HMM1414

CHAPTER 5

TISSUE ORGANIZATION

5.1 ORGANIZATION OF THE ANIMAL

BODY

5.1.1 General Body Architecture

• Animal body plan – “tube within a tube”

○ Digestive tract – tube running from mouth

to anus.
○ Tube suspended in coelom – internal

body cavity.
○ Coelom divided into two cavities by

diaphragm:
 Thoracic cavity – heart and
lungs.
 Abdominal cavity – stomach,
intestine, and liver.

• Body supported by endoskeleton -

jointed bones that grow as body grows:
○ Skull – surrounds brain

○ Vertebrae, column consisting of separate

bones – surrounds spinal cord.

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• 4 levels of organization in
vertebrate body:

Cells → tissues → organs → organ

systems

5.1.2 Tissues Structure And Function

• Most animals composed of

specialized cells organized into tissues
with different functions
• Tissues make up organs, which
make up organ systems
• Tissues = a group of cells similar
in structure and function.
• 3 fundamental embryonic tissues,
the germ layers:
○ Endoderm – innermost

○ Mesoderm – middle

○ Ectoderm – outermost

Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Primitive gut

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• Germ layers differentiate into different

types of cells.
• Cells organized into primary tissues.
• Different tissues have different structures,
suited to their functions
• 4 main tissue categories:
1. Epithelial tissues
2. Connective tissues
3. Muscle tissues
4. Nerve tissues

5.1.3 Organ and Organ System

• In all but the simplest animals, tissues are

organized into organs
• Tissues are arranged in layers in some
organs.
• Organs = body structures composed of
several different tissues that form a
structural and functional unit.
• Example:
(i) Heart
Muscle
Connective Epithelial Nervous
(cardiac)
tissues tissues tissues
tissues

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(ii) Stomach (Figure 40.6, Campbell, page 827)

• Organ systems = a group of organs that
function together to carry out major
activities of bodies.
• Example: Digestive system

Digestive
Liver Gallbladder Pancreas
tract

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• Organ systems (Table 40.1, Campbell, page 827)

5.2 EPITHELIAL TISSUES

5.2.1 Covering Epithelium

• Occur in sheets of tightly packed cells.

• Covers outside of body and lines organs
and cavities within body.
○ Cells closely joined.

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○ In many epithelia, cells riveted together

by tight junctions.
○ Functions - barrier → protects against
mechanical injury, invasive
microorganisms, and fluid loss.

• Cells at base of epithelial layer attached to

basement membrane, a dense mat of
extracellular matrix.
○ Free surface of epithelium exposed to air

or fluid.
• Epithelia classified by
(i) Number of cell layers
○ Simple epithelium - single layer of

cells.
○ Stratified epithelium - multiple

tiers of cells.
○ “Pseudostratified” epithelium -

single-layered but appears stratified

because cells vary in length.
(ii) Shape of cells on free/exposed surface.
○ Cuboidal (like dice)

○ Columnar (like bricks on end)

○ Squamous (flat like floor tiles).

(Figure 40.5, Campbell, page 826)

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Characteristics:

1. Epithelium (epithelial membrane)

covers internal and external surfaces of
vertebrate body.
• Derived from all three germ layers:
○ Ectoderm → epidermis – outer portion

of skin
○ Endoderm → inner surface of digestive

tract
○ Mesoderm → inner lining of blood

vessels = endothelium.
• True epithelium arises from ectoderm
or endoderm
• Epitheliums arising from mesoderm
are not true epithelium.

2. Provides barrier that prevents passage of

some substances while facilitating
passage of others.
Example:
• Epidermis
○ Protects from dehydration → relatively

impermeable to water.
○ Protects from airborne pathogens.

• Epithelium of digestive tract.

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○ Allows selective entry of digestive

products.
○ Barrier to toxins.
• Lungs
○ Allows rapid gaseous diffusion.

3. May be modified into glands → secretion.

4. Cells tightly bound – very little

intercellular spaces.
• Lower layers of cell rest on
basement membrane – compose of
network of collagenous fibers.
• Have free surface on other side.
• Blood vessels cannot pass through
adjacent cells.
• Depends on diffusion of nutrient and
O2 from blood vessels in nearby tissues.
• This limits thickness of epithelium –
one or a few layers thick.

Cells can regenerate.

• Cells constantly replaced.
• Example:
○ Liver – gland formed from epithelium
○ Can regenerate after portions of it are
surgically removed.
○ Epidermis – renewed every two weeks
○ Epithelium inside stomach – replaced
every two to three days.

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Epithelium

(Same width & height)

(Taller than wide)

Squamous

Simple Stratified

Columnar
Cuboidal
(Flat)

(1 cell thick) (> 1 cell thick)

Squamous

Columnar
Cuboidal

Shape of Number of layers of cells

cells SIMPLE STRATIFIED
SQUAMOUS Simple squamous Stratified squamous
CUBAIDAL Simple cuboidal Stratified cuboidal
COLUMNAR Simple columnar Stratified cuboidal
Pseudostratified Transitional

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1. Simple epithelium

a) Squamous epithelium

• Cells thin and flattened.

• Little cytoplasm – encloses centrally
placed disc-shaped nucleus.
• Margins tessellated (irregular).
• Adjacent cells often bound firmly
together by protoplasmic connections.
• Location and function:
° Bowman’s capsules, alveolar lining of lungs,
and blood capillary walls – enables diffusion
of materials through it.
° Blood vessels and heart chambers – provides
smooth lining that allows relatively friction-
free passage of fluid through them.

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b) Cuboidal epithelium

• Least specialized epithelia.

• Cube shaped.
• Pentagonal/hexagonal from surface view.
• Central spherical nucleus.
• Location: Pancreatic duct, collecting duct
of kidney, and salivary duct, salivary, mucus,
sweat, and thyroid glands
• Function: secretion and absorption

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Cuboidal cell

Central spherical
nucleus
Basement
membrane

c) Columnar Epithelium

• Cells tall and quite narrow.

• Have more cytoplasm.
• Nucleus at basal end.
• Mucus-secreting goblet cells are
interspersed amongst the cells.
• (Mucous membrane or mucosa = a
layer of moist epithelium containing goblet
cells, together with the underlying
connective tissue.)
• Epithelium may be secretory and/or
absorptive in function.
• Free surface end of cell usually has
microvilli – increases surface area for
absorption and secretion.
• Location and function:
° Stomach lining – mucus secreted by
goblet cells protects stomach lining from

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acidic contents of stomach and from

digestion by enzymes.
° Intestine lining – protects from
digestion by enzymes, lubricates passage of
food, and absorption of digested food (small
intestine).
° Kidney ducts – protection.

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d) Ciliated epithelium

• Columnar, but with cilia at free surface.

• Mucus-secreting goblet cells produce
fluids.
• Movement of cilia produces current in
fluid.
• Location and function: Oviducts,
ventricles of brains, spinal canal, and
respiratory passages – moves materials from
one location to another by ciliary action.

e) Pseudostratified epithelium

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• Cells appear to be at different layers

because not all cells reach free surface.
• All cells attached to basement

membrane.
• Location:

° Linings of urinary tract, trachea, epididymis –

pseudostratified columnar.
° Linings of respiratory passages –
pseudostratified columnar ciliated.
° Olfactory mucosa
• Function: Secretion and movement by
ciliary action

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2. Stratified Epithelium

• Several layer of cells.

• Forms tough impervious layer.
• Cells formed by mitotic division of
germinal layer on basement membrane.
• First-formed cells cuboid in shape.
• As cells are pushed towards free surface,
they become flattened and are called
squames.
• Squames eventually flake off and
replaced by new ones from beneath.
• Types (depending on shape of uppermost
layer cells):
° Stratified squamous – outer layer
of skin, parts of esophagus, lining of mouth –
protection

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° Stratified cuboidal – sweat gland

ducts – protection

° Stratified columnar – mammary

gland ducts – protection and secretion.

° Stratified transitional – lining of

urinary bladder – permits distention

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Transitional epithelium

• Modified stratified epithelium.

• 3 – 4 layers of cells of similar size except

free surface cells, which are more

flattened.
• Free surface cells do not flake off.

• Cells able to change shape under

differing condition.
• Example: urinary bladder and ureter.

° Cells change shape when wall of bladder

is stretched as it fills up with urine.
° Thickness of tissues prevents urine
escaping in surrounding tissues.

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5.2.2 Glandular Epithelium

• Absorb or secrete chemical solutions.

• Glandular epithelia lining lumen of

digestive and respiratory tracts form a

mucous membrane - secretes a slimy
solution called mucus → lubricates surface
and keeps it moist.

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Exocrine gland

• Epithelial connection between gland &

surface epithelium remains as a tube
(duct).
• Deepest cells become secretory cells →

discharge secretions into duct.

• Secretory cells may form spherical sack

or tube, which may show various degree of

branching (to increase area of secretory
surface).
• Example: sweat, oil, wax, mammary and

digestive glands, pancreas – produces

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mucus, oil, wax, milk, or digestive

enzymes.

Endocrine gland

• Epithelial connection disappears.

• Secretory cells forms close association

with blood capillaries.

• Secretion (hormones) passes into

bloodstream.
• Example: pituitary and thyroid glands,

pancreas, ovary, and testes – produces

hormones.

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5.3 CONNECTIVE TISSUES

• Function - bind and support other tissues.

• Structure:

° Have a sparse population of cells

scattered through an extracellular
matrix.
° Matrix consists of a web of fibers
embedded in a uniform foundation that
may be liquid, jellylike, or solid.
° Matrix usually secreted by connective
tissue cells.

Functions:

1. Provides supportive framework for body,

for example, skeletal, bone, and cartilage
tissue.
2. Binds other tissues together, example
binds skin with underlying tissues. (Thus,
tissue is strong.)
3. Forms sheath around organs of body,
separating them so that they do not interfere
with each other’s activities.
4. Embedding and protecting blood vessels
and nerves where they enter or leave organs.
5. Protection against wounding or bacterial
infection – areolar tissue.

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6. Insulation of body against heat loss –

adipose tissue.
7. Producing blood

• Three kinds of connective tissue

fibers: collagenous, elastic, and reticular
fibers all are protein.

(i) Collagenous fibers

° Made of collagen (most abundant
protein in animal kingdom).
° Non-elastic, do not tear easily when
pulled lengthwise.

(ii) Elastic fibers

° Long threads of elastin.
° Provides a rubbery quality -
complements non-elastic strength of
collagenous fibers.

(iii) Reticular fibers

° Very thin and branched.
° Composed of collagen and continuous
with collagenous fibers, they form a
tightly woven fabric that joins
connective tissue to adjacent tissues.

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Connective Tissue

Connective Specialized
Tissue Proper Connective Tissue

Cartilage
Blood

Bone
Loose Dense
Connective Connective
Tissue Tissue
Adipose

Irregular
Areolar

Regular
Dense

Dense

5.3.1 Connective Tissue Proper

1. Loose connective tissue

• Binds epithelia to underlying tissues

and functions as packing material, holding
organs in place.
° Loose connective tissue has all three
fiber types.

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• Two cell types predominate in the

fibrous mesh of loose connective tissue.
° Fibroblasts - secrete the protein
ingredients of the extracellular fibers.
° Macrophages - amoeboid cells that
roam the maze of fibers, engulfing
bacteria and debris of dead cells by
phagocytosis.

(a) Areolar Tissue

• Matrix – transparent semi-fluid

containing:
° Mucin
° Hyaluronic acid
° Chondroitin sulphate

• Fibres:
° Collagen
 In wavy bundles.

 Scattered throughout matrix.

 Flexible but inelastic.

○ Elastin

 Thin straight fibres.

 Forms a loose anastomosing network.

 Flexible but elastic

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○ Both provide considerable tensile

strength and resilience to tissue.

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• Cells – interspersed in the matrix:

1. Fibroblast
° Flattened, spindle-shaped, with oval nucleus.
° Produce fibres.
° Located close to fibres but can migrate
towards wounded tissues – secretes fibres to
seal injured area.

2. Macrophage (histiocyte)
○ Polymorphic cell – capable of amoeboid
movement → engulf bacteria or foreign
particles.
○ Generally immobile – but at times can
wander to areas of bacterial invasion →
provides body defense.

3. Mast cell
° Small, oval shaped, with granular cytoplasm.
° Secretes matrix, heparin and histamine.
° Found close to blood vessels.
° Heparin – anticoagulant → prevents
conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
° Histamine – released from injured/disrupted
tissues → causes vasodilation, contraction of
smooth muscle and stimulates gastric
secretion.

4. Plasma cell

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° Rare.
° Products of mitotic cell division by migratory
lymphocytes.
° Components of body immune system -
produce antibodies.

5. Chromatophore
° In specialized areas – skin and eye.
° Branched and densely packed with melanin
granules.

6. Fat cell
° Contains large lipid droplet.
° Cytoplasm and nucleus confined to margins.

7. Mesenchyme cell
° Reserve of undifferentiated cells.
° Can be stimulated to transform into one of
the above cell types when needed.

• Location: upper dermis, blood vessels,

nerves, around body organs.
• Function: Gives strength, elasticity, and

support.

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1. Nucleus of fibroblast
2. Collagen fiber
3. Elastic fiber

(b) Adipose Tissue

• Specialized form of loose

connective tissue that stores fat in adipose
cells distributed throughout the matrix.
○ Pads and insulates body and stores fuel

as fat molecules.
○ Each adipose cell contains a large fat

droplet that swells when fat is stored and

shrinks when the body uses fat as fuel.

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2. Dense/Fibrous Connective
Tissue

• Dense - due to its large

number of collagenous fibers.
○ Fibers are organized into parallel bundles,

an arrangement that maximizes

nonelastic strength.
○ This type of connective tissue forms

tendons, attaching muscles to bones,

and ligaments, joining bones to bones at
joints.

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5.3.2 Special Connective Tissues

1. Cartilage

• Has an abundance of collagenous

fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix
made of chondroitin sulfate, a
protein-carbohydrate complex.
° Chondrocytes secrete collagen and
chondroitin sulfate.
° Composite of collagenous fibers and
chondroitin sulfate makes cartilage a
strong yet somewhat flexible support
material.

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° Skeleton of a shark and embryonic

skeletons of many vertebrates are
cartilaginous.
° Human retain cartilage as flexible
supports in certain locations, such as
nose, ears, and intervertebral disks.

• Three types of cartilage:

1. Hyaline cartilage
2. Yellow elastic cartilage
3. White fibrous cartilage

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http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/sci_ed/grade10/mammal/cart.htm

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Hyaline Cartilage
Matrix semi-transparent – consist of
chondroitin sulphate and fine
collagen fibrils.
Peripheral chondrocytes are flattened
and arranged in parallel rows.
Those situated internally are bigger
and scattered.
Chondrocyte is contained in lacunae –
each encloses one, two, four, or eight
chondrocytes.
No blood vessels – exchange of
materials between chondrocytes and
matrix is by diffusion.
Elastic and compressible tissue.
Location: ends of bones (sternum of
ribs), nose, air passages of
respiratory system (larynx and
trachea) and in parts of ear.
Function: Provides movement at
joints, flexibility, and support.

Yellow Elastic Cartilage

Semi-opaque matrix containing
network of elastic fibres.
Chondrocytes close to one another.

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Very elastic and flexible – allows

tissue to recover its shape after
distortion.
Location: External ear, eustachian
tube, epiglottis, and cartilages of
pharynx.
Function: Gives support and
maintains shape.

(iii) White Fibrous Cartilage

• Matrix contains large numbers of densely

packed collagen fibres.
• Very little chondrocytes.

• Have great tensile strength and a small

degree of flexibility.
• Location: intervertebral discs (provides

cushioning effect), symphysis pubis (the

region between two pubic bones of the
pelvis), and ligamentous capsules of joins.
• Function: Support and fusion.

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2. Bone

• Skeleton supporting most vertebrates is

made of bone, a mineralized connective
tissue.
° Bone-forming cells called osteoblasts
deposit a matrix of collagen.
° Calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions
combine and harden within the matrix
into the mineral hydroxyapatite.
° Combination of hard mineral and flexible
collagen makes bone harder than
cartilage without being brittle.
° Microscopic structure of hard mammalian
bones consists of repeating units called
osteons.
 Each osteon has concentric layers
of mineralized matrix deposited around
a central canal containing blood
vessels and nerves that service the
bone.

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• Two types of bone: compact and spongy

bone.

(i) Compact bone

• Consists of units called Harvesian

system or osteon.
• Characteristic of the Harvesian system:
° Has central Harvesian canal containing
nerves, arteries, veins and lymph vessels.
° Canal surrounded by numerous
concentric cylinders called Harvesian
lamellae.
° Interspersed between lamellae are
numerous lacunae containing
osteoblasts.
 When not active, they are called
osteocytes – can be activated and
differentiate into osteoblasts.

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Canaliculi Lacuna

Vein Artery

Nerve
Haversian
canal

Osteocyte
Haversian
lamellae

° Fine channels called canaliculi radiate

from each lacuna.
° Canaliculi contain cytoplasm and may
link up with Haversian canal, with other
lacunae or pass from one lamella to
another.
° Capillaries branch from arteries and veins
in Haversian canal and pass via canaliculi
to the osteoblasts in lacunae – facilitate
passage of nutrients, metabolic waste
and respiratory gases towards and away
from the cells.

• In longitudinal section, Haversian canals

linked to one another by transverse canals
called Volkmann canals.

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• Bone covered by a dense connective

tissue called periosteum.

(ii) Spongy bone

• Found in larger bones and is always

surrounded by compact bone.
• Consists of sheets of bones called

trabeculae, interspersed with large

spaces occupied by bone marrow.
• Trabeculae contain osteoblasts.

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3. Blood

• Functions differently from other

connective tissues
• Have extensive extracellular matrix.

° Plasma → liquid matrix consisting of

water, salts, and a variety of dissolved
proteins.
° Liquid matrix enables rapid transport of
blood cells, nutrients, and wastes.
° Suspended in plasma are erythrocytes
(red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood
cells), and cell fragments called platelets.
 Red cells carry oxygen.
 White cells function in defense
against viruses, bacteria, and other
invaders.
 Platelets aid in blood clotting.

(i) Plasma

• Pale yellow liquid.

• 90% water and 10% solutes.
• Solutes:
° Metabolites – glucose, amino acids,
vitamins.
° Wastes – nitrogen compounds, CO2.
° Hormones (regulate cellular activities).

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° Ions – especially sodium, chloride, and

bicarbonate.
° Proteins – albumin, globulins (carriers
of lipids and steroid hormones), and
fibrinogen (blood clotting).
• If fibrinogen is removed, blood plasma is

called serum.
• Function: Provides medium for exchange
of substances.

(ii) Cells

http://www.biosbcc.net/doohan/sample/htm/Blood%20cells.htm

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a) Erythrocytes (Red blood cells)

• 5 million per mm3 blood.

• Diameter: 7 - 8 µ m.

• No nucleus (and organelles).

• Shape: biconcave disc.
• Plasma membrane thin and flexible.
• Cell filled with haemoglobin – lack of

nucleus permits more haemoglobin to be

packed into cell → 250 million molecules of
haemoglobin per cell.
• Life span: 120 days.
• New cells manufactured in red bone
marrow – 1½ million per second.
• Function: O2 and CO2 transport –

biconcave disc provides a large surface-

volume ratio for absorption.

b) Leukocytes (White blood cells)

• Larger the erythrocytes.

• 7000 per mm3 blood.
• Have nucleus.
• Short life span – a few days.
• Function: Body defenses.
• Two main groups: granulocytes and
agranulocytes.

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1. Granulocytes
• Contains lobed nucleus and granular
cytoplasm.
• Capable of amoeboid movement.
• Three types:

(i) Neutrophils
○ 7 – 9 µ m.

○ 70% of leukocytes.

○ Nucleus with 3 – 5 lobes.

○ Can squeeze between cells of capillary

walls (diapedesis) and move to

infected area.
○ Function: Phagocytosis - engulf and

digest pathogen

(ii) Eosinophils
○ (Granules stained red with eosin dye.)

○ 1.5% of leukocytes.

○ 9 – 12 µ m.

○ Nucleus sometimes “Z” shaped.

○ Function: Anti-histamine properties.

(iii) Basophils
○ (Granules stained blue with methylene

blue.)
○ 0.5% of leukocytes.

○ ≈ 10 µ m.

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○ Nucleus sometimes “S” shaped.

○ Function: Produce heparin and
histamine (causes inflammatory
response).

2. Agranulocytes
• Non-granular cytoplasm.
• Oval or bean-shaped nucleus.
• Two types:

(i) Monocytes
○ 4% of leukocytes.

○ 9 – 12 µ m.

○ Bean-shaped nucleus.

○ (Can migrate from bloodstream to

inflamed areas, acting in same manner

as neutrophils.)
○ Function: Phagocytosis - engulf

bacteria.

(ii) Lymphocytes
○ 24% of leukocytes.

○ 6 – 8 µ m.

○ Big, rounded nucleus with little

cytoplasm.
○ Function: Antibody production and

cellular immune response.

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(c) Platelets
• Irregularly shaped membrane-bound cell
fragments.
• Formed from megakaryocytes, large

bone marrow cells.

• 0.25 million per mm3 blood.
• Usually without nucleus.
• Life span: 7 – 8 days.
• Function: Blood clotting.

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5.4 MUSCLE TISSUES

• Composed of long cells called muscle

fibers - capable of contracting when
stimulated by nerve impulses.
○ Most abundant tissue in most animals.

○ Myofibrils - arranged in parallel within

cytoplasm of muscle fibers.

 Made of contractile proteins, actin and

myosin.
○ Muscle contraction accounts for most of

energy-consuming cellular work in active

animals.
• Three types of muscle tissue in
vertebrate body: skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle, and smooth muscle.

5.4.1 Skeletal Muscle

• Attached to bones by tendons.

• Responsible for voluntary movements.
○ Consists of bundles of long cells called
fibers.
 Each fiber is a bundle of strands called

myofibrils.
○ Multinucleated.

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○ Also called striated muscle due to

arrangement of contractile units
(sarcomeres) - gives cells a striped
(striated) appearance under the
microscope.

5.4.2 Smooth Muscle

• Lacks striations
• In walls of digestive tract, urinary

bladder, arteries, and other internal organs.

○ Spindle-shaped cells.

○ Contraction slower than skeletal muscles

but can remain contracted longer.

○ Controlled by different kinds of nerves

than those controlling skeletal muscles,

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○ Responsible for involuntary body

activities.
 Example, churning of stomach and

constriction of arteries.

5.4.3 Cardiac Muscle

• Forms contractile wall of heart.

○ Striated.
○ Contractile properties similar to those of
skeletal muscle.
○ Performs unconscious (voluntary) task of
contraction of heart.
○ Muscle fibers branch (anastomose) and
interconnect via intercalated disks →
relay signals from cell to cell during
heartbeat.

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5.5 NERVOUS TISSUES

• Senses stimuli and transmits signals from

one part of animal to another.
○ Functional unit of nervous tissue =

neuron (nerve cell)

 Uniquely specialized to transmit nerve

impulses.
○ Consists of cell body and 2/more

processes called dendrites and axons.

 Dendrites transmit impulses from their

tips toward rest of neuron.

 Axons transmit impulses toward

another neuron or toward an effector,

such as muscle cell that carries out a
body response.

• In many animals, nervous

tissue is concentrated in brain.

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5.5.1 Neurons

http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/sci_ed/grade10/mammal/nervous.htm

• Cell body contains nucleus and

cytoplasm.
○ Enclosed within a plasma membrane.

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○ Also contains Nissl’s granules (involved

in protein synthesis), ribosomes, and
other organelles.

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• D endrites are cytoplasmic processes

extending from cell body – they make
synaptic connections with other neurons.
• Nerve fibre is a long cytoplasmic

extension from cell body that transmits

impulse.
○ Nerve fibres that transmit impulses away

from cell body are called axons while

those that transmit impulses towards
cell body are called dendrons.

• Cytoplasm of cell body contains large

amount of ribosomes – synthesize proteins
which is supplied to nerve fibres.
• Cytoplasm of nerve fibre continuous with

cytoplasm of cell body & lacks ribosomes.

• Plasma membrane of nerve fibre is

continuous with that of cell body.

• Nerve fibres may or may not be

surrounded by a fatty myelin sheath,

formed from Schwann cells.
• Sheath is constricted at intervals along

nerve fibre by nodes of Ranvier.

• Sheath insulates nerve fibre and speed up

transmission of impulses along it.

• Neurilemma, a tough elastic membrane,

surrounds the sheath.

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Classification of neuron

(i) Based on function (direction in

which impulse is transmitted)

http://www.abbysenior.com/biology/nervous_system.htm

(a) Sensory or afferent neuron

 Transmits impulse from the receptor

to the central nervous system.

(b) Motor or efferent neuron
 Transmits impulse from the central

nervous system to the effector.

(c) Intermediary neuron
 Transmit impulse from sensory to the

motor neuron.

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(d) Neurosecretory neuron*

 Specialized neurons that synthesize

and secrete hormones

(ii) Based on structure (number of

fibres)

(A) Pseudo-unipolar neuron

 Neuron has only one extension that

divides into two, dendrite and axon.

(B) Bipolar neuron
 Neuron has one axon and one

dendrite at opposite ends of the cell

body.
(C) Multipolar neuron
 Neuron has one axon and several

dendrites.

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5.5.2 Neuroglia

• Ten times more numerous than neurons.

• Found throughout central nervous
system.
• Function:
1. Provides mechanical support to
neurons.
2. Supply nourishment to neuron fibres.
3. Some are involved in the memory
process – stores information in the form
of RNA.
4. Some form the myelin sheath.

Neuroglia cells

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