Patrick Sanford

Project 2

ENGW 3315

IEEE citation style 2543 words

Environmental impacts of Bt corn on the Trophic Levels: A Review of the 2015 to 2017
Literature

Abstract

Genetic science has allowed engineers to modify corn crops to produce a natural
pesticide and reduce the need for pesticide spraying. Biodiversity and quantity of organisms at
every level of the food web in the areas where these crops are planted has been assessed from the
microbial to the mammalian level and has been thoroughly researched over the past two years,
this is a review of the current research in this area. Research was primarily done by collecting
soil samples in corn fields and analyzing the levels and types of living creatures. The current
research suggests that modified Bt corn has no adverse impact on any non-target organism at any
level. Biodiversity of bacteria and soil arthropods are maintained and the corn crop has no
negative effects when consumed by larger organisms. The planting of the modified crop does not
alter the balance of the ecosystem when compared to the planting of the unmodified crop. In the
future the research is headed towards an examination of how such Bt corn crops may induce
biological resistance in target organisms and how this may alter the balance of the ecosystem by
putting new stresses on the creatures which prey on them.

Keywords

Arthropod, Bt, Food Web, Trophic Level, Genetically Modified Food, Cry1AB, Biodiversity
Introduction

Extensive use of pesticides can have a detrimental impact on the environment by

indiscriminately killing mass quantities of insects, small mammals, and birds. In order to combat
this negative effect bioengineers have produced a genetically modified strain of corn, called Bt
corn for the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin it carries, which kills pests through a metabolically
disruptive process. Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacteria which produces a chemical that is toxic to
insects. There are many different strains of Bt corn, but they all work in relatively the same way.
The Bacillus thuringiensis toxin is produced in its active form in the corn leaves, stem, and roots.
When pests consume any of these parts of the corn plant they will die. Additionally, some insects
and worms which are normally pests of corn can detect the toxin in the leaves and roots, causing
them to avoid the plant. This reduces and in some cases eliminates the need for pesticide
spraying [1]. In the past decade this modified crop has come under fire from environmental
groups who question its effectiveness and ability to kill only the pests of corn while leaving the
other elements of the ecosystem untouched. In 2016 and 2017 research has been carried out to
determine the effects that Bt corn has on the environment, and to determine whether it has a net
positive impact on the natural world. Most of these studies took months, if not years, to complete
due to the time consuming nature of growing crops.

While multiple strains of Bt corn are extant, much research has been performed on the
Cry1Ab strain as this is the most common strain of genetically engineered corn grown
worldwide. The name refers to the specific gene which gives the corn its toxic attribute with
Cry referring to the specific protein [1]. In general, research has been performed by isolating
populations of corn expressing this gene and then measuring the quantities of specific organisms
living around the corn crop [1, 2, 3]. The primary concern and focus is on whether this corn
reduces biodiversity, and more secondarily, whether it kills organisms which are not pests of
corn. The death of non-target populations is an indicator of weather the corns functionality
causes negative knock on effects by disrupting the food web or symbiotic relationships. These
factors are essential to a properly balanced ecosystem, and most of the research is focused on
whether these Bt corn crops do more harm for that ecosystem than good. The following is a brief
summary of the primary findings (Table 1).
Table 1: Effect of Bt corn on multiple organism communities

Trophic Level Effect of Bt Corn on Community

Bacteria/Microbes [1] No adverse effect observed, biodiversity is
retained but some minor changes in bacterial
population species do occur possible long
term future research required
Arthropods [2, 3] Only target insects (those who are a pest to
corn) are harmed. Biodiversity is mostly
retained, non-target communities and micro-
arthropods are unaffected
Mammals & Birds [4] Bt corn has no observed impact on larger
animals that consume it

Definitions

Active State: For biological proteins, the active state is characterized by the protein conforming
in such a way that it interacts with a host receptor. All proteins have active and inactive states
which are switched between through multiple mechanisms including changes in pH.

Bt: the prefix Bt refers to the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis which produces proteins known as
-endotoxins which are toxic to a wide variety of insect arthropods.

Trophic Level: The hierarchical levels of an ecosystem. For example, plants are the lowest
trophic level because they generate energy from sunlight and every other organisms feeds off of
them. The basic hierarchy goes: plants, bacteria/fungus, nematode worms/decomposers,
arthropods, small herbivores, large herbivores, predators, apex predators.

Bacterial and Microbial Effects

Many studies focus on the deep question of how these Bt corn crops impact the food web
overall. Every ecosystem is based on the lowest level of biological organization, single celled
organisms such as bacteria. In a study by Shu et.al. it was found that the quantity and diversity of
bacteria did not differ between unaltered and Bt corn [1]. Soil samples were collected and
analyzed from two allotments, one containing unmodified corn and one containing the Bt crop,
the soil was then examined to determine the quantity and diversity of bacteria present [1].
Specifically this experiment was focusing on the bacteria living in and on earthworms, as such
worms rely on bacteria to survive and these worms are a foundation of many food webs. Such
bacteria are essential decomposers and additionally are necessary for the survival of many other
organisms through symbiotic relationships.

In general, research on this topic has found that the diversity of bacterial species in the
soil exposed to the Bt toxin have not changed. It has been indicated that the quantity of any given
bacterial species in the soil is different for Bt corn as opposed to traditional corn, however
researches do not show very much concern for this [1]. Most soil bacteria carry out roughly the
same processes and produce roughly the same metabolic byproducts, in this way the specific
species in the soil are not as important as their byproducts and the ecosystem will function
normally so long as a relative amount of species diversity is maintained. No adverse effects have
been noted on the overall functioning of the ecosystem due to any variation in population type of
bacteria.

Arthropod Effects

Non target insect communities and levels of soil micro arthropods are also an indicator of
the overall health of an ecosystem and a good benchmark for the effect of a crop on that
ecosystem [3]. This past year two independent studies were conducted in Brazil and Spain
examining levels of these organisms. The geographic separation of these studies indicate the
widespread concern now growing over this issue. These studies are unique in that they directly
evaluate the claim that Bt crops are better for the environment overall as opposed to pesticide
spraying [2, 3]. Both studies were carried out in the same manner. Industrial corn fields were
found that grew both traditional and Bt corn, the researchers then took soil samples and
thoroughly checked for quantity and diversity of organisms [2, 3]. It is currently accepted that
this is the best method to determine the environmental impacts of any agricultural process,
whether it is spraying pesticide or planting genetically modified crops, as it directly evaluates
and compares levels of organisms which form the foundation of the food web. In both of these
studies it was found that the diversity and quantity of soil organisms were identical between
traditional and Bt corn [2, 3].

The general consensus amongst researchers currently examining this issue is that Bt corn
has no negative effect on biodiversity in this trophic level [2, 3]. The body of research on the
topic is ever expanding and spans the globe in its scale. The base species of the ecosystems in
which this corn is being planted are not adversely affected [2]. Insects that simply nest on or live
around the corn are in no way harmed by the modified crop [3]. In many instances these non-
target insect communities fill the ecological gaps left behind when the target insects die due to
consuming the modified corn [2, 3]. Micro arthropods are almost never a targeted group but are
often a primary food source for those organisms which are targeted by the Bt toxin, and many
live in the soil where the toxin is spread. The finding that this community is unaffected by the
modified corn indicates that the soil is, in general, safe around these plants [2]. The findings on
the insect communities indicate that the secondary trophic level is preserved and thus a radical
shift in an ecosystem due to Bt corn is highly improbable [2, 3].

Large Scale Concerns

The body of research on environmental impact of this crop extends beyond these primary
trophic levels. Concern has been raised in both the scientific and environmental communities that
consuming the modified corn itself may be harmful. DDT is known to be deadly to mice who
might consume corn on which it is sprayed, so much concern has been raised that a similar
phenomenon might be true with Bt corn. A study conducted by Zhong et.al. this year examined
the effects of feeding Bt corn to 96 hens as opposed to a control group of 96 hens who were fed
traditional corn. The hens were then examined for the size, quantity, and quality of the eggs they
produces, as well as any other negative health effects [4]. This type of testing has become a
model in the field as it allows researchers to study not only an animals overall health, but also
its ability to reproduce effectively which means much more for environmental sustainability in
the long run. It was found that after twelve weeks of feeding the two groups of hens showed no
differences with both egg and bodily health being identical [4]. Numerous other studies
conducted on other animals were referenced by Zhong et.al. in their report, and all showed the
same trend of Bt corn being safe for consumption. While the corn itself contains the Bt toxin, it
is not in its active form. Only the toxin found in the roots, stem, and leaves are active and
therefore do not have any effect on animals that consume the corn [4]. It is thought that the toxin
targets specific receptors in the bodies of insects and worms, which are the typical pests of corn,
and so larger animals might be impervious because of their lack of such receptors [4].

All of the current research in the field of environmental impacts of Bt corn indicate that it
does not have a net negative impact on the environment (Table 1) [1, 2, 3, 4]. The corn maintains
existing levels of biodiversity in the ecosystem while drastically reducing the need for pesticide,
despite the changes in bacterial populations living in the soil [1]. Additional research may be
required to determine whether this non-negative trend continues in the long term. It is currently
believed to be safe to consume and does not negatively impact any species other than those
targeted [3, 4].

Outlook

The environmental struggles of Bt corn are far from over and some new studies are just
now coming to light which may provide a new angle to the question of the environmental impact
of this genetically modified crop. It is necessary to consider the issue of resistance, as the
primary targets of the Bt toxin are small arthropods and worms which reproduce at a massive
rate. This speed of reproduction allows natural selection to operate at an accelerated rate and so
the fear is that species will evolve to become resistant to the Bt toxin. In a study conducted by
Shrestha et.al. rootworms were collected from fields where traditional and Bt corn crops were
grown. The worms from the field with the modified corn had the same adult emergence as those
in the traditional corn field, and there was less damage caused to the Bt crop by the worms as
opposed to the traditional corn [5]. A concern raised by Shrestha and the community in general is
that if the worms are deterred from eating the modified corn, but still have the same rate of
emergence, then what are they eating? Clearly they must be eating something else [5]. This is a
serious concern as it represents a disruption in the ordinary structure of the food web at one of
the most basic trophic levels and further research must be done to determine its true impact.

Additionally, it was found that the rootworms were simply deterred from the corn instead
of completely repulsed or poisoned by it. This represents the phenomenon of natural resistance,
which could in time force farmers to once again resort to pesticide. Resistance to the Bt toxin
may also allow the rootworm to outcompete some of its natural rivals more completely, further
throwing off the food web. Much of the future research in this field is likely to move away from
a simple examination of biodiversity and into the more complex realm of genetic expression and
food webs. That is, if research continues at all, because if the pests develop resistance fast
enough Bt corn may become obsolete in less than ten years time [5]. Research is currently
underway to insert different hybrid toxicity genes into corn so that the positive aspects of Bt corn
may be preserved for the future, but such testing is still in its very preliminary stages.

Acknowledgements

Mulan Yang for her thorough and insightful review of the annotated bibliography and her
thoughtful peer review of this paper which was influential in its final layout.
References

[1] Y. Shu et al., "Effects of Cry1Ab Bt maize straw return on bacterial community of
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[2] M. Arias-Martin et al., "Effects of three-year cultivation of Cry1Ab-expressing Bt maize

on soil microarthropod communities," Agriculture, Ecosystems and Enviornment, vol. 220, pp.
125-134, 2016.

[3] D. Chaves Resende et al., "Does Bt Maize cultivation affect the non-target insect
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2016.

[4] Q. Zhong et al., "Effects of feeding transgenic corn with mCry1Ac or maroACC gene to
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1280-1287, 2016.

[5] R.B. Shrestha et al., "Field-Based Assessment of Resistance to Bt Corn by Western Corn
Rootworm," Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 109, no. 3, pp. 1399-1409, 2016.

[6] A.K. Singh et al., "Current trends in Bt crops and their fate on associated microbial
community dynamics: a review," Cell Biology in Agrivultural and Food Science, no. Special
Issue, pp. 663-681, 2016.