will generate a lower
pressure surge due to water hammering. However, PVC is not suitable for hot
water since it has a maximum temperature limit of only 60C. Being a
thermoplastic, the strength drops off quickly as the temperature rises above
ambient. Also, PVC is never to be used for compressed gases nor is it to be tested
with gases under pressure.
A.1.10 Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC) Pipe
CPVC is also a thermoplastic. It is manufactured from the same resin as PVC

but undergoes an additional reaction in which chlorine replaces some of the
hydrogen in the monomer. This yields a chlorine content between 63 and 69
weight percent whereas PVC contains only 57 percent chlorine by weight. The
result is a higher temperature at which CPVC softens, and this allows CPVC piping
to be used in some domestic hot water applications. CPVC can support
temperatures up to 82C. However, because it is a plastic material, it must never
be used for compressed gas services.
A.1.11 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Pipe
33 | P a g e
HDPE is a polymer thermoplastic that excels in certain underground

applications. It tolerates abuse and may be deformed without compromising its
strength. It is often used to convey water or low-pressure natural gas. It does not
corrode and its flow characteristics are very good since the surfaces are so
smooth. The resistance to corrosion can make it a more economical choice for
underground piping than coated and wrapped carbon steel provided that the
fluids are compatible with the material and the pressures can be
accommodated.
A.1.12 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Pipe
ABS is another thermoplastic used primarily for DWV service. It is a rigid black
product that is easy to work with, is inexpensive, and is therefore a popular choice
for residential and commercial construction. It is also sometimes specified for
pressurized lines for crude oil, pumped waste, salt water, and irrigation
applications.
A.1.13 Cross-Linked Polyethylene Pipe (PEX)
Cross-linked polymers are thermosetting polymers. Thermosets are still

affected by heat, but not to the extent that thermoplastics are. PEX is used in hot
and cold water piping for water distribution systems and in radiant heating
applications including snow melt systems.
A.1.14 Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Pipe
FRP is a composite material with wide use due to its chemical resistance
and strength. The resins are thermosetting epoxy or polyester and the glass fibers
are embedded within these resins to impart mechanical strength. The orientation
of the fibers and the resin blend can be manipulated to obtain the desired quality
for the specific application.
FRP piping is used to convey chemicals in liquid or vapor phases. It often

finds use in fume, scrubbers, ductwork, stacks and fuel, acids, caustics, and
solvents piping. It is therefore frequently used in oil field applications. FRP may be
used in both above and below underground applications. It has a maximum
temperature rating of 121C.
A.1.15 Concrete Pipe
34 | P a g e
Concrete pipe may be either reinforced or non-reinforced, and is used in

pressure and gravity applications. It is often used for storm and sanitary sewers.
Pressurized services are usually nonpotable cooling or process water.
A.2 Pipe Insulating Materials
Pipe insulation is the thermal or acoustic insulation used on pipework. This is

being applied to due to one or more of the following reasons:
1. Condensation Control: When pipes operate at below ambient

temperatures, the potential exists for water vapor to condense on the pipe
surface. Moisture is known to contribute towards many different types of
corrosion so preventing the formation of condensation by pipe insulation is
usually considered important.
2. Pipe Freezing: Since some water pipes are located either outside or in
unheated areas where the ambient temperature may occasionally drop
below the freezing point of water, any water in the pipework may
potentially freeze. When water freezes, it expands due to negative thermal
expansion, and this expansion can cause failure of a pipe system in any
one of a number of ways.
3. Energy Saving: Since pipework can operate at temperatures far from the
ambient temperature and the rate of heat flow from a pipe is related to
the temperature differential between the pipe and the surrounding
ambient air, heat flow from a pipework can be considerable. In many
situations, this heat flow is undesirable. The application of thermal pipe
insulation introduces thermal resistance and reduces the heat flow.
4. Protection against Extreme Temperatures: Where pipework is operating at
extremely high or low temperatures, the potential exists for injury to occur
should any person come into physical contact with the pipe surface. The
threshold for human pain varies but several international standards set
recommended touch temperature limits.
5. Control of Noise: Pipework can radiate mechanical noise. In such
circumstances, the breakout of noise from the pipe wall can be achieved
by acoustic insulation incorporating a high-density sound barrier.
35 | P a g e
Various pipe insulating materials are being used in the industry and these
include the following:
1. Fiberglass
2. Calcium Silicate
3. Cellular Glass
4. Foam Synthetic Rubber
5. Polyisocyanurate
6. Mineral Wool
7. Extruded Polystyrene
A.2.1 Fiberglass
Preformed fiberglass pipe insulation is available in sizes up to 34 inch. This is

a good choice for dry locations, but if the insulation ever becomes wet, it must
be replaced. It is appropriate for pipe temperatures from -46C to 121C and has
a thermal conductivity of approximately 0.04 W/m-K.
A.2.2 Calcium Silicate
Calcium silicate is a lightweight, porous, chalky insulator. It is used to insulate

hot pipes up to 649C. It has a thermal conductivity of approximately 0.072 W/m-
K at 204C, and a density of 232 kg/m3. It should be noted that calcium silicate
must be protected from moisture since once wet, its insulating properties are
greatly diminished.
A.2.3 Cellular Glass
Cellular glass is a closed-cell material that is used in applications from -268

to 482C. Being a closed-cell material, it is an excellent choice for locations
subject to moisture. It is impermeable to liquids and it does not burn. It may also
be used for underground applications, and is available in a wide range of
preformed shapes. It has a thermal conductivity of 0.039 W/m-K at 24C and a
density of 120 kg/m3.
A.2.4 Foam Synthetic Rubber
Preformed foam synthetic rubber insulation is available in sizes up to 6 inch

NPS. It is used primarily for plumbing and hydronics application, and has a
recommended temperature range of -183C to 105C. It is often used to prevent
36 | P a g e
condensation on cold service piping. It is designed for above ground installations

only. It has a thermal conductivity of 0.039 W/m-K and a density of 48 to 96 kg/m3.
A.2.5 Polyisocyanurate
Polyisocyanurate is a cellular polymer insulation for use at temperature

range of -183C to 149C. It may be used for general industrial piping, chilled
water, or tank and vessel insulation. It will degrade when exposed to the ultraviolet
spectrum, so a covering is required for locations exposed to sunlight. It has a
thermal conductivity of 0.027 W/m-K at 24C and a density of 32.8 kg/m3.
A.2.6 Mineral Wool
Mineral wool insulation is suitable for temperature ranges up to 1177C. It is

water repellent yet vapor-permeable, and it may be used outdoors. A metal
jacket is recommended to protect the insulation from physical damage as well
as weatherproofing. It has a thermal conductivity of 0.035 W/m-K and a density
of 70 kg/m3.
A.2.7 Extruded Polystyrene
Extruded polystyrene is a rigid thermoplastic foam insulator that is used for

piping in the range of -183C to 74C. It is most often used for cold lines to prevent
heat gain and surface condensation or sweating. It will degrade when exposed
to sunlight if not covered. It has a thermal conductivity of 0.037 W/m-K at 24C
and a density of 26 kg/m3.
Comparison of Pipe Insulating Materials

Operating Thermal
Pipe Insulating Material Density
Temperature Conductivity
Fiberglass -46C to 121C 0.04 W/m-K 32 kg/m3
Calcium Silicate 649C 0.072 W/m-K 232 kg/m3
Cellular Glass -268C to 482C 0.039 W/m-K 120 kg/m3
Foam Synthetic Rubber -183C to 105C 0.039 W/m-K 48 to 96 kg/m3
Polyisocyanurate -183C to 149C 0.027 W/m-K 32.8 kg/m3
Mineral Wool 1177C 0.035 W/m-K 70 kg/m3
Extruded Polystyrene -183C to 74C 0.037 W/m-K 26 kg/m3
37 | P a g e
A.3 Pipe and Tube Sizing
Typical, Minimum, and Economic Pipe Diameter Calculations

Diameter Calculations
Typical Diameter (Kent, 1980)
For Liquids .
= . ( )

where:
D = Pipe Inside Diameter, inch
W = Flowrate in 1000 lb/hr
= Density, lb/ft3
For Gases .
= . .

Minimum Diameter
For Clean Liquids .
= .
.
For Clean Gases . .

= . ( ) ( )

where:
m = Molecular Weight
K = Piping Cost, $/in/ft
Z = Compressibility Factor
T = Rankine Temperature
For Erosive/Corrosive Liquids .

= .
.
For Erosive/Corrosive Gases . .

= . ( ) ( )

Optimum Economic Diameter (Peters and Timmerhaus, 2004)

For Turbulent Flow and Di 0.0254 , = . . .
m where:
Di,opt = Optimum Pipe Diameter, m
qf = Volumetric Flowrate, m3/s
= Density, kg/m3
= Viscosity, Pa-s
38 | P a g e
For Turbulent Flow and Di < 0.0254 , = . .

. .

m
For Viscous Flow and Di 0.0254 m , = . .

.
For Viscous Flow and Di < 0.0254 m , = . .

.
For Carbon Steel Pipe = . .

(Sinnott, 2005) where:
dopt = Optimum Diameter, mm
G = Mass Flowrate, kg/s
= Density, kg/m3
For Stainless Steel Pipe = . .

(Sinnott, 2005)
Recommended Velocities of Fluids in Pipelines
Recommended Velocities
For Liquids (Backhurst and Harker, 3 to 5 fps
1973)
For Gases (Backhurst and Harker, 50 to 100 fps
1973)
For Liquids (Perrys ChE Handbook) 5.9 to 7.9 fps
For Gases (Perrys ChE Handbook) 30 to 131 fps
For Liquids (Baasel, 1974) 5 to 10 fps
Water or Fluid Similar to Water 3 to 10 fps
Low Pressure Steam (25 psig) 50 to 100 fps
High Pressure Steam (100 psig and 100 to 200 fps
up)
Air at Ordinary Pressure (25 to 50 psig) 50 to 100 fps
Optimum Velocity in Terms of Density
(Towler and Sinnott, 2008)
39 | P a g e
40 | P a g e
B. Pipe Supports
A pipe support or pipe hanger is a designed element that transfers the load
from the pipe to the supporting structures. The load includes the weight of pipe
proper, the content the pipe carries, all the pipe fittings attached to pipe, and
the pipe covering such as insulation. The four main functions of a pipe support are
to anchor, guide, absorb shock, and support a specific load.
The pipe support specified for a given location depends on the desired
amount of movement and the space available for the support. Many support
and support components are available as manufactured items, but in practice,
the simpler components are usually fabricated in the field, especially on industrial
projects. The reason for this is that much of the design for industrial projects is
custom due to the location or load requirements of the particular support. Unless
the project requires dozens of medium steel brackets, they are more likely to be
field fabricated than purchased.
The designs of pipe supports are only limited by the imagination of the
engineer and designer, as literally thousands of different designs have been used
for special purposed. However, the most commonly applied in industry include
the following: rack piping, shoes, trapezes, brackets, rollers, sway braces, rod
hangers, and spring hangers.
Different Types of Pipe Supports
Pipe Support Description

A pipe rack is the main artery of a process unit. It
connects all equipment with lines that cannot run
through adjacent areas. Because it is located in the
middle of most plants, the pipe must be erected first
before it becomes obstructed by rows of equipment.
Pipe racks carry process, utility piping, and also
include instrument and electrical cable trays as well as
Pipe Rack equipment mounted over all of these.
41 | P a g e
Pipe shoes are used to support oversized and heavy

weight piping. It is a rigid support that restricts
movement in all three orthogonal directions and all
three rotational directions. Generally, they are custom
made with a fast turnaround to suit specific site
requirements taking into account large nominal bores
Pipe Shoes and required working loads.
A trapeze hanger is a support assembly consisting of

parallel vertical rods which are suspended from a
structure and connected at their lower ends by a
horizontal member from which the pipe is supported.
Trapeze Hanger
A pipe bracket is designed primarily to be wall

mounted, allowing the pipes to be suspended from a
vertical surface.
Pipe Bracket
Pipe roller is an ideal tool for easy and safe manual

longitudinal movement of pipes. This is also designed
to support pipe where movement may occur due to
thermal expansion. This is used when ceiling
suspension is impractical.
Pipe Roller
Single rods may be dropped from overhead steel to

support a single pipe. Note that rods will swing if
subjected to horizontal forces. In practice, rods are
limited to applications in which the expected angle
from vertical is less than 4. Above that angle, a sway
brace should be used. If concerned with the vertical
Pipe Rod Hanger movement, a spring hanger should be considered.
42 | P a g e
C. Valves Selection
The control of flow in lines and provision for isolation of equipment when
needed are accomplished with valves. The types of valves are divided into two
broad classes according to their primary function:
C.1 Types of Valves
1. Shutoff valves (Block valves/ Isolation valves)
The purpose of shut-off valves are to close on/off the flow through a pipe.
The valve is only either fully open or fully closed. A valve selected for shutoff
purposes should give a positive seal in the closed position and minimum resistance
to flow when open. Gate, plug, and ball valves are most frequently used for this
purpose.
Gate Valve
The majority of valves in the plant are of this type. In gate valves the flow is
straight through and is regulated by raising or lowering the gate.
When the valve is fully open, the disk of a gate

valve is completely removed from the flow stream. This
characteristic offers virtually no resistance to flow,
hence there is little pressure drop across an open gate
valve. When the valve is fully closed, a disk-to-seal ring
contact surface exists for 360, and good sealing is
provided. With the proper mating of a disk to the seal
ring, very little or no leakage occurs across the disk.
Several turns of the valve handle are usually

required to close the valve, so they are best used when
operated infrequently. Gate valves are not used to
regulate or throttle flow because when it is open
partially, the disk tends to vibrate from the fluid flow
which causes disk and seat to wear. When the disk becomes deform, the valve
will not seal properly and will lead to leakage when in closed position.
43 | P a g e
Plug Valve
A plug valve is a rotational motion valve use to stop/start fluid flow. Its
advantage over gate valves is that they only require a quarter turn to open or
close. These valves are often actuated by solenoids and are used where quick
on-off switching is needed.
There are two substantially different rotary valve design categories for plug
valves. The first (figure a) consists of a cylindrical or slightly conical plug with a port
through it. The plug rotates to vary the flow much as a ball valve does. In the open
position, the passage in the plug lines up with the inlet and outlet ports of the valve
body. When the plug is turned 90 from the open position, the solid part of the
plug blocks the ports and stops fluid flow. The other rotary plug design is portrayed
in figure b. The seating surface is substantially offset from the shaft, producing a
ball-valve like motion with the additional cam action of the plug into the seat
when closing. In reverse flow, high-velocity fluid motion is directed inward,
impinging on itself and only contacting the plug and seat ring.
Ball Valve
Ball valves are best used for fast-acting stop/start applications. They are
considered quick-acting because they only require a 90 turn from the full-closed
to full-open which minimizes operation time and decreases the possibility of
leakage due to wear.
44 | P a g e
There are generally two types of ball valve. A full port (full bore) ball valve
has an over-sized ball so that the hole in the ball is the same size as the pipeline
resulting in lower friction loss. Flow is unrestricted but the valve is larger and more
expensive. The advantage to this design is they minimize the pressure drop across
the valve and keep the flow from being restricted as it flows.
In reduced port (reduced bore) ball valves, flow through the valve is one
pipe size smaller than the valve's pipe size resulting in flow area being smaller than
pipe. The media flow through the valve is limited to 75%. Reduced port valves
have higher pressure drops.
2. Control Valves
Control valves are used to regulate flow through a pipe. The valve is
partially closed and either actively regulated or manually set so the flow through
the pipe is maintained at a certain rate. Valves for controlling should be capable
of giving smooth control over the full range of flow (from fully open to closed).
Globe, diaphragm, and butterfly valves are used for this purpose.
Globe Valve
Globe valves are normally used for throttling, though butterfly and
diaphragm valves are also used. Globe valves are named for their spherical body
shape with the two halves of the body being separated by an internal baffle. This
has an opening that forms a seat onto which a movable plug can be screwed in
to close the valve. Since the flow changes direction, it results in high head loss
even in a wide open position.
45 | P a g e
Globe valves are used for liquids mostly water system, but it is not suitable
for handling both slurry and high purity liquids because it has inherent cavities that
easily promote contamination and allow slurry material to become entrapped,
disabling the valve operation. However, globe valve is essential when tight shut
off are needed, especially of gas flow.
One alternative form of globe valve is the cross-flow globe valves, where
the seat and stem are at a 45 angel with the media flow, for a straighter flow
path at full opening. This design reduces the high pressure drop inherent in globe
valves.
Another alternative form is angle valve. It is designed so that the inlet and
outlet are perpendicular to transfer flow from vertical to horizontal. Angle valves
can eliminate the need for an elbow but are especially useful when direct
impingement of the process fluid on the body wall is to be avoided. Sometimes it
is not practical to package a long trim within a globe body, so an angle body is
used. Some angle bodies are self-draining, which is an important feature for
dangerous fluids.
Diaphragm Valves
A diaphragm valve is a manual or control type block valve which uses

a diaphragm as the closing device. Because the material of the membrane
can chemically degrade, diaphragm valves are used under the conditions of
low pressure and a limited temperature operating range. Diaphragm valves
should be used for processes where the absence of dead space inside the
valve is essential.
The types of diaphragm valve include weir configuration and straight-

through configuration.
(a) weir configuration (b) straight-through configuration
46 | P a g e
The weir type valve provides tight shut-off with comparatively low
operating force. The weir valve also produces only a short diaphragm movement
which, in the long run will have an effect on the length of the diaphragm's life. By
doing this it reduces the need for maintenance. Also, the weir valve is better at
throttling flow than the straight through configuration. However, a disadvantage
of the weir configuration is that at very low flow rates, the flow control is poor.
The straight-through configuration, on the other hand, is better than the weir
configuration at handling viscous fluids, thick slurries, and fluids containing solids.
However, one serious flaw in the straight-through type valve is it's has long
diaphragm movements. These longer movements decrease the diaphragm's life
and increase the need for maintenance. Furthermore, since a more flexible
diaphragm is needed, the diaphragm material choice is limited to elastomers.
Butterfly Valve
A butterfly valve is from a family of

valves called quarter-turn valves. The
"butterfly" is a metal disc mounted on a rod.
Butterfly valve can be used for both for
shutting or throttling flow through pipe.
When the valve is closed, the disc is turned
so that it completely blocks off the
passageway. When the valve is fully open, it
allows an almost unrestricted passage of the
fluid. Unlike a ball valve, the disc is always
present within the flow; therefore a pressure
drop is always induced in the flow,
regardless of valve position. Butterfly valves
are often used for the control of gas and vapour flows. Its chief advantage is high
capacity in a small package and a very low initial cost. Much of the size and cost
advantage is due to the wafer body design, which is clamped between two
pipeline flanges.
47 | P a g e
3. Other Process Valves
Check Valve
Check valve is a type of non-return valve. The purpose of a check valve is

to allow relatively unimpeded flow in the desired direction but to prevent flow in
the reverse direction. Two common designs are swing-type and lift-type check
valves, the names of which denote the motion of the closure member. In the
forward direction, flow forces overcome the weight of the member or a spring to
open the flow passage. With reverse pressure conditions, flow forces drive the
closure member into the valve seat, thus providing shutoff.
Pressure Relief Valve
The pressure relief valve is an automatic pressure-relieving device designed

to open when normal conditions are exceeded and to close again when normal
conditions are restored.
Diverting Valve
Diverting valves are used to split a flow between two branch lines, or to fully
divert the flow to one branch or the other. Three-way plug or ball valves are used
in small diameter piping, about DN 100 (4-inch) and smaller. For larger pipe sizes,
its usually more economical to use two open/closed valves, one on each
branch.
48 | P a g e
C.2. Sizing of Control Valves
Calculation of Flow Coefficient
Valve manufacturers specify the pressure drop with a flow coefficient that
is specific to a particular valve. For incompressible fluid, valve flow coefficient is
given by
where Cv = valve flow coefficient

Q = volumetric flow
1 = fluid density at flow conditions
0 = density of water at 15 C, i.e., 1/0 = fluid specific gravity
N = a constant, depending on the units used
If Q = gpm, then N = 1; so the valve coefficient can be interpreted

as the flow rate of water in gpm that will flow through the valve with
1 psi pressure drop at 15 C (59 F).
If Q= m3/h, then N = 0.865; so the valve coefficient can be

interpreted as the flow of water at 200C in m3/h with a pressure drop
of 1 bar
P = pressure drop = P1 P2, where

P1 = measured two nominal pipe diameters upstream of the valve
P2 = measured six nominal pipe diameters downstream of the valve
C.3. Rule of Thumb for Valve Selection
Control valves should always be sized for a flow rate larger than the normal
flow condition. Select a valve that operates between 10% and 80% open
at anticipated flow rates. A simple method is to calculate Cv based on the
normal flow rate and then select a valve that has twice this value of Cv, so
that in normal operation the valve will be roughly 50% open.
Choose a valve that is no smaller than half the pipe size.
49 | P a g e
The valve should be sized for a maximum flow rate 30% above the normal
stream flow-rate.
The ratio between the maximum and minimum controllable flow rates is
known as the rangeability of the valve. A typical globe-type control valve
has a rangeability 50:1
Example:
The feed media to a fermentation reactor consists of glucose solution in water

with added nutrients and has specific gravity 1.03 at 40 C. Determine the size of
control valve to use for a normal design flow rate of 0.2 m 3/h if the valve is sized
with a pressure drop of 1.25 bar.
Solution:
For metric units, N = 0.865, so for normal flow conditions:
0.2 1.03
Cv = 0.865 1.25 = 0.210 (m3/h with a pressure drop of 1 bar)
Select a valve that has Cv 0.420 so that valve normally operates about
50% open
D. Pumps Selection
D.1. Types of Pump
Pumps can be classified into two general types: (1) Kinetic pumps such as
centrifugal pumps, and (2) positive displacement pumps such as reciprocating
and diaphragm pumps. Approximately 70% of pump sales are kinetic with the
remainder being positive displacement.
Centrifugal Pump
The centrifugal pump is the type most

widely used in the chemical industry for
transferring liquids of all typesraw materials,
materials in manufacture, and finished products
as well as for general services of water supply,
boiler feed, condenser circulation, condensate
return, etc. The primary advantages of a centrifugal pump are simplicity, low first
50 | P a g e
cost, uniform (nonpulsating) flow, small floor space, low maintenance expense,
quiet operation, and adaptability for use with a motor or a turbine drive.
Positive Displacement Pumps
(a) Diaphragm pump (b) Screw Pump
(c) Screw Pump (d) Peristaltic Pump

Diaphragm pumps produce pulsating flow. They are applied for small flow
rates, less than 100 gpm or so, often for metering service. Their utility in such
applications overbalances the drawback of their intrinsic low efficiencies, of the
order of 20%. It handles a wide range of liquids, including liquids containing solids.
Pump is sealless, and can run dry without damaging the pump. Screw pumps are
suited for example to high viscosity polymers and dirty liquids at capacities up to
2000 gpm and pressures of 200 atm at speeds up to 3000 rpm. Also handles two-
phase liquid/gas mixtures. Gear pumps are best suited to handling clear liquids at
51 | P a g e
a maximum of about 1000 gpm at 150 atm. Peristaltic pumps move the liquid by
squeezing a tube behind it with a rotor. Primarily they are used as metering pumps
at low capacities and pressures in corrosive and sanitary services when resistant
flexible tubes such as those of teflon can be used, and in laboratories. Handles
wide range of liquids, including liquids containing solids, and corrosive liquids. This
pump type requires no seal, and keeps the liquid inside the tube, so zero leakage
D.2. Pump Selection
When selecting pumps for any service, it is necessary to know the liquid to
be handled, the total dynamic head, the suction and discharge heads, and, in
most cases, the temperature, viscosity, vapor pressure, and specific gravity of the
flowing fluid. The selection of the pump cannot be separated from the design of
the complete piping system. The total head required will be the sum of the
dynamic head due to friction losses in the piping, fittings, valves and process
equipment, and any static head due to differences in elevation.
In the chemical industry, the task of pump selection is frequently further

complicated by the presence of solids in the liquid and liquid corrosion
characteristics requiring special materials of construction. Solids may accelerate
erosion and corrosion, have a tendency to agglomerate, or require delicate
handling to prevent undesirable degradation.
Because of the wide variety of pump types and the number of factors
which determine the selection of any one type for a specific installation, the
designer must first eliminate all but those types of reasonable possibility. Since
range of operation is always an important consideration, the succeeding figure
should be of assistance. The boundaries shown for each pump type are at best
approximate. In most cases, following the presented figure, will select the pump
that is best suited for a given application.
52 | P a g e
Pump coverage chart based on normal ranges of operation of commercially

available types (Perrys, 8th, p.1064)
Dynamic Head (Pressure Drop in Straight Pipes)
The pressure drop in a pipe, due to friction, is a function of the fluid flow-
rate, fluid density and viscosity, pipe diameter, pipe surface roughness and the
length of the pipe. It can be calculated using the following equation:
u2
Pf = 8f (L/di) (Sinnot, 4th ed, p. 201)
2
where,
Pf = pressure drop, N/m2
f = friction factor
L = pipe length, m
di = pipe inside diameter, m,
= fluid density, kg/m3
= fluid velocity, m/s
53 | P a g e
The friction factor is a dependent on the Reynolds number and pipe

roughness. The friction factor can be found from the figure below.
Pipe Friction vs. Reynolds number and relative roughness

(Sinnot, 4th ed, p.203)
The Reynolds number is given by Re = (udi)/. Values for the absolute

surface roughness of commonly used pipes are given by,
Pipe Roughness
(Sinnot, 4th ed, p.203)
Material Pipe Roughness (mm)

Drawn Tubing 0.0015
Commercial Steel Pipe 0.046
Cast Iron Pipe 0.26
Concrete Pipe 0.3 3.0
Galvanized Iron 0.152*
Asphalted Cast Iron 0.122*
Wood Stove 0.183 0.914*
Riveted Steel 0.914 9.14*
*Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th edition, p.792
54 | P a g e
The parameter to use with the previously presented figure is the relative
roughness, given by:
relative roughness, e = absolute roughness/pipe inside diameter
The relative roughness of the pipe is the pipe roughness divided by the
internal pipe diameter. The pipe roughness depends on the pipe material. Pipes
manufactured from materials with courser surface finishes will have higher friction
factors and will therefore have higher pressure drops. As the pipe diameter
increases, the pipe surface will become less important. It should be noted that
the relative pipe roughness is dimensionless it is important to ensure that pipe
roughness and the internal diameter are in the same units.
Note: Other workers use different relationships. Their charts for friction factor will
give values that are multiples of those given by Figure 2. So, it is important to make
sure that the pressure drop equation used matches the friction factor chart.
Moreover, when calculating the Reynolds number for use with Figure 1, the
fluid viscosity and density are taken to be constant. This will be true for Newtonian
liquids but not for non Newtonian liquids, where the apparent viscosity will be a
function of the shear stress.
Static Head
The static head losses in hydraulics calculation include the pressure

drop of suction and discharge equipment and pressure drop due to
elevation.
Miscellaneous Pressure Losses
There will also be a pressure drop due to the valves used to isolate
equipment and control the fluid flow. The pressure drop due to these
miscellaneous losses can be estimated using either of two methods:
1. Number of Velocity Heads, K
A velocity head is u2/2g, meters of the fluid, equivalent to (u2/2),

N/m2. The total number of velocity heads lost due to all the fittings and
valves is added to the pressure drop due to pipe friction.
2. Equivalent Length
55 | P a g e
The length of pipe that would cause the same pressure loss as the
fitting or valve. As this will be a function of the pipe diameter, it is expressed
as the number of equivalent pipe diameters. The length of pipe to add to
the actual pipe length is found by multiplying the total number of
equivalent pipe diameters by the diameter of the pipe being used. The
number of velocity heads lost, or equivalent pipe diameter, is a
characteristic of the particular fitting or type of valve used.
Pressure Loss in Pipe Fittings and Valves (Turbulent flow)

(Sinnoth, 2nd ed, p.1218)
K, Number of Velocity Number of Equivalent
Fitting or Valve
Heads Pipe Diameters
45 standard elbow 0.35 15
45 long radius elbow 0.2 10
90 standard radius elbow 0.6-0.8 30-40
90 standard long elbow 0.45 23
90 square elbow 1.5 75
Tee-entry from leg 1.2 60
Tee-entry into leg 1.8 90
Union and coupling 0.04 2
Sharp reduction (tank outlet) 0.5 25
Sudden expansion (tank inlet) 1.0 50
Gate valve fully open 0.15 7.5
Gate valve open 16 800
Globe valve, bevel seat fully
6 300
open
Globe valve, bevel seat
8.5 450
open
Plug valve 0.4 18
Example
56 | P a g e
A pipeline connecting two tanks contains four standard elbows, a plug

valve that is fully open and a gate valve that is half open. The line is commercial
steel pipe, 25 mm internal diameter, length 120 m. The properties of the fluid are:
viscosity 0.99 mNs/m2, density 998 kg/m3. Calculate the total pressure drop due to
friction when the flow rate is 3500 kg/h.
Solution:

Cross-sectional area of the pipe = (0.025)2 = 0.491103 m2
4
3500/ 1 1
fluid velocity, u = = x x = 1.98m/s
3600/ 0.491103 2 998 /3
ud (998kg/3 )(1.98m/s)(0.025m)
Reynolds number = = = 49, 900 = 5 x 104
0.99103 /2
Absolute roughness of commercial steel pipe, 0.046mm
Relative roughness 0.046mm/25mm = 0.0018, round to 0.002
From friction factor chart, f = 0.0032
Computing for miscellaneous losses,
Fitting/Valve Number of Velocity Equivalent Pipe

Heads, K Diameters
Entry 0.5 25
Elbow (0.8 X 4) (40 X 4)
Globe valve, 6.0 300
open
Gate valve, 4.0 200
open
Exit 1.0 50
Total 14.7 735
Using Method 1, Number of Velocity heads
57 | P a g e
u2 1.98
Velocity head = = = 0.20 m
2 2(9.8)
Head loss = 0.20 x 14.7 = 2.94m
as pressure (pressure drop) = 2.94 x 998 x 9.8 = 28,754 N/m 2
Friction loss in straight pipes,

u2 (998)(1.98)2
Pf = 8f (L/di) = 8(0.0032) (120/0.025) = 240,388 N/m2
2 2
Total pressure drop,
PT = 28,754 N/m2 + 240,388 N/m2 = 269, 142 N/m2
PT = 269 kPa
Using Method 2, Equivalent length

Extra length of pipe to allow for miscellaneous losses,s
= 735 x 0.025m = 18.4m
So, total length for P = 120 + 18.4 = 138.4m
(998)(1.98)2
Pf = 8(0.0032) (138.4/0.025) = 277,247 N/m2
2
Pf = 277 kPa
The two methods will not give exactly the same result. The method using
heads is more fundamentally correct approach, but the use of equivalent
diameters is easier to apply and sufficiently accurate for use in design
calculations.
D.3. Pump Power Requirement
To transport a liquid from one vessel to another through a pipeline, energy has to
be supplied to:
1. overcome the friction losses in the pipes (dynamic head loss);
2. overcome the losses in the pipe fittings, valves, instruments etc.
(miscellaneous head loss)
3. overcome the losses in process equipment (e.g. heat exchangers);
4. overcome any difference in elevation from end to end of the pipe (static
head loss);
5. overcome any difference in pressure between the vessels
The total energy required can be calculated from the equation:
58 | P a g e
P P
gz + - -W=0 (Sinnot, 4th edition, p.206)

where,
W = work done, J/kg
z = difference in elevations (z1 - z2), m
P = difference in system pressures (P1 - P2), N/m2
Pf = pressure drop due to friction, including miscellaneous losses,
and equipment losses, N/m2
= D liquid density, kg/m3,
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
If W is negative a pump is required; if it is positive a turbine could be installed

to extract energy from the system.
P P
The head required from the pump = - - z
g g
The power is given by Sinnott, p. 224
Power = Wm/, for a pump
Power = Wm for a turbine
where
m = mass flow-rate, kg/s,
efficiency, = power out/power in.
The efficiency will depend on the type of pump used and the operating
conditions. For preliminary design calculations, the efficiency of centrifugal
pumps can be determined using the succeeding figure.
59 | P a g e
Centrifugal Pump Efficiency (Sinnot, 4th ed)
Example:
A tanker carrying toluene is unloaded, using the ships pumps, to an on-

shore storage tank. The pipeline is 225 mm internal diameter and 900 m long.
Miscellaneous losses due to fittings, valves, etc., amount to 600 equivalent pipe
diameters.
The maximum liquid level in the storage tank is 30 m above the lowest level
in the ships tanks. The ships tanks are nitrogen blanketed and maintained at a
pressure of 1.05 bar. The storage tank has a floating roof, which exerts a pressure
of 1.1 bar on the liquid. The ship must unload 1000 tonne within 5 hours to avoid
demurrage charges. Estimate the power required by the pump. Take the pump
efficiency as 70%. Physical properties of toluene: density 874 kg/m 3, viscosity 0.62
mNs/m2
60 | P a g e
Solution:

Cross-sectional area of the pipe = 4 (0.225)2 = 0.0398m2
1000000 1 1
fluid velocity, u = = 3600 x x = 1.6m/s
5 ( ) 0.0398 874 /3

ud (874kg/3 )(1.6m/s)(0.225m)
Reynolds number = = 2
= 507,484 = 5.1 x 105
0.62103 /
Absolute roughness of commercial steel pipe, 0.046mm

Relative roughness = 0.046mm/225mm = 0.0002
From friction factor chart, f = 0.0019
Extra length of pipe to allow for miscellaneous losses,
= 600 x 0.225m = 135
So, total length for P = 900 + 135 = 1035 m
(874)(1.6)2
Pf = 8(0.0019) (1035/0.225) = 78,221 N/m2
2
Maximum difference in elvation, (z1 z2) = 0 - 30 = -30m

Pressure Difference, (P1 P2) = (10.05 1.1)x105 = -5x103 N/m2
Overall energy balance,

5103 /2 78,221/2
9.8m/s(-30m) + - -W=0
874 /3 874 /3
W = -389.2 J/kg
Power = Wm/ = (389.2 J/kg)(55.56 kg/s)/ 0.7 = 30, 981 W
P 31kW
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
Whenever the pressure in a liquid drops below the vapor pressure

corresponding to its temperature, the liquid will vaporize. When this happens
within an operating pump, the vapor bubbles will be carried along to a point of
higher pressure, where they suddenly collapse. This phenomenon is known as
cavitation.
61 | P a g e
Cavitation in a pump should be avoided, as it is accompanied by metal

removal, vibration, reduced flow, loss in efficiency, and noise. When the absolute
suction pressure is low, cavitation may occur in the pump inlet and damage result
in the pump suction and on the impeller vanes near the inlet edges. To avoid this
phenomenon, it is necessary to maintain a required net positive suction head
(NPSH)req, which is the equivalent total head of liquid at the pump centerline less
the vapor pressure.
Each pump manufacturer publishes curves relating (NPSH)req to capacity

and speed for each pump. When a pump installation is being designed, the
available net positive suction head (NPSH)avail must be greater than the (NPSH)req
for the desired capacity. The (NPSH)avail can be calculated as follows:
NPSHavail = pressure head at the source
+ static suction head
friction head in the suction line
vapor pressure of the liquid
(Couper, 3rd edition, p.125)

NPSHavail = +H (Sinnot, 2nd ed, p.1238)
where
NPSHavail = net positive suction head available at the pump suction, m
P = the pressure above the liquid in the feed vessel, N/m2
H = the height of liquid above the pump suction, m
Pf = the pressure loss in the suction piping, N/m2
Pv = the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pump suction, N/m2
= the density of the liquid at the pump suction temp., kg/m3
g = the acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
62 | P a g e
The following two equations usually provide an adequate design margin

between (NPSH)avail and (NPSH)req:
(NPSH)avail = (NPSH)req + 5 ft (Perrys, 8th ed, p.1065)
(NPSH)avail = 1.35(NPSH)req (Perrys, 8th ed, p.1065)
(NPSH)avail = (NPSH)req + 3 m (<100m3/h) (Sinnot, 4th ed, p229)
(NPSH)avail = (NPSH)req + 6 m (>100m3/h) (Sinnot, 4th ed, p229)
Example:
Liquid chlorine is unloaded from rail tankers into a storage vessel. To provide
the necessary NPSH, the transfer pump is placed in a pit below ground level.
Given the following information, calculate the NPSH available at the inlet to the
pump, at a maximum flow rate of 16,000 kg/h.
The total length of the pipeline from the rail tanker outlet to the pump inlet
is 50 m. The vertical distance from the tank outlet to the pump inlet is 10 m.
Commercial steel piping, 50 mm internal diameter, is used.
Miscellaneous friction losses due to the tanker outlet constriction and the
pipe fittings in the inlet piping are equivalent to 1000 equivalent pipe diameters.
The vapor pressure of chlorine at the maximum temperature reached at the
pump is 685 kN/m2 and its density and viscosity, 1286 kg/m3 and 0.364 Ns/m. The
pressure in the tanker is 7 baratm.
Solution:
Computing for friction losses,
Miscellaneous losses = 1000 50 103 = 50m of pipe
Total length of inlet piping = 50 +50 = 100m
Relative roughness, e/d = 0.046/50 = 0:001

Pipe cross-sectional area = 4 (50 103)2 = 1.96 103 m2
16,000 1 1
Velocity, = 1.96103 1286 = 1:76 m/s
3600
63 | P a g e
1286 x 1.76 x 50x103

Reynolds number = = 3.1 x 105
0.364103
Friction Factor, f = 0.00225
Computing for pressure head,

u2
Pf = 8f (L/di) (Sinnot, 2nd ed, p. 1213)
2
Pf = [8(0.00225) (100/ 0.050)( 1286)( 1.76)2 ]/2 = 71,703 N/m2
Computing for available NPSH,

700,000 71703 685,000
NPSHavail = 1286(9.8) +10 1286(9.8) 1286(9.8) = 5.5m
Typical Performance of Various Kinds of Pump

(Couper, 3rd edition, p.136)
64 | P a g e
B. Pipe Fittings
Pipe runs are normally made up from lengths of pipe, incorporating

standard fittings for joints, bends and tees. Joints are usually welded but small
sizes may be screwed. Flanged joints are used where this is a more convenient
method of assembly, or if the joint will have to be frequently broken for
maintenance. Flanged joints are normally used for the final connection to the
process equipment, valves and ancillary equipment.
Commonly Used Pipe Fittings in the Industry
65 | P a g e
III. Pressure Drop Calculations
Fluids flow through pipes due to a difference in pressures within the piping
system. The pressure forces the fluid from high-pressure regions into low pressure
regions.
The calculations for pressure drops in fluid dynamics problems are derived
from the First Law of Thermodynamics. The resulting equation is known as
Bernoullis Equation.
A. Bernoullis Equation
Arguably the most important equation to the piping engineer is the

Bernoullis Equation. This relationship is valid only for incompressible fluids such as
liquids, and for gases at low Mach numbers (M<0.3). Fortunately, most industrial
piping for compressible gases is designed for velocities less than 0.3 M.
The Mach number is defined as the ratio of the actual speed of a gas to
the speed of sound in that gas.

=

where:
V = speed of the gas
c = speed of sound in the gas
=
where:
k = ratio of specific heats
R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature, K
R may be determined for any gas using the relationship:

=

where:
Ru = universal gas constant = 8314 N-m/kgmole-K
Mm = molecular mass of the gas
66 | P a g e
Properties of Some Common Gases
Bernoullis equation is given by:

+ + + = + + + +

where:
P = pressure, N/m2
= density, kg/m3
v = velocity, m/s
gc = gravitational constant
z = elevation, m
hA = heat added to the process, as by a pump, m
hE = heat extracted from the process, as from a turbine, m
hf = head loss due to friction
In trying to properly size a pump, the bulk of the effort lies in the last term,
determining the head loss due to friction. The equation is usually rewritten so that
similar terms can be subtracted from one another. It should be noted that the
density is constant for an incompressible fluid.

= ( )+( ) + ( ) + +

67 | P a g e
A.1 Pressure Head
The term P/ is referred to as the pressure head. This has the dimensions
of length and is calculated in units of feet or meters. P1 refers to the pressure at
the suction point and P2 refers to the pressure at the discharge point.
A.2 Velocity Head
The term v/2gC is referred to as the velocity head. This is the head due to
kinetic energy. This term is usually very small, and while it would be technically
incorrect to disregard it, for practical piping problems, its contribution is often
negligible. However, velocity head plays a role in calculating friction head losses
through fittings.
A.3 Elevation Head
The z term is the elevation head. This is the head due to potential energy
and accounts for that portion of the head required to move the fluid from one
elevation to another.
A.4 Friction Losses
Friction losses depend on several variables:
1. Flowrate
2. Diameter
3. Type of Pipe (Roughness)
4. Length of Pipe (Major Losses)
5. Number and Sizes of Fittings and Valves (Minor Losses)
6. Entrance and Exit Losses (Minor Losses)
Flowrates is usually based from the material balance of the manufacturing

plant. This is usually expressed as gallons per minute (GPM) or as kilograms per
hour (kg/hr).
The diameter of the pipe is determined based on velocity. The velocity is

usually based on recommended rules-of-thumb that have been used with
success over the years. Some of the recommended velocities are presented in
the succeeding table:
68 | P a g e
Recommended Velocities of Fluids in Pipelines
69 | P a g e
Source: Piping Systems Manual by Brian Silowash, pp. 266 267
70 | P a g e
Roughness of the pipe is a function of the pipe material as well as its age.
Ferrous pipes that have been in service many years may be corroded, scaled, or
tubercular, and the relative roughness will have increased due to these surface
irregularities. However, for low flowrates, it turns out that the roughness does not
matter at all. This occurs only for laminar flow, which is a special case since most
industrial flow problems lie within the turbulent regime.
The number of fittings and other factors such as entrance and exit losses
that contribute to the minor losses may be converted into an Equivalent Length,
which is then added to the length of straight pipe for a total length. This technique
must be performed for each segment that has a different diameter in the system.
A.4.1 Major Losses
There are four methods used to calculate the head loss due to friction:
a. Darcy Weisbach Equation
b. Hazen Williams Formula
c. Fanning Friction Factor
d. Tabular Methods
A.4.1a Darcy Weisbach Equation
The head loss due to friction can be found by the Darcy Weisbach
Equation:

= ( ) ( )

where:
f = The Darcy or Moody Friction Factor (dimensionless)
Le = Equivalent Length of the Pipe (m)
D = ID of the Pipe, or alternately, the Hydraulic Diameter (m)
v = Velocity of the Fluid (m/s)
gc = The Gravitational Constant = 9.81 m/s2
The velocity of the fluid is understood to be the average velocity, and is

best described as the volumetric flow rate divided by the cross-sectional wetted
area of the pipe.
The Equivalent Length term is used so that the friction losses of both the
straight pipe and the fittings may be determined simultaneously.
71 | P a g e
The f term, the Darcy Friction Factor, may be determined by applying one
of the following methods. The most common method is the Moody Diagram.
i. Moody Diagram
ii. Colebrook Equation
iii. Haaland Equation
iv. Swamee-Jain Equation
v. Serghides Solution
Moody Diagram
The Moody Diagram is an extremely useful tool that is used to determine the
friction factor based on pipe roughness and flow conditions. The flow conditions
are described by the Reynolds Number, which is the ratio of inertial forces to
viscous forces. Upon calculating for the Reynolds Number and the relative
roughness, the friction factor, f, can be determined using the Moody Diagram
presented below:
Moody Diagram by L.F. Moody for Determining Friction Factors for Pipe Flow
It should be noted that Moody Diagram is applicable only to turbulent flow
conditions. For laminar flow, the friction factor is given not by the Moody Diagram,
but instead by the simple formula:
72 | P a g e

=

which leads to the Poiseuille Equation:

= ( ) ( )=

Colebrook Equation
The Colebrook Equation is given by:

(. ) + .
= . ( )

This equation must be solved iteratively and that is never viewed as a good
thing by engineers until the advent of recent technology. The difficulty, however,
led to the development of the Moody Diagram. But in addition to the Moody
Diagram, approximations to the Colebrook Equation have been developed.
Haaland Equation
An approximation of the Colebrook Equation was developed in 1983 by S.E.

Haaland. This equation does not require iteration to solve.
.
.
= . [( ) + ]
.
Swamee-Jain Equation
The Swamee-Jain Equation is another approximation of the Colebrook

Equation. It provides accuracy within 1 percent of the Colebrook Equation for
relative roughnesses between 0.000001 and 0.01, and Reynolds Numbers
between 5000 and 108.
.
=

.
[ ( . + . )]

Serghides Solution
An even closer approximation, within 0.003 percent to the Colebrook

Equation, is given by Serghides Solution.
73 | P a g e

( )
= ( )
+
where:

12
= 2 log10 ( + )
3.7

2.51
= 2 log10 ( + )
3.7

2.51
= 2 log10 ( + )
3.7
A.4.1b Hazen-Williams Formula
The Hazen-Williams Formula for calculating head loss due to friction applies
to the following conditions:
i. Fluids with Kinematic Viscosity approximately 1.2 x 10-5 ft2/s. This

matches the viscosity of water at 60F (15.6C).
ii. Turbulent flow conditions
iii. Moderate temperatures
The Hazen-Williams Equation for head loss is:

.
= . .

where:
Cf = Unit Conversion Factor (4.72 for Imperial Units; 10.67 for SI Units)
L = Equivalent Length of Pipe (m)
Q = Flow Rate (m3/s)
C = Hazen-Williams C-Factor
D = Inside Diameter (m)
C-factors represent the carrying capacity of the pipe with high C-factors
indicating smoother pipe. The succeeding table presents the C-factors for
different types of pipes:
Absolute Roughness and C-Factors of Common Pipe Materials
74 | P a g e
Source: Piping Systems Manual by Brian Silowash, pp. 276
A.4.1c. Fanning Friction Factor
Occasionally, one will encounter the Fanning Friction Factor, although its
use is far less common than the Moody Friction Factor. The Fanning Equation for
friction uses the Hydraulic Radius, defined as the cross sectional area of flow
divided by the wetted perimeter. The Fanning Head Loss is given by:

= ( ) ( )

where:
ff = Fanning Friction Factor (dimensionless) = 4 (Darcy Friction Factor, f)
Rh = Hydraulic Radius
A.4.1d Tabulated or Graphic Solutions
Tabulated values are available for water, air, and low-pressure natural gas.
Once the equivalent length is determined, the friction loss is read from the tables
and multiplied by the appropriate factor to give the friction loss. Linear
75 | P a g e
interpolation must be used to determine losses at flow rates between tabulated

values. This interpolation may be eliminated through the use of graphs that chart
the relationships between flowrate and head loss. A sample graph for friction loss
of water vs. its flowrate in carbon steel is presented in the figure below:
Friction Loss of Water vs. Flowrate in Carbon Steel
A.4.2. Minor Losses
76 | P a g e
Minor losses are those friction losses attributed to fittings, valves, and
entrance and exit losses. Minor losses may be determined with any of the two
methods:
a. Resistance Coefficient K
b. Equivalent Length Method
All other things being equal, the easiest method between the two is the
equivalent length method. However, equivalent length data are often not
available for the components needed and conversions are necessary.
A.4.2a Resistance Coefficient K
Flow resistance data are available for a number of valves and fittings,
although the user should be aware that significant variation may exist between
data published by different sources. For critical applications, the valve or fitting
manufacturer should be contacted for data specific to the item.
The friction head loss through fittings for which the resistance coefficient K
is known is:

= ( )

with v2/2gc being the velocity head through the fitting. The succeeding table
presents the Resistance Coefficient Data for common valves and fittings:
A.4.2b Equivalent Length Method
Since friction losses distill down to units of feet or meters, conversions have
been developed to describe minor losses simply as an equivalent length of
straight pipe. The lengths for a given diameter are summed.
If tables exist for friction losses, as they do for water and air, the total
equivalent length is multiplied by the factor in the table to yield the friction loss for
that particular diameter. The equivalent length is given by:
Resistance Coefficient K for a Variety of Valves and Fittings
77 | P a g e
78 | P a g e
Source: Piping Systems Manual by Brown Silowash, pp. 282 283
Otherwise, the equivalent length is used in the Darcy-Weisbach Equation

with the friction factor f taken from the Moody Diagram. This is a very convenient
method, as it requires no extra step in the calculation. Data exists for many
common fittings and valves, as shown in the succeeding table:
79 | P a g e
Equivalent Lengths for Various Valves and Fittings
80 | P a g e
Source: Piping Systems Manual by Brown Silowash, pp. 284 285
A.5. Pump Head
Upon calculating for the pressure head, velocity head, elevation head,
heat extracted from the process, and head loss due to friction, pump can now
be computed using the given equation:

= ( )+( ) + ( ) + +

81 | P a g e
A.6 Power Requirements
Once the pump head, also known as the total dynamic head (TDH), is
found, the power required to operate the pump can be determined. The
Theoretical Horsepower, also called the Hydraulic Horsepower, is defined as:
( )( )
=
,
The actual horsepower required will be greater than the hydraulic

horsepower since the pump will be less than 100 percent efficient. In fact, the
Best Efficiency Point or BEP of a centrifugal pump does not often exceed 85
percent. The BEP of a centrifugal pump, expressed as the Brake Horse Power
(BHP), is usually about 80 to 85 percent of the maximum head or shut-off head.
BHP is defined as:
()()()
= =
()()
where:
GPM = Flowrate in GPM
TDH = Total Dynamic Head, ft
SG = Specific Gravity (dimensionless)
= Pump Efficiency (dimensionless). A reasonable estimate for pump
efficiency is 70 percent.
82 | P a g e
Sample Piping Specification Sheet
83 | P a g e
Source: Chemical Engineering Design Volume 6 by R.K. Sinnott, p.226
84 | P a g e
Sample Problems:
1. Pipe is to be specified for a water volumetric flowrate of 200 L/min and

working temperature of 30C. Compute for the typical pipe diameter.
2. Pipe is to be specified for a water flowrate of 1500 L/min at 30C. Estimate

for the minimum diameter required based on maximum fluid velocity.
3. Sulfuric acid with a volumetric flowrate of 50 L/min and temperature of 30C

is supplied through a pipeline. Calculate the pipe minimum diameter
required. (Density = 1.8205 g/cm3)
4. Compute for the minimum pipe diameter requirement for the liquid flowing
at 550 L/min based on the reasonable velocity presented by Backhurst and
Harker (1973).
5. Methanol with a flowrate of 75 L/min is pumped from a storage tank.

Estimate the minimum pipeline diameter (Schedule 40) at the pump suction
connecting the storage tank.
6. Carbon dioxide is flowing at a rate of 150 L/min inside a pipe. The

temperature of the gas is 32C and the pipeline pressure is 150 psi.
Calculate the minimum diameter of the pipe if the CO2 compressibility
factor is 0.82 and the piping cost is 25 $/in/ft.
7. What is the optimum diameter of delivering 7000 kg/hr HCl at P=5 bar, T=288
K. The molar volume of HCl is 22.4 m3/kmol at 1 bar and 273 K. Use 304 steel
pipe and apply turbulent flow condition. (MWHCl = 36.5; Viscosity = 0.013 mN-
s/m2)
8. A pipeline connecting two tanks contains four standard elbows, a plug

valve that is fully open, and a gate valve that is half open. The line is
commercial steel pipe, 25 mm internal diameter, length 120 m. The
properties of the fluid are: viscosity 0.99 mN-s/m2, density 998 kg/m3.
Calculate the total pressure drop due to friction when the flowrate is 3500
kg/h. (Example 5.1 of Chemical Engineering Design, pp. 204 206)
85 | P a g e
9. A tanker carrying toluene is unloaded, using the ships pumps, to an on-

shore storage tank. The pipeline is 225 mm internal diameter and 900 m
long. Miscellaneous losses due to fittings, valves, etc., amount to 600
equivalent pipe diameters. The maximum liquid level in the storage tank is
30 m above the lowest level in the ships tanks. The ships tanks are nitrogen
blanketed and maintained at a pressure of 1.05 bar. The storage tank has
a floating roof which exerts a pressure of 1.1 bar on the liquid. The ship must
unload 1000 tons within 5 hours to avoid demurrage charges. Estimate the
power required by the pump. Take the pump efficiency as 70 percent.
Physical properties of toluene: density 874 kg/m3, viscosity 0.62 mN-s/m2.
(Example 5.2 of Chemical Engineering Design, pp. 207 208).
10. Estimate the optimum pipe diameter for a water flow rate of 10 kg/s at
20C. Carbon steel pipe will be used. Assume that the density of water is
1000 kg/m3. (Example 5.6 of Chemical Engineering Design, p. 222).
11. Estimate the optimum pipe diameter for a flow of HCl of 7000 kg/h at 5 bar,
15C, stainless steel pipe. The molar volume is 22.4 m 3/kmol, at 1 bar and
0C. (Example 5.7 of Chemical Engineering Design, p. 222).
12. Calculate the line size and specify the pump required for the line shown in
the figure below.
Material: Ortho-dichlorobenzene Flowrate: 10,000 kg/h
Temperature: 20C Pipe Material: Carbon Steel
86 | P a g e
13. Air at 100 psig flowing through a 4 in Schedule 40 steel pipe at 100 fps. Is
Bernoullis Equation valid for this flow condition? (Example 11.1 of Piping
Systems Manual, p. 263)
14. A saturated steam at 100 psig is introduced to a pipeline at a flow rate of

8000 lb/hr. Find a suitable carbon steel pipe diameter. (Example 11.2 of
Piping Systems Manual, pp. 270 to 271)
15. Water at 95F, is flowing in a 6-inch diameter Schedule 40 steel pipe at 8 fps
with 1000 ft equivalent length. Find the Moody Friction Factor and compute
for the head loss due to friction. (Example 11.3 of Piping Systems Manual, p.
277)
16. Calculate the Pipe Size, Pump Head, Net Positive Suction Head Available,
and Brake Horsepower for the hydraulic loop presented below:
Working Fluid: Levulinic Acid-Sulfuric Acid Solution

Mass Flowrate: 3.80 kg/s
Density: 989.70 kg/m3
Viscosity: 0.5930 cP
Overdesign Factor: 20%
87 | P a g e
IV. Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
The process flow-sheet shows the arrangement of the major pieces of

equipment and their interconnection. It is a description of the nature of the
process.
The piping and instrument diagram (P&I diagram or PID) shows the
engineering details of the equipment, instruments, piping, valves, and fittings and
their arrangement. It is often called the engineering flowsheet or engineering line
diagram.
A. Components
A P&ID should include the following, with their corresponding identification

number:
1. All process equipment identified by an equipment number. The equipment

should be drawn roughly in proportion, and the location of nozzles shown.
2. All pipes, identified by a line number. The pipe size and material of
construction should be shown. The material may be included as part of the
line identification number.
3. All valves, control and block valves, with an identification number. The type
and size should be shown. The type may be shown by the symbol used for the
valve or included in the code used for the valve number.
4. Ancillary fittings that are part of the piping system, such as inline sight-glasses,
strainers and steam traps; with an identification number.
5. Pumps, identified by a suitable code number.
6. All control loops and instruments, with an identification number.
B. Symbols and Layouts
The symbols used to show the equipment, valves, instruments, and control
loops will depend on the practice of the particular design office. The equipment
symbols are usually more detailed than those used for the process flowsheet.
88 | P a g e
The most widely-used international standard symbols for instruments,

controllers, and valves are those given by the Instrumentation Systems and
Automation Society design code ISA 5.1-1984 (R1992). Some companies use their
own symbols though, and different standards are followed in some countries, such
as BS 1646 in the United Kingdom and DIN 19227 and DIN 2429 in Germany.
Equipment. The following symbols are used to represent some process equipment.
Process Equipment Symbol
89 | P a g e
Pipelines.
Line Symbols
In addition to line symbols, there are also line labels that are short codes that
convey further properties of that line. These short codes consist of: diameter of
pipe, service, material, and insulation. The diameter of the pipe is presented in
inches. The service is what is being carried in the pipe, and is usually the major
component in the stream. The material tells you what that section of pipe is made
out of (e.g. CS for carbon steel; SS for stainless steel). A 'Y' designates a line with
insulation and an 'N' designates one without it.
Example of short codes for main process line:
In the given figure, the pipe is identified by

line number (39); it has a 4" diameter,
carries the chemical denoted 'N', is made
of carbon steel, and has no insulation.
Valves. Symbols for different types of valves are shown:
Valve Symbols
90 | P a g e
Actuators. Most modern control valves (final control elements) are actuated by
electric motors, but older valves are actuated by pneumatic signals using
instrument air. Pneumatic actuators are preferred in situations where electronic
controllers might cause a process hazard or where electric power is not available
or reliable. Pneumatic controllers are also found in many older plants where
replacement with electronic controllers has not yet occurred. Motor actuators are
used for larger valves, while digital and solenoid actuators are used for valves that
switch from open to closed, as often occurs in batch processing.
Actuator Symbols
Failure Mode. The direction of the arrow shows the position of the valve on
failure of the power supply:
Valve Failure Mode
Instrument Line. The instrument connecting lines are drawn in a manner to

distinguish them from the main process lines. Process lines are drawn as solid lines
and are usually drawn thicker.
Instrument Lines
91 | P a g e
Fittings and Connections
Symbols for Line Fittings
Instruments and Controllers Symbols. Locally mounted means that the controller
and display are located out on the plant near the sensing instrument location.
Main panel means that they are located on a panel in the control room. Except
on small plants, most controllers would be mounted in the control room.
92 | P a g e
Type of Instrument. This is indicated on the circle representing the instrument-

controller by a letter code. The first letter indicates the property measured; for
example, F = flow. Subsequent letters indicate the function; for example,
I = indicating
RC = recorder controller
Aside from given in the table below, the letters AH or AL is also used to indicate
high or low alarms.
Letter Code for Instrument Symbols (Based on ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992))
(Sinnot, 2nd edition, p.256)
93 | P a g e
C. Rules in Constructing Preliminary P&ID
The following procedure can be used when drawing up preliminary P and I

diagrams:
1. Identify and draw in those control loops that are obviously needed for
steady plant operation, such as:
(a) level controls,
(b) flow controls,
(c) pressure controls,
(d) temperature controls.
2. Identify the key process variables that need to be controlled to achieve

the specified product quality. Include control loops using direct
measurement of the controlled variable, where possible; if not
practicable, select a suitable dependent variable.
3. Identify and include those additional control loops required for safe
operation, not already covered in steps 1 and 2.
4. Decide and show those ancillary instruments needed for the monitoring
of the plant operation by the operators; and for trouble-shooting and
plant development. It is well worthwhile including additional
connections for instruments which may be needed for future trouble-
shooting and development, even if the instruments are not installed
permanently. This would include: extra thermowells, pressure tappings,
orifice flanges, and extra sample points.
5. Decide on the location of sample points.
Decide on the need for recorders and the location of the readout points,
local or control room. This step would be done in conjunction with steps 1
to 4.
6. Decide on the alarms and interlocks needed; this would be done in

conjunction with step 3.
94 | P a g e
D. Typical Control Loops
Level Control
In any equipment where an interface exists between two phases (e.g. liquid
vapour), some means of maintaining the interface at the required level must be
provided. This may be incorporated in the design of the equipment, as is usually
done for decanters, or by automatic control of the flow from the equipment.
Level Control System
For pumped systems such as shown in Figure 13, the tank level may be controlled
by manipulating either the outlet or inlet flow. Direct control action is used when
the outlet flow is adjusted. Reverse action is required when the inlet flow is
adjusted.
Flow Control
To provide flow control on a compressor or pump running at a fixed speed and

supplying a near constant volume output, use of variable speed motors as shown
95 | P a g e
in Figure 14 (a) is more energy efficient than the traditional arrangement shown
in (b), and is becoming increasingly common.
Flow Control System
Temperature Control
Temperature is usually controlled by varying the flow of the cooling or heating

medium of a heat exchanger.
Pressure Control
Pressure control will be necessary for most systems handling vapor or gas. The
method of control depends on the nature of the process. Typical schemes are
shown in Figures (a), (b), (c), and (d). The scheme shown in (a) would not be used
where the vented gas was toxic or valuable.In these circumstances the vent
should be taken to a vent recovery system, such as a scrubber. The controls shown
in Figure (b), (c), and (d) are commonly used for controlling the pressure of
distillation columns.
96 | P a g e
(a) Pressure control by direct venting; (b) venting of noncondensables after a condenser; (c)
condenser pressure control by controlling coolant flow; (d) pressure control of a condenser by
varying the heat-transfer area, area dependent on liquid level.
97 | P a g e

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

College of Engineering and Technology

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in

Pressure vessel is a closed vessel having an internal pressure between 15

II. Operating Conditions

These may be repetitive, for example, those occurring during starting up

III. Selection of Material

Metallic materials may be divided into three groups:

The most common materials of construction used are:

B. Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

Pure aluminum lacks mechanical strength but has higher resistance to

C. Copper and Copper Alloys

Copper is attacked by mineral acids, except cold, dilute, unaerated

The cupro-nickel alloys (70% Cu) have a good resistance to corrosion-

D. Nickel and Nickel Alloys

Alloying with palladium (0.15%) significantly improves the corrosion

IV. Vessels Operating at Low Temperatures

Construction producing a notch effect or sudden change of section are

V. Vessels Operating at Elevated Temperatures

Embrittlement of carbon and alloy steer, may occur due to service at

VI. Design Criteria

A low-stress brittle fracture of a pressure vessel is possible as a result of the

To guard against this contingency, the presence of a notch acting as a

Holes in the shell or the head can be made by an oxy-acetylene torch

Nozzles may be fabricated from plates by the method of rolling and

The vessel is stress relieved as a whole in an enclosed furnace wherever

VIII. Design Calculation

In general, the minimum wall thickness of welded metal plates subject to

Minimum Wall Thickness at Different Cylindrical Shell Diameters

Vessel inside Minimum wall thickness

In practical designation, the shell is considered thin if the ratio of

A.1. Shell Thickness Working Equations

The needed shell thickness of pressure vessels is a function of the ultimate

1. tp is less than or equal to R/2, and

2. Pressure is less than or equal to 0.385 SE (Jawad and Farr, 1988).

Alternative ASME equation based on outside diameter of a cylindrical shell

ASME Pressure Vessel Code formula excludes corrosion, wind and

tv = tp [ 0.75 + 0.22 E ( L/Di)2/Pd ]

Nomenclature for Table 1

Design Equations and Data for Pressure Vessels based on the

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

Recommended Design Equations for

For cylindrical shells,

For spherical shells,

For ellipsoidal head,

For torispherical (spherically dished) head

0.5 (minor axis) 0 = 0.25Da

r = knuckle radius = 6% of inside

Mulet et al, 1981, as cited by Seider, 2004, presented an alternative

a correction factor is added ,tEC

tEC = L ( 0.18Di - 2.2 ) x 10-5 - 0.19

Thus, the wall thickness of vessels at vacuum incorporating wind and

tv = wall thickness of vessels incorporating wind and earthquake loads

To include corrosion allowance, tc, Seider (2004) recommended 1/8 inch

In a noncorrosive environment, carbon steel and low alloy steel are

Recommended Stress Values (ASME, Peters et. al., 2004)

Recommended Design Pressure and Temperature

Design pressure used in the calculation of wall thickness should always be

Recommended Design Pressures at Different Operating Pressure

Welding is a process whereby parts are permanently united by causing their

Hard facing is a welding process in which an extremely hard, abrasion

computation of wall thickness of pressure vessel will have different joint

Corresponding Efficiencies for Double Butt Joint