Predicate Logic

The Need for Predicate Logic:

Consider the argument:
All humans are mortal
All Filipinos are human

All Filipinos are mortal

The argument is clearly valid. However, using the notational convention of predicate logic, we
will be forced to symbolize the argument in such a way that makes it invalid
1. H

2. F / M
Notational Convention
Hercules is a demigod Dh

Capital letters are used to denote properties (Predicate Constants)

Lowercase letters are used to denote individuals, objects, things, and entities that can
have properties ascribed to them (Individual Constants)
Quantifiers
- Used in Predicate Logic to state how many
- Universal Quantifiers (x) are used to assert that ALL entities have same properties
- Existential Quantifiers (x) are used to assert that SOME entities have a given property

Traditional Subject-Predicate Propositions

General Propositions Examples Quantifier Notation

A All humans are mortal (x)[Hx Mx]
x
E No humans are mortals (x)[Hx ~Mx]
I Some humans are mortals (x)[ Hx Mx]
x
O Some humans are not mortals (x)[ Hx ~Mx]

The following are read as:

A Given any x, x is human then x is mortal
E Given any x, x is human then x is not mortal
I There is at least one x such that x is a human and x is a mortal
O There is at least one x such that x is a human and x is not mortal
 Rules of Inference: Quantification

Name Abbr Form Effect

Universal Instantiation
Universal Generalization
Existential Instantiation
UI (x)(x) Any substitution instance of a propositional
v function can be validly inferred from its
universal quantification.
v = any individual
symbol
UG y From the substitution instance of a
(x)(x) propositional function with respect to the
name of any arbitrarily selected individual,
y = any arbitrarily one may validly infer the universal
selected individual quantification of that propositional function.
EI (x)(x) From the existential quantification of a
v propositional function, we may infer the truth
of its substitution instance with respect to any
v = any individual individual constant (other than y) that occurs
constant, other than nowhere earlier in the context.
y, having no previous
occurrence in the
context

Existential Generalization EG v From any true substitution instance of a

(x)(x) propositional function, we may validly infer
the existential quantification of that
v = any individual propositional function.
symbol

Examples

Universal Instantiation & Universal Generalization

(1)
All calicos are felines
All felines are animals

All calicos are animals

1. (x)(Cx Fx)
2. (x)(Fx Ax) / (x)(Cx Ax)
3. Ca Fa // 1 UI
4. Fa Aa // 2 UI
5. Ca Aa // 3,4 HS
6. (x)(Cx Ax) // 5 UG
Existential Instantiation & Existential Generalization
(1)
Some outlaws are mountaineers
All outlaws are criminals

Some criminals are mountaineers

1. (x)(Ox Mx)
2. (x)(Ox Cx) / (x)(Cx Mx)
3. Oa Ma // 1 EI
4. Oa Ca // 2 UI
5. Oa // 3 Simplification
6. Ca // 4, 5 MP
7. Ma // 3 Simp
8. Ca Ma // 6, 7 Conjunction
9. (x)(Cx Mx) // 8 EG
(2)
No dogs are skunks
Some dogs are pets

Some pets are not skunks

1. (x)(Dx ~Sx)
2. (x)(Dx Px) / (x)(Px ~Sx)
3. Da Pa // 2 EI
4. Da ~Sa // 1 UI
5. Da // 3 Simplification
6. ~Sa // 4, 5 MP
7. Pa // 3 Simplification
8. (Pa ~Sa)
9. (x)(Px ~Sx) // 8 EG