6 10.2016, “Two-Dimensional Cascades-Turbine cascades. | hvac machinery
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Two-Dimensional
Cascades:Turbine cascades.
Posted on May 26, 2015 by admin Leave a comment
Turbine cascades
There is a fundamental difference between the flow
in turbine cascades and that in compressor
cascades that needs emphasizing. In turbine blade
rows, the pressure is falling and the flow is
accelerating. This means that
i. the boundary layers are much more stable
and remain attached to the blades;
i, the blades can accept a much higher
loading without the danger of boundary layer
separation;
iii, the flow deflection in a turbine blade row
can be greater than 1200;
iv, the ratio of exit to inlet velocity, 2/c1, can
be between 2 and 4;
v. the diffusion factor on the suction surface,
DF, is typically only about 0.15, so there is no
danger of boundary layer separation except at
very low values of Reynolds number.
Figure 3.21 shows a sketch of the flow through an
axial flow turbine cascade with the corresponding
‘surface velocity distribution. This illustrates many of
the features described previously and it is worth
noting the rapid reduction in flow area through the
cascade, which is what generates the high
acceleration along the streamtube. The high
acceleration and low levels of diffusion throughout
the flow-field lead to turbine cascades having a wide
range of low loss performance. This is in contrast to
compressor cascades, which have a rather narrow
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range. This is also the basic reason why the
pressure drop across turbine blades can be much
higher than the pressure rise across compressor
blades and why there are far fewer turbine stages
than compressor stages in a turbojet engine.
Turbine loss correlations
Anumber of approaches have been made to predict
the total pressure loss coefficients and flow deviation
angles to the geometry of the turbine cascade and
the incoming flow. A detailed account of the different
methods and comparison of results found have been
given by Horlock (1966), Dunham and Came (1970),
Kacker and Okapuu (1981), Craig and Cox (1971),
and others. In the
following account, it seems reasonable to limit the
discussion to just two of the more prominent
methods, namely,
i. the correlation of Ainley and Mathieson
(1951);
ii the correlation of Soderberg (1949)
Before embarking on the details of these
correlations, it seems only fair to mention that so far
as their accuracy goes that Soderberg’s method is
adequate for making rapid estimates of turbine
efficiency (which is dealt with in Chapter 4) and,
according to Horlock (1966), can give efficiencies
within 63%. However, these correlations are now
quite dated and are not expected to be accu- rate for
modern, highly loaded transonic turbine blade rows.
Nowadays, correlations may be used during the
preliminary design of turbines, but detailed cascade
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testing or computational analysis would always be
applied to accurately determine the blade losses.
Correlation of Ainley and Mathieson
Ainley and Mathieson (1951) (A&M) reported a way
of estimating the performance of an axial flow
turbine, which has been widely used. The method
determines the total pressure loss and gas efflux
angle for each row of a turbine stage at a single
reference diameter (the mean of the blade row inner
and outer diameters) and under a wide range of inlet
conditions. Dunham and Came (1970) gathered
together details of several improvements to the
method, which gave better performance prediction
than the original method, particularly for small
turbines. When the blading is competently designed,
the revised method has been found to give reliable
predictions of efficiency to within 62%,
According to A&M's method, the total pressure loss
in a turbine is composed of three parts:
i. a profile loss;
j. a secondary loss;
ii, a tip clearance loss
and all of these are needed to determine the overall
performance ofa turbine stage.
In the following analysis, we are concerned only with
the profile loss, since this is the component relevant
to turbine cascades. The other two components of
turbine loss, which require fairly extensive
descriptions, are considered in Chapter 4
The profile loss coefficient, defined by Eq. (3.6), is
determined initially at zero incidence (i 5 0). At any
other incidence, the profile loss ratio Yp/Yp(i50) is
assumed to be defined by a unique function of the
incidence ratio i/is as shown in Figure 3.22, where is
is the stalling incidence, which is defined as the
incidence where the profile loss ratio Yp=Ypdis0b 5
2:0
Next, A&M correlated the profile losses of turbine
blade rows against space-chord ratio s/l, fluid outlet
angle a2, blade maximum thickness-chord ratio
tmax/l, and blade inlet angle. The variation of Yp(i50)
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against the space-chord ratio sil is shown in Figure
3.23(a) for nozzle blade rows and in Figure
3.23(b)for impulse blading, both at various flow outlet
angles.
For the sort of blading normally employed
{intermediate between nozzle blades and impulse
blades), the zero incidence total pressure loss
coefficient devised by A&M is
Hees) {men +(2) tame rel ass,
All the values of Yp are taken al the same space-
chord ratio and outlet flow angle.
Equation (3.45) includes a correction for the effect of
the thickness-chord ratio and is valid in. the range
0.15 # tmaxil # 0.25. If the actual blade has a tmax/|
greater or less than the limits quoted, A&M
recommended that the loss should be taken as
equal to a blade having tmaxil either 0.25 or 0.15.
A feature of the losses given in Figure 3.23 is that,
compared with the impulse blades, the noz- zle
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blades have a much lower total pressure loss
coefficient, This observation confirms the results
shown in Figure 3.24, that flows in which the mean
pressure is falling always have a lower loss
coefficient than flows in which the mean pressure is
constant or increasing,
Reynolds number correction
A&M obtained their data for a mean Reynolds
number of 2 3 105 based on the mean chord and
exit flow conditions from the turbine state. They
recommended that, for lower Reynolds numbers,
down to 5 3 104, a correction be made to stage
efficiency according to the rough rule
Soderberg's correlation
A relatively simple method of estimating turbine blade
row losses is to assemble the performance data on
the overall efficiencies from a wide variety of turbines
and from this determine the individual blade row
stagnation pressure losses. Such a system was
developed by Soderberg (1949) from a large number
of tests performed on steam turbines and on
cascades and extended to fit data obtained from
small turbines with very low aspect ratio blading
(small height-chord). Soderberg's method was
intended only for turbines conforming to the
standards of “good design,” discussed later.
Horlock (1960) critically reviewed several widely
used methods of obtaining design data for turbines
His paper confirms the claim made for Soderberg’s
correlation that, although based on relatively few
parameters, its accuracy is comparable with the best
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of the other methods available at the time
Soderberg found that with the optimum space-chord
ratio (using Zweifel’s criterion), turbine blade losses
could be correlated with space-chord ratio, blade
aspect ratio, blade thickness-chord ratio, and
Reynolds number.
For turbine blade rows operating at the optimum load
coefficient, with a Reynolds number of 105 and
aspect ratio, H/b 5 blade heighVaxial chord, of 3, the
“nominal loss coefficient, 2" (defined by Eq. (3.7)) is
a simple function of the fluid deflection angle, ¢ 5 a1
1 a2, for a given thickness-chord ratio (tmaxil):
108 +000
where € is in degrees. Values of * are drawn in
Figure 3.25 as a function of deflection angle ¢ for
several ratios of tmax/l.
This expression fits the Soderberg curve (for tmaxil 5
0.2) quite well with ¢ # 1200 but is less accurate at
higher deflections. For turbine rows operating at zero
incidence, which is the basis of Soderberg's
correlation, the fluid deflection is little different from
the blading deflection since, for turbine cascades,
deviations are usually small. If the aspect ratio Hib is
larger or less than 3, a correction to the nominal loss
coeficient Z* is made as follows: for nozzle rows,
Hence cass oon ony
where 1 is the energy loss coefficient at a Reynolds
number of 105
A further correction can be made if the Reynolds
number is different from 105. As used in this section,
the Reynolds number is based upon exit velocity ¢2
and the hydraulic diameter Dh at the throat section,
defined by
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Soderberg’s correlation of the turbine blade loss
coefficient with fluid deflection.
where for a cascade geometry, Dh 5 2sH cos a2i(s
cos a2 1H). (Note: Hydraulic diame- ter § 4 3 flow
area4perimeter.)
The Reynolds number correction is Soderberg’s
method of loss prediction can be used to estimate
turbine efficiencies over a wide range of Reynolds
numbers and aspect ratios when additional
corrections are included to allow for tip leakage and
disk friction. The method has been shown to be
useful by Lewis (1996) and by Sayers (1990).
Mach number effects on loss
Figure 3.26 shows plots of how the various
components of loss coefficient, , vary with exit Mach
number, M2, for a typical high-speed turbine
cascade, taken fromMee et al. (1992). This plot
demonstrates how the loss coefficient of a turbine
blade rises rapidly as M2 approaches and exceeds
unity. This rise in loss is not accounted for in the
previous correlations, which do not include functions
of Mach number. It is partly caused by the shock
waves, but itis also due to mixing and the
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complex trailing edge flow pattem. This pattem
generates a low-pressure region at the trailing edge,
causing a drag force to act on the blade. This region
is investigated in detail within Sieverding, Richard,
and Desse (2003).
The Zweifel criterion
For turbine cascade blades, there is an optimum
space-chord ratio that gives a minimum overall
loss. Figure 3.27 illustrates the way the velocity
distribution varies around the surface of a turbine
blade in a cascade at three values of space-chord
ratio. If the spacing between the blades is made
small, the fluid receives the maximum amount of
guidance from the blades, but the friction losses will
be large. On the other hand, with the same blades
spaced well apart, friction losses are small but,
because of poor fluid guidance, the losses resulting
from flow separation are high. These con-
siderations led Zweifel (1945) to formulate his
criterion for the optimum space-chord ratio of turbine
blades having large deflection angles. Essentially,
Zweife's criterion is simply that the ratio of an
“actual” to an “ideal” tangential blade loading has an
approximately constant value for minimum losses.
The tangential blade loads are obtained from the real
and ideal pressure distributions on both blade
surfaces, as described here.
Figure 3.28 indicates a typical pressure distribution
around one blade in an incompressible turbine
cascade, curves P and S corresponding to the
pressure (or concave) side and suction (convex)
side, respectively. The pressures are projected
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ans6 10.2016 “Two-Dimensional Cascades-Turhine cascades. | vac machinery
parallel to the cascade front so that the area
enclosed between the curves S and P represents
the actual tangential blade load:
To give some idea of blade load capacity, the real
pressure distribution is compared with an ideal
pressure distribution giving a maximum load Yid
without risk of fluid separation on the S sur- face. The
conditions for this ideal load are fulfiled by p01 acting
over the whole P surface and p2 acting over the
whole S surface. With this pressure distribution, the
ideal tangential load is
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This shows that highly turning turbine blades, ie.,
large (tan at 1 tan a2), need to have a low pitch-
axial chord ratio, whereas highly accelerating blades
that have a high exit angle, ie., small cos2 a2, can
be spaced further apart.
According to Horlock (1966), Zweife's criterion
accurately predicts optimum space-chord ratio for
the data of A&M only for outlet angles of 60-700. At
other outlet angles, the criterion gives a less
accurate estimate of optimum space-axial chord
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an6 10.2016 “Two-Dimensional Cascades-Turhine cascades. | vac machinery
ratio, a conclusion supported by Aungier (2003). For
modem blade designs, higher values of Z are
common, particularly in the low- pressure turbines of
jet engines, where there is a need to minimize the
overall turbine weight and thus reduce the number of
aerofoils required. Japikse and Baines (1994)
suggest that the value of Zweifel's coefficient used
may be in excess of 1 in such cases.
For compressible flow turbine cascades, the
assumptions used in deriving Eq. (3.51) are no
longer valid and the compressible value of Z must be
derived from Eqs (3.49) and (3.50), ie.,
as)
The optimum value of Z, as just defined, is found to
decrease as the exit Mach number rises. This
reduction occurs because the ideal dynamic
pressure (p01 2 p2) increases rapidly with Mach
number leading to a larger ideal blade force. For high
Mach numbers, the coefficient can be evaluated
using compressible flow relations as demonstrated in
Example 3.4.
EXAMPLE 3.3
A two-dimensional linear turbine cascade operates in
air with an inlet flow angle of 220 and an inlet Mach
number of 0.3. The exit Mach number is measured
as 0.93 with an exit flow angle of 61.40. Calculate the
ratio of inlet stagnation pressure to exit static
pressure and determine the cascade stagnation
pressure loss coefficient. If, for this operating
condition, the Zweifel loading coefficient required for
the cascade is 0.6, determine the pitch to axial chord
ratio for the blades
Solution
Applying continuity from inlet to exit of the cascade,
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Flow exit angle
For turbine blades, the low amount of diffusion on the
suction surface together with the thin boundary
layers imply that the flow exit angle is much closer to
the metal angle at the trailing edge than for a
compressor cascade blade. (ie., a small deviation
angle). However, accurate prediction of the exit
angle is extremely important because the
downstream flow area, Hs cos a2, varies rather
rapidly with the exit angle a2.
At high Mach numbers, the flow exit angle can be
determined from compressible flow relation- ships.
Figure 3.29 shows the flow through a choked turbine
cascade. When the blade throat is choked the mass
average, Mach number across the throat is unity, in
which case (referring to Eq. (1.39):
where o is the minimum distance at the blade throat,
as shown in Figure 3.29, and p* is the stagnation
pressure at that location. Once the flow is choked,
conditions upstream of the throat are fixed and
independent of the downstream pressure.
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Figure 3.30 indicates how the angle a2 varies from
subsonic to supersonic flow. For sub- sonic flows, the
exit angle varies very litle with Mach number. For
supersonic exit flows, Q(M2) , Q(1) and it follows from
Eq. (3.60) that a2 decreases. This is known as
supersonic deviation. As shown by Figure 3.30,
further deviation is observed in experimental
measurements, This additional deviation relative to
the theory is caused by stagnation pressure losses
downstream of the throat, p02 , p* and the blockage
caused by the growth of boundary layers on the
blade surfaces,
Turbine limit load
Turbines frequently operate with supersonic exit
flows and at such conditions shock waves emanate
from the trailing edge. One branch of the shock wave
propagates downstream, but the other branch
reflects off the suction surface of the adjacent blade.
The configuration of these shock waves is shown in
Figure 3.31 using a Schlieren photograph of the flow
in a transonic turbine cascade at a downstream
Mach number, M2 5 1.15.
The back pressure of a turbine cascade can be
lowered until the axial velocity component of the exit
hipilmackineryequipmertonine.camvac-mactinery/we-dimensiona-cascadesturbine-cascades!
vans6 10.2016,
flow is equal to the sonic speed. This condition is
called the limit load and itis the point where
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