CHAPTER 12

WINGS OF FINITE SPAN

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

12.1 FLOW OVER A THREE-DIMENSIONAL WING

The images below from Van Dykes Album of Fluid Motion depict low speed flow over a
lifting wing of finite span. The images include a view from the side, a plan view from
above and a series of images showing the vortex wake in a series of planes normal to the
wing wake at increasing downstream distances from the wing. The span of the wing is b
and the chord is called C .

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 12.1 Images of the flow past a finite span wing at low speed. From An Album of
Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke.

1
The wings are not all the same. Figure 12.1a shows a wing in water visualized by colored
dye. Figure 12.1b shows smoke lines in the flow over a wing in air. And figure 12.1c
shows the wake of a wing towed in water visualized by very small hydrogen bubbles
emitted by a fine wire just downstream of the wing trailing edge.

These images beautifully illustrate the three-dimensional flow over the wing. In each case
the wing has lift leading to reduced pressure above the wing and increased pressure
below compared to the free stream pressure. The consequences of this pressure difference
are illustrated in the figures.

The dyelines in Figure 12.1a emanate from the boundary layer on the lower surface of the
wing. At the wing tip, vorticity from the lower and upper surface of the wing separates
and rolls up to form a trailing vortex.

Figure 12.1b illustrates the same process as viewed from above looking down on the
suction surface of the wing. Smoke lines introduced ahead of the wing are positioned so
that the lines pass just below the wing. The upstream influence of the elevated pressure
below the wing leads to a divergence of the smoke lines ahead of the wing. If the smoke
lines had been positioned to pass above the wing one would instead see a convergence
driven by the low pressure on the suction surface. This very important effect can also be
clearly seen in the smoke lines that leave the trailing edge of the wing and diverge
outward to join the vortex rollup from the wing tips.

Figure 12.2 schematically shows the flow on the centerline of a three-dimensional wing.

Figure 12.2 Velocity field normal to a wing comprising a transverse bound vortex of
circulation plus downwash generated by a semi-infinite system of free vortices in the
wake.

2
Near the wing the bound circulation due to lift leads to an up-wash ahead of the wing and
downwash behind the wing similar to the flow produced by a two-dimensional lifting
wing of infinite span.

A very important effect is generated by the flow due to the vortex pair that comprises the
wake. The semi-infinite sheet of vorticity distributed in the wake produces a downward
velocity component in the free-stream ahead of the wing, at the wing and far downstream
as illustrated in Figure 12.3.

Figure 12.3 Upstream and downstream effect of the wake of a finite span lifting wing.

The downwash by the wake leads to a reduction in the angle-of-attack of the wing
relative to the free stream, reducing the lift. In addition the downwash rotates the
oncoming flow vector at the wing leading to a component of drag as shown in Figure in
12.3. The change in angle of attack due to the downwash generated by the wake is

U ( 0, 0, 0 )
i = ArcTan z < 0 (12.1)
U

where U z ( 0, 0, 0 ) is the z component of velocity induced by the vortex system of the

wake at the mid span of the wing. The downwash produced by the circulation of the
bound vortex of the wing is zero at the wing and therefore does not contribute to the
induced drag.

The span-wise divergence and convergence of the flow at the wing trailing edge seen in
Figure 12.1b is illustrated in Figure 12.4.

Figure 12.4 Span-wise flow in a plane perpendicular to the wing trailing edge

3
The general direction of the flow about the wing is from high pressure to low pressure. At
the wing trailing edge where the pressures above and below the wing are equal the
stream-wise vorticity produced by the spanwise flow over the wing convects into the
wake where it feeds the rolling up vortices as can be seen in figure 12.1b.

The connection between the bound vorticity on the wing and the free vorticity in the
wake can be determined using the contour shown in Figure 12.5.

(a)

(b)

Figure 12.5 Contour used to connect the circulation bound to a lifting wing, the span-
wise flow at the wing trailing edge and free vorticity in the wake.

The idea behind Figure 12.5 is that the circulation about a contour that lies entirely in a
potential flow is zero since the potential is continuous over such a contour.

! Uic dC = ! ic dC = ! d = final initial = 0 (12.2)

Follow the arrows closely in Figure 12.5a. The contour C A passes over the wing in a
downstream direction and, before reaching the vortex sheet, connects to contour C B .
Contour C B then turns 90 degrees and upward almost reversing direction. From just
above the vortex sheet C B passes around and below the wake vortex sheet approaching
the sheet from below. Contour C B connects to C A then turns back 90 degrees, nearly

4
reversing direction again and passes under the wing where C A closes. At no point does
the contour penetrate the vortex sheet that is discontinuous in the potential because of the
discontinuity in span-wise velocity across the sheet. Using (12.2) we can write

! Uic dC = Uic dC + Uic dC = 0

CA CB
(12.3)

To clarify this idea, in Figure 12.5b the contours are imagined to be shrunk-wrapped
about the wing and the trailing edge vortex sheet while remaining imbedded entirely in
potential flow. Equation (12.3) implies

TrailingEdge ( y ) = Wing ( y ) (12.4)

By the way it is not necessary to shrink-wrap the contour to get to this result. Figure
12.4a is enough, either contour gets to the result (12.4).

12.2 CIRCULATION AND PRESSURE

Figure 12.6 shows a cross-section of a finite-span wing moving at a constant velocity U
in an incompressible flow.

Figure 12.6 Airfoil cross-section

The dashed line with length C connects the leading edge of the wing to the trailing edge
and is called the chord line. The section lift (lift per unit span) is

dL C ( y) 1 1
= PLower 1/2 PUpper 1/2 dx (12.5)
dy 0

1 + dzLower
2
dzUpper
2


dx 1 +
dx

where zLower ( x, y ) and zUpper ( x, y ) are the z coordinates of the lower and upper surfaces
of the wing at the spanwise position y . The Bernoulli equation is

5
 1 1 1
U 2 = PLower + (U Lower ) = PUpper + UUpper ( )
2 2
P + (12.6)
2 2 2

If the airfoil is relatively thin we can approximate the pressure by

1
P + U 2 PLower + U u Lower = PUpper + U uUpper (12.7)
2

The lift per unit span is then

dL
( )
= U uUpper u Lower dx = U ( y )
C
(12.8)
dy 0

where ( y ) is the circulation about the airfoil at the section y .

Uic dC
=!
C
(12.9)

12.3 FORCES AND MOMENTS ON A WING

Figure 12.7 shows the relationship between the various forces that act on a differential
slice dy at some spanwise location on a three-dimensional wing with span b .

Fig 12.7 Differential forces on a section of a 3-D wing

The differential normal force at a given spanwise location is

dF ( y ) = U R ( y ) ( y ) dy (12.10)

The differential lift and induced drag at the position y are

U
dL ( y ) = dF ( y ) Cos ( i ) = dF ( y ) = U ( y ) dy (12.11)
U R ( 0, y, 0 )

6
and

U z ( 0, y, 0 )
dDi ( y ) = dF ( y ) Sin ( i ) = dF ( y ) = U z ( 0, y, 0 ) ( y ) dy (12.12)
U R ( 0, y, 0 )

The induced flow angle is generally very small so we can apply the approximation
i U z ( 0, y, 0 ) / U . The differential induced drag is related to the differential lift by

dDi ( y ) = i ( y ) dL ( y ) (12.13)

The lift and drag are found by integrating the above differential relations

( y ) dy
b /2
L = U (12.14)
b /2

U z ( 0, y, 0 ) ( y ) dy
b /2
Di = (12.15)
b /2

The rolling moment vector is aligned with the positive x-axis and also involves
integrating the circulation.

y dL ( y ) = U y ( y )dy
b /2 b /2
M x = M Roll = b /2 b /2
(12.16)

The yawing moment is aligned with the positive z-axis and, like drag, its integral
involves the circulation and downwash velocity.

y dDi ( y ) = yU z ( 0, y, 0 ) ( y ) dy
b /2 b /2
M z = M Yaw = (12.17)
b /2 b /2

12.4 LIFTING LINE THEORY

Assume that the flow over a finite wing can be treated as locally two-dimensional with
the flow geometry depicted in Figure 12.8 applied at each position y along the span of
the wing. This is a good assumption for thin wings of large aspect ratio. The aspect ratio
is defined as

b2
AR = (12.18)
S

where S is the geometric planform area of the wing, ie not the area projected on the
{x, y} plane but the area in the plane of the chord line of the wing the largest area of the
wing. The relative free stream velocity vector at each span-wise position is

U R ( 0, y, 0 ) = {U , 0,U z ( 0, y, 0 )} (12.19)

7
 Figure 12.8 Wing cross section at spanwise position y .

The fundamental problem of finite wing theory is that even when the basic parameters of
the wing are known (Lift curve slope, etc.) the circulation at a given angle of attack with
respect to the free stream is not known since it is determined by the downwash that in
turn depends on the circulation. In this section and the next we will derive the
fundamental equation that expresses this mutual dependence.

In Figure 12.8 the force on the wing is perpendicular to the local direction of the flow
over the wing leading to a downstream tilting of the normal force relative to the free
stream. As a consequence a three-dimensional lifting body will always have drag, even
when the flow is inviscid. The downwash produces induced drag and also reduces the
effective angle-of-attack of the wing leading to a reduction in lift. Figure 12.9 depicts the
model flow we will use to determine the downwash velocity produced by a finite wing.

Figure 12.9 Wing and trailing vortex sheet model for inviscid lifting line theory.

The flow is inviscid and the vorticity shed into the wake at the trailing edge of the wing is
assumed to form a smooth vortex sheet across which the transverse velocity (in the y-
direction) is discontinuous. The sheet lies in the ( x, y ) plane and extends to infinity in the
x-direction. It is formed by summing an infinite system of streamwise vortex lines each
characterized by a differential amount of circulation. The bound vorticity attached to the
wing comprises the boundary layer on the wing. The boundary layer is viewed as an
infinite system of differential vortices with their axes aligned with the y-direction. The
induced motion of the bound vortices produces the circulation about the wing and the

8
wing lift, but is assumed to contribute nothing to the downwash at the wing to the extent
that the wing can be viewed purely as a lifting line of span b aligned with the y-axis.

Before we develop a model of the system shown in Figure 12.9 it is useful to recall the
development of the Poisson equation solution described in Chapter 10. The flow field
generated by each vortex element that makes up the wake vortex sheet will be derived
below. This will allow us to build toward the relatively complex system shown in Figure
12.9. The Poisson equation for the vector potential is

2 A ( x, y, z,t ) = ( x, y, z,t ) (12.20)

In Cartesian coordinates, (12.20) is equivalent to three scalar equations relating the

Cartesian components of the vector potential to the Cartesian components of the vorticity.

2 Ax = x 2 Ay = y 2 Az = z (12.21)

The fundamental solution of (12.20) at vector position x due to a point source of

vorticity of strength ( xs ,t ) dxs dys dzs at source point xs is

( xs ,t ) dxs dys dzs

dA = (12.22)
4 x x s

where G ( x, xs ) = 1 / ( 4 x xs ) is the Greens function for Laplaces equation.

Figure 12.10 Vorticity source distribution surrounded by irrotational flow

The general solution of (12.20) is obtained by integrating over the source distribution
illustrated in Figure 12.10.

1 ( xs ,t )
A ( x,t ) = dxs dys dzs (12.23)
4 x x
s

9
In the examples below the vorticity field will be specified and (12.23) will be used to
generate the vector potential. The velocity field, which is the primary quantity of interest,
is generated from the vector potential using U = A . The examples that apply to the
wing wake have vorticity distributions that are extended to infinity by a limiting process.
Although logarithmic singularities appear in the solutions they do not affect the velocity
field generated from U = A .

Example 1 Vector potential of two semi-infinite lines of vortex monopoles.

Figure 12.11 shows two lines of vortex monopoles of uniform strength aligned in the x-
direction and displaced a distance y0 from either side of the { x, z} plane. The length of
the distribution in the x-direction is a . We are interested in the vector potential for
a.

Figure 12.11 Two parallel semi-infinite vortex lines of opposite sign

The vorticity source distribution for the vortex line terminating at { x, y, z} = {0, y0 , 0} is

+ ( x,t ) = {u ( x ) ( y y0 ) ( z ) , 0, 0} (12.24)

and the vector potential is A + = Ax+ , 0, 0 where { }

1 u ( xs ) ( ys y0 ) ( zs )
Ax+ = dxs dys dzs =
4
( ( x x s ) 2 + ( y ys ) 2 + ( z z s ) 2 )
1/2

x a + ( x a )2 + ( y y )2 + z 2
1
dxs = lim Ln
0

4
( ( x xs ) + ( y y0 ) + z )a 4 ( 0)
2 2 1/2 2
+ + +
0 2 2 2
x x y y z

(12.25)

In the limit a the vector potential is

10
 Ax+ =


4 ( 2
)2
( a
1
Ln x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 Ln ( y y0 ) + z 2 lim Ln (12.26)
2a )
The vorticity source distribution for the vortex line terminating at { x, y, z} = {0, y0 , 0} is

( x ) = {-u ( x ) ( y + y0 ) ( z ) , 0, 0} (12.27)

{
and the vector potential is A = A x , 0, 0 where }
1 u ( xs ) ( ys + y0 ) ( zs )
Ax = dxs dys dzs =
4
(( x x ) + ( y y ) + ( z z ) )
s
2
s
2
s
2 1/2

x a + ( x a )2 + ( y + y )2 + z 2
1
1/2 dzs = lim Ln
0

4 0
(
( x xs ) + ( y + y0 )2 + z 2
2
) a 4 x + x + ( y + y0 ) + z
2 2 2

(12.28)

In the limit a the vector potential of the semi-infinite vortex line at

{x, y, z} = {0, y0 , 0} is

Ax =


4 ( 2
)2
( a
1
Ln x + x 2 + ( y + y0 ) + z 2 + Ln ( y + y0 ) + z 2 + lim Ln (12.29)
2a )
The vector potential of the system is obtained by linear superposition of the vector
potentials contributed by each line, A = A + + A . Notice that when we add (12.26) and
(12.29) the logarithmic singularities at a cancel and the overall vector potential is
A = { Ax , 0, 0} where

(
x + x + ( y + y0 ) + z ) (( y y ) + z )
2 1/2 2
2 2 2
0
Ax = Ln (12.30)
y + y + z
4
(
x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 ) (( ) )
2 1/2 2 2
0

The velocity field generated by (12.30) is U = 0,U y ,U z where { }

11

( )
z (( y + y0 )2 + z 2 ) 2z x + ( x 2 + ( y y0 )2 + z 2 )1/ 2 ( x 2 + ( y y0 )2 + z 2 )1/ 2
+

Uy =


1/ 2

( 1/ 2

)
( x 2 + ( y y0 )2 + z 2 ) x + ( x 2 + ( y y0 )2 + z 2 ) (( y + y0 )2 + z 2 )

( ) ( ( ) ( )
4 z ( y y )2 + z 2 + 2z x + x 2 + ( y + y )2 + z 2 1/ 2 x 2 + ( y + y )2 + z 2 1/ 2
0 0 0 )

2 2 2
1/ 2

(
( x + ( y + y0 ) + z ) x + ( x + ( y + y0 ) + z ) (( y y0 ) + z )
2 2 2
1/ 2

) 2 2

( )
( y y0 )(( y + y0 )2 + z 2 ) 2 ( y + y0 ) x + ( x 2 + ( y y0 )2 + z 2 )1/ 2 ( x 2 + ( y y0 )2 + z 2 )1/ 2
+

Uz =

( 2 2 2
1/ 2

(
x + ( y y0 ) + z ) x + ( x + ( y y0 ) + z ) (( y + y0 ) + z )
2 2 2
1/ 2

) 2 2


0 ( ) (( ) ( )
4 ( y + y ) ( y y )2 + z 2 + 2 ( y y ) x + x 2 + ( y + y )2 + z 2 1/ 2 x 2 + ( y + y )2 + z 2 1/ 2
0 0 0 0 )



1/ 2

( 1/ 2

)
( x 2 + ( y + y0 )2 + z 2 ) x + ( x 2 + ( y + y0 )2 + z 2 ) (( y y0 )2 + z 2 )

(12.31)

The downwash velocity generated from (12.31) on the line { x, z} = {0, 0} is

y0
U z ( 0, y, 0 ) = 2 (12.32)
(
2 y y02 )
plotted in Figure 12.12.

Figure 12.12 Downwash induced by two parallel semi-infinite vortex lines of opposite
sign on the line { x, z} = {0, 0} viewed from the vortex wake (positive x).

At the center of the lifting line the downwash velocity is

12

U z ( 0, 0, 0 ) = (12.33)
2 y0

The downwash velocity generated on the line { y, z} = {0, 0} is

(
1 2 x / y0 + 1 + ( x / y0 ) ) (
2 1/2

1 + ( x / y0 ) )
2 1/2

U z ( x, 0, 0 ) = (12.34)
2 y0 1 + x / y 2 1/2 x / y + 1 + x / y 2 1/2

( ( 0) 0 ) ( ( 0) )
plotted below.

Figure 12.13 Downwash induced by two parallel semi-infinite vortex lines of opposite
sign on the line { y, z} = {0, 0} .

Notice that half of the downwash occurs ahead of x = 0 and half occurs behind. In the far
wake the downwash is

lim U y ( 0, 0, z ) = (12.35)
z y0

The tangential induced velocity of a single line vortex at a distance r = y0 is

U r / = 1 / ( 2 ) . The far wake value (12.35) is just twice this velocity with
contributions from the two line vortices of opposite sign equidistant from the x-axis..

Example 2 Vector potential of a continuous distribution of vortex lines superimposed

on a uniform flow.

Figure 12.14 shows a smooth distribution of vortex lines attached to the x-axis. This is
the system we will use to model the wake vortex sheet.

13
 Figure 12.14 Continuous distribution of vortex lines attached to the y-axis.

The incremental circulation of the free vorticity generating the wake can be related to the
incremental circulation of the bound vorticity on the wing using the contour shown in
figure 12.15

Figure 12.15 Contour used to relate the incremental circulation on the wing to the
incremental circulation shed into the wake

The contour in Figure 12.15 never penetrates the wake vortex sheet. Since the contour is
imbedded entirely in potential flow we can write

! Uic dC = Uic dC + Uic dC + Uic dC + Uic dC = 0

CI C II C III C IV
(12.36)

Assume the contours are brought close together, separated only by a very small distance
dy along the span of the wing. Then

14
 Uic dC = > 0
CI

d
Uic dC = dy dy
CIII
(12.37)

d T .E
Uic dC + Uic dC =
C II C IV
dy
dy

Insert (12.37) into (12.36). The result is

d T .E. = d (12.38)

The differential circulation at the trailing edge determines the local strength of the wake
vortex sheet and is the appropriate source term for the Poisson equation governing the
vector potential. The differential vector potential arising from the vortex sheet is
therefore dA = {dAx , 0, 0} where

(
x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 )
2 1/2

1
dAx = d T .E. ( y0 ) Ln (12.39)
4

(
( y y0 )2 + z 2 )

Using (12.38)

(
x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 )
2 1/2

1
dAx = d ( y0 ) Ln (12.40)
4

(
( y y0 )2 + z 2 )

where ( y0 ) is the circulation on the wing at station y0 . The full vector potential
including the uniform velocity from the left is A = { Ax , 0,U y} where Ax is

(
x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 )
2 1/2

1 b /2 d ( y0 )
4 b /2 dy0
Ax = (12.41)
( )
Ln dy0
( y y0 )2 + z 2

and the integration is over the span of the wing. The lifting effect of the wing is assumed
to be all concentrated on the lifting line on the y-axis between y = b / 2 and y = b / 2 .
{
The corresponding velocity field is U = U ,U y ,U z where }

15
 1 d
U y ( x, y, z ) =
b /2

4 b /2 dy0

( ) (
z ( y y0 ) + z 2 2z x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 ) (
( y y0 )2 + z 2 ) ( )
2 2 2 1/2 2 1/2

dy0
( ) (
x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 ( y y0 ) + z 2 ) ( )
2 1/2 2 1/2 2 2


1 d
U z ( x, y, z ) =
b /2

4 b /2 dy0

( ( ) (
y y0 ) ( y y0 ) + z 2 2 ( y y0 ) x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 ) ( ( y y0 )2 + z 2 ) ( )
2 2 2 1/2 2 1/2

dy0
( ) (
x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 ( y y0 ) + z 2 ) ( )
2 1/2 2 1/2 2 2

(12.42)

12.5 PRANDTLS EQUATION OF FINITE WING THEORY

From the expression for the vertical velocity component in (12.42) the velocity vector on
the lifting line, { x, z} = {0, 0} , b / 2 < y < b / 2 is U = {U , 0,U z } . From (12.42) at any
spanwise station on the lifting line the downwash velocity is

1 d ( y0 ) 1
U z ( 0, y, 0 ) =
b /2

4
b /2
dy0 y y0
dy0 (12.43)

where the circulation distribution on the wing ( y ) may or may not be symmetric but
must go to zero at the wing tips. The velocity relative to the wing is
U R ( y ) = {U , 0,U z ( 0, y, 0 )} with magnitude

(
U R ( y ) = U 2 + U z ( 0, y, 0 ) )
2 1/2
(12.44)

The angle of attack of the flow relative to the wing is

R ( y) = ( y) + i ( y) (12.45)

where ( y ) is the angle of attack of the wing measured from the zero lift line as shown
in Figure 12.8 and i ( y ) is the angle of attack reduction due to the downwash induced
by the wake. Recall

U ( 0, y, 0 )
i ( y ) = ArcTan z < 0 (12.46)
U

16
At small angles of attack the circulation about an infinite wing is proportional to the
relative free stream speed and the relative angle of attack.

( y ) = K ( y )U R ( y ) R ( y ) (12.47)

where K ( y ) is a shape factor that depends on the form and size of the airfoil section at
the station y . Two-dimensional airfoil theory tells us that

1
K ( y) = a0 ( y ) C ( y ) (12.48)
2

where C ( y ) is the wing chord at a given spanwise location and

dC
a0 ( y ) = L ( y ) (12.49)
d

is the slope of the lift coefficient versus angle of attack curve of a two-dimensional
(infinite) wing with the same airfoil section. Combine (12.43), (12.45), (12.46) and
(12.47) to generate

1
( y) = a0 ( y ) C ( y )U R ( y )
2
(12.50)
1 b /2 d ( y ) 1
( y ) ArcTan
0
0
dy
4U b /2 dy0 ( y y0 )

Equation (12.50) is an integro-differential equation for the circulation. Since the

downwash speed is small compared to the free stream speed we can approximate (12.50)
using U R U and ArcTan (U z ( 0, y, 0 ) / U ) U z ( 0, y, 0 ) / U . The equation simplifies to

1 1 d ( y0 ) 1
( y) = a0 ( y ) C ( y ) U ( y )
b /2

2 4 b /2 dy0 ( y y0 )
dy0 (12.51)

Equation (12.51) is known as Prandtls equation of finite wing theory and is the
fundamental equation that needs to be solved for ( y ) subject to the condition that the
circulation falls to zero at the wing tips.

b b
= = 0 (12.52)
2 2

To study solutions of (12.51) lets first consider a case where the circulation distribution is
known.

17
12.6 ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION
Lets look at the case of a wing with an elliptic lift distribution. Let the circulation along
the span be described by

( y ) 2y
2 1/2

= 1 (12.53)
0 b

with derivative

2y
d ( y ) 4
b
= 0 (12.54)
dy b 2y 2 1/2
1 b

This situation is illustrated in Figure 12.16

Figure 12.16 Elliptical load distribution

The total lift in this case is

1/2
1 2y
2
1 2y
L = U 0b 1 d = U 0b (12.55)
2 1
b b 4

and the downwash velocity is

2y0

0 1 b 1 2y0
U z ( 0, y, 0 ) = (12.56)
2y 2y0 b
d
2 b 1 2y 2 1/2


1 b b b
0

18
Let 2y / b = Sin ( ) and 2y0 / b = Sin ( 0 )

0 /2 Sin ( 0 ) Cos ( 0 )
U z ( 0, , 0 ) = d 0 (12.57)
( )
2 b /2 1 Sin 2 ( 0 ) 1/2 ( Sin ( ) Sin ( 0 ))

Equation (12.57) simplifies to

0 /2 Sin ( 0 )
U z ( 0, , 0 ) =
2 b /2 ( Sin ( ) Sin ( 0 ))
d 0 (12.58)

The downwash is
/2
Cos ( 0 + )
U z ( 0, , 0 ) = 0 0 + Tan ( ) Ln (12.59)
2 b Sin ( 0 )
/2

When (12.59) is evaluated at the limits, the result is.

0
U z ( 0, y, 0 ) = (12.60)
2b

In this special case of a circulation distribution given by (12.53) the downwash is

constant along the lifting line. The integral treated above is a special case of the following
integral.

Cos ( n ) Sin ( n )

0 Cos ( ) Cos ( )
d =
Sin ( )
(12.61)

Actually this useful integral is modified by letting = ! + / 2 and = ! + / 2 .

Cos n ! + / 2 (( (
))
)
0 ! ) ( ( ! )
Cos + / 2 Cos + / 2
d ! + / 2 =
(12.62)
Sin ( n! )
/2 Cos ( n! )
Sin (! ) Sin ( )
/2
d!=
Cos (! )

The downwash velocity everywhere is

19
 1 d
U z ( x, y, z ) =
b /2

4
b /2 dy0

( ( ) (
y y0 ) ( y y0 ) + z 2 2 ( y y0 ) x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 ) (
( y y0 )2 + z 2 ) ( )
2 2 2 1/2 2 1/2

dy0
( ) (
x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 x + x 2 + ( y y0 ) + z 2 ( y y0 ) + z 2 ) ( )
2 1/2 2 1/2 2 2

(12.63)

On the x-axis, { y, z} = {0, 0} , the downwash velocity is

1
2
(
d y0 2 x + x + y0
2 2 1/2
(
x 2 + y02
1/2
) )( )
U z ( x, 0, 0 ) = b /2 dy0 y x 2 + y2 1/2 x + x 2 + y2 1/2 dy0
b /2
(12.64)
4
0 ( 0 )
0 (
( ) )
Let = y0 / b and x! = x / b . The downwash along the x-axis for an elliptic wing is

1/2
U z ( x!, 0, 0 ) = 0
1
( (
2 2 x! + x! 2 + 2 1/2 x! 2 + 2 ) )( )
1/2

d (12.65)
b 1/2 1 4 2 ( )
1/2

(
x! 2 + 2
1/2
)
x! + x! 2 + 2
1/2
( ( ) )

Equation (12.65) integrates to

1/2

1
2y 2y
U z ( x!, 0, 0 ) = 0 ArcSin 0 EllipticF ArcSin 0 , (12.66)
2 b b b 2x 2

b 1/2

where EllipticF is the elliptic integral of the first kind. Equation (12.66) evaluates to

1
U z ( x!, 0, 0 ) = 0 + Sign ( x ) EllipticK (12.67)
b 2 2x
2

where EllipticK is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind. In the far wake

0
lim U z ( x, 0, 0 ) = (12.68)
x b

20
One half of the downwash occurs ahead of the lifting line and one half occurs
downstream. The downwash velocity along the x-axis, (12.67) , is plotted below.

Figure 12.17 Downwash induced along the x-axis by a continuous distribution of semi-
infinite vortex lines of attached to the y-axis for the case of elliptic loading. Note the
somewhat larger magnitude compared to two single vortex lines.

Substitute the circulation distribution (12.53) and the downwash (12.60) into (12.51).
1/2
2y 2 1
0 1 = a0 ( y ) C ( y ) U ( y ) 0 (12.69)
b 2 2b

There is an infinite variety of airfoils with different lift slopes a0 ( y ) , chord distributions
C ( y ) and angle of attack distributions ( y ) that can generate an elliptic lift distribution.
However if we assume the wing has the same cross-section geometry all along the span
and that the angle of attack is constant as well, then a0 and are constant and (12.69)
can be solved for the chord distribution.
1/2
2y 2
C ( y ) = C0 1 (12.70)
b

where

4b 0
C0 = (12.71)
( 2bU a0 a0 0 )
is the chord of the wing at midspan. The result (12.70) tells us that to achieve an elliptic
lift distribution on an untwisted wing the chord distribution should also be elliptic.
Perhaps the most famous example of an aircraft with an elliptic wing is the British
Spitfire used in World War II. The image below shows the aircraft seen from the side and
below during a turn.

21
Figure 12.18 British Spitfire showing elliptic planform wing. Note the wing is formed
from two ellipses of different minor axis. This shifts the major axis and center of lift
forward.

Solve for the circulation at midspan.

2bU a0C0
0 = (12.72)
a0C0 + 4b

Introduce the lift coefficient and use (12.55). Equation (12.72) becomes

L U b b 2
1
CL = = = (12.73)
U 2 S 2 U S
0
1 2
S 1 + 4b
2 a0C0

Recall the definition of the wing aspect ratio.

b2
AR = (12.74)
S

For an ellipse with major axis b and minor axis C0 the area is S = C0b / 4 . For this
shape the aspect ratio is AR = 4b / C0 . Equation (12.73) for the lift coefficient becomes

a0
CL = (12.75)
1 + a0
AR

22
an elegantly simple result. Recall that a0 = lim ( dC L / d ) for a wing of infinite aspect
0
ratio. The result (12.75) tells us how to adjust the lift curve slope for a wing of similar
shape but finite aspect ratio.

If the wing is thin, theory tells us that a0 = 2 . In this classical case (12.75) becomes

CL AR
= (12.76)
2 2 + AR

plotted in Figure 12.19

Figure 12.19 The effect of aspect ratio on the lift slope of a thin elliptical wing.

The result (12.76) tells us that the lift curve slope of a finite wing is always lower than
that of its two-dimensional counterpart. This is the price exacted by the work needed to
create the wake.

12.7 DRAG DUE TO LIFT OF AN ELLIPTIC WING

So far we have focused on the lift characteristics and plan-form shape of an elliptical
wing. To complete the picture we need to relate the downwash velocity at the lifting line
to the both the lift and induced drag of the wing. From Figure 12.3 the lift is

U
L = F Cos ( i ) = F (12.77)
(
U 2 + U ( 0, 0, 0 )2
)
1/2
z

where F is the force on the wing perpendicular to the flow velocity vector at the
centerline position of the wing, U ( 0, 0, 0 ) = {U , 0,U z ( 0, 0, 0 )} . The induced drag is

23

U z ( 0, 0, 0 )
Di = F Sin ( i ) = F (12.78)
(
U 2 + U ( 0, 0, 0 )2
)
1/2
z

For an elliptically loaded wing

(
F = U 2 + U z ( 0, 0, 0 ) )
1/2
0b
2
(12.79)
4

The lift is

(
L = U 2 + U z ( 0, 0, 0 ) ) U = U 0b
1/2
0b
2
(12.80)
4
(
U 2 + U ( 0, 0, 0 )2
) 4
1/2
z

and the induced drag is

U z ( 0, 0, 0 )

(
Di = U 2 + U z ( 0, 0, 0 ) ) = U z ( 0, 0, 0 ) 0b
1/2
0b
2

4
(
U 2 + U ( 0, 0, 0 )2
) 4
1/2
z

(12.81)

Insert the downwash velocity from (12.60) into (12.81).

Di = 20 (12.82)
8

The lift coefficient of the wing is

L 0b
CL = = (12.83)
1 2 US
U 2 S
2

where S is the planform area of the wing. The drag coefficient is

Di 20
C Di = = (12.84)
1 4 U 2 S
U 2 S
2

Use (12.83) to replace 0 in (12.84). The result is the classical relation for the induced
drag or drag due to lift.

24
 1 2 S 1 C L2
C Di = CL = (12.85)
b 2 AR

where AR = b 2 / S is the aspect ratio of the wing. Equation (12.85) is plotted below for
AR = 5

Figure 12.20 Lift to drag parabola for an elliptical wing with aspect ratio AR = 5

Using (12.76)
2
C Di 1
= AR (12.86)
4 2
2 + AR

plotted below

Figure 12.21 The effect of aspect ratio on the induced drag slope of a thin elliptical wing

25
The lift to drag ratio of the wing as a function of aspect ratio can be determined by
combining (12.76) and (12.86).

C L A
= 1+ R (12.87)
C Di 2

It is clear from the results of lifting line theory for elliptic wings that an aircraft designed
to stay aloft with very little power and/or for long periods of time needs to have a large
aspect ratio. This is typically the case for gliders and high altitude reconnaissance aircraft
such as the U2 shown below.

Figure 12.22 Solar powered aircraft, left and U2 reconnaissance aircraft, right.

The unique feature of the elliptically loaded wing is that the downwash is constant along
the span. This leads to simple analytical results for the lift, drag and shape of the wing.
The really fortunate thing about these results is that they are not only elegant but
important as well. The main reason is that all slender wings, whether they are rectangular,
diamond or trapezoidal shaped can be viewed as modest variations away from the elliptic
case. As for non-slender wings the elliptic case tells us how far from two-dimensional the
wing behavior is as the aspect ratio becomes small.

12.8 GENERAL WING LOADINGS

Now return to (12.51) rewritten here for convenience.

1 1 d ( y0 ) 1
( y) = a0 ( y ) C ( y ) U ( y )
b /2

2 4 b /2 dy0 ( y y0 )
dy0 (12.88)

We want to now consider more general distributions of ( y ) subject to the condition that
( b / 2 ) = 0 and ( b / 2 ) = 0 . To approach this we will use a generalization of the
result (12.68) for an elliptical wing. That is that the downwash from the trailing vortex
pair at x is twice the downwash felt at the lifting line.

U z ( , 0, 0 )
U z ( 0, 0, 0 ) = (12.89)
2

26
Assume that (12.89) holds at every point along the span of the wing. Let

U z ( x, y, 0 )
U z ( 0, y, 0 ) = lim (12.90)
x 2

Now (12.88) becomes

1 U ( x, y, 0 )
( y) = a0 ( y ) C ( y ) U ( y ) + lim z (12.91)
2 x 2

If we could just figure out the distribution of downwash in the far wake as a function of
y we should be able to infer the distribution of circulation on the wing from (12.91).

Figure 12.23 depicts a large control volume containing the wake produced by an aircraft.
In the far wake the mutual induction of the vortex sheet as well as viscous effects leads to
a roll up and diffusion of the sheet leaving the wing trailing edge. Far downstream of the
aircraft the wake is intersected by a plane perpendicular to the free stream direction. This
plane is called the Trefftz plane after Erich Trefftz (1888-1937) a German applied
mathematician who worked with Prandtl as well as his uncle Carl Runge and others at the
famed Gottingen school of mathematics and physics in the early 1900s.

Figure 12.23 Trefftz plane intersecting the rolled up wake far behind an aircraft.

Figure 12.24 depicts the much more idealized case we will actually treat.

27
Figure 12.24 Trefftz plane intersecting the flat, straight vortex sheet from a wing

In Figure 12.24 the flow is assumed to be irrotational everywhere except within the
vortex sheet. The velocity field in the { y, z} plane is given by

1 d z
lim U y ( x, y, z ) =
b /2
b /2 dy0 ( y y )2 + z 2 dy0
x 2
( 0 )

(12.92)

lim U z ( x, y, z ) =
1 b /2d ( y y0 )
b /2 dy0 ( y y )2 + z 2 dy0
x 2
( 0 )

If the wing loading is elliptic then (12.92) with (12.53) becomes

2y0 2z

2 0 1 b b d 2y0
U y ( y, z ) =
b 1 2y 2 2y 2y0 2z b
1/2 2 2

1 b b b + b
0

(12.93)

2y0 2y 2y0

2 0 1 b b b d 2y0
U z ( y, z ) = 2
b 1
2y0 2 1/2
2y 2y0 2z b
2

1 b b b + b

Let 2y / b = Cos ( ) and 2y0 / b = Cos ( 0 )

28

2z
Cos ( 0 )
2 0 0 b d
U y ( y, z ) =
b 2

0

( Cos ( ) Cos ( 0 )) +
2 2z
b
(12.94)


2 0 0 Cos ( 0 ) ( Cos ( ) Cos ( 0 ))
U z ( y, z ) =
b
d 0
2z
2

( Cos ( ) Cos ( 0 )) +
2

The velocity field (12.94) is shown in the Trefftz plane in Figure 12.25.

Figure 12.25 Flow in the Trefftz shown for an elliptically loaded wing.

Note the anti-symmetry of the flow direction across the vortex sheet and the discontinuity
in the span-wise velocity component implied by the flow pattern in Figure 12.25.

( )
u y y, 0 + = u y y, 0 ( ) (12.95)

The difference in spanwise velocity across the sheet is directly related to the circulation
gradient on the wing

d ( y )
dy
( ) ( ) (
= u y y, 0 + u y y, 0 = 2u y y, 0 + ) (12.96)

29
Since the flow in the Trefftz plane is irrotational everywhere except within the vortex
sheet the velocity field can be generated from a potential u = ( y, z ) with velocity
components

lim U y ( x, y, z ) = u y ( y, z ) =
x y
(12.97)

lim U z ( x, y, z ) = uz ( y, z ) =
x z

The circulation on the wing and velocity potential in the Trefftz plane are connected by

d ( y )
dy
( )
= u y y, 0 + u y y, 0 = 2(y
)
y, 0 + ( ) (12.98)

Therefore

(
( y ) = 2 y, 0 + ) or (
( y ) = 2 y, 0 ) (12.99)

Note that the downwash velocity

lim U z ( x, y, 0 ) = uz ( y, 0 ) = ( y, 0 ) (12.100)
x z

is continuous across the vortex sheet as can be seen in Figure 12.25. The Prandtl equation
(12.91) can be expressed in terms of the velocity potential as

1 1
( y) = a0 ( y ) C ( y ) U ( y ) + ( y, 0 ) (12.101)
2 2 z

The problem boils down to determining the Trefftz plane potential ( y, z ) . The problem
formulation is as follows.

1) The potential satisfies Laplaces equation

2 2
= 2 + 2 =0
2
(12.102)
y z

2) The velocity goes to zero at large distances from the vortex sheet.

lim 0 (12.103)
y 2 + z 2

3) The velocity potential is an odd function of z .

( y, z ) = ( y, z ) (12.104)

30
The condition (12.104) comes from

( y, 0 + ) = ( y, 0 ) for b / 2 < y < b / 2 (12.105)

and

( y, 0 ) = 0 for y < b / 2 and y>b/2 (12.106)

In addition, at the end points of the vortex sheet

b b
, 0 = , 0 = 0 (12.107)
2 2

4) The Prandtl equation provides the boundary condition

1
( )
2 y, 0 + =
1
2
a0 ( y ) C ( y ) U ( y ) +
2 z
( y, 0 )

for b / 2 < y < b / 2 (12.108)

where (12.99) has been used.

Since we are solving a potential flow problem in all the solutions are harmonic functions
and we can use methods of complex analysis. Define the complex variable

= y + iz = ei = ( Cos ( ) + iSin ( )) (12.109)

where i = 1 and the complex potential

F ( ) = ( y, z ) + i ( y, z ) (12.110)

The velocity components in the { y, z} plane are related to the potentials by

u y ( y, z ) = uz ( y, z ) = (12.111)
y z

and

u y ( y, z ) = uz ( y, z ) = (12.112)
z y

The potentials satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann conditions

= = (12.113)
y z z y

31
The derivative of an analytic function is independent of the path in the complex plane
along which 0 . Therefore the complex velocity can be either

dF dF 1 ( y, z ) ( y, z )
W ( ) = = = +i = u y ( y, z ) iuz ( y, z ) (12.114)
d dy d / dy y y

or

dF dF 1 ( y, z ) ( y, z )
W ( ) = = = i + = u y ( y, z ) iuz ( y, z ) (12.115)
d dz d / dz z z

Either derivative generates the same velocity field.

In this section we will be primarily concerned with the velocity potential ( z, y ) . In the
search for F ( ) it is convenient to use conformal (angle preserving) mapping to map the
plane to a new complex plane defined by the conformal transformation

( ) =+
( b / 4)
2

(12.116)

where

= p + iq = rei = r ( Cos ( ) + iSin ( )) (12.117)

and

q
r= p2 + q2 = ArcTan (12.118)
p

The inverse of (12.116) is

1 2 b
2

= (12.119)
2 2 2

The real and imaginary parts of and are related by

b2 1 b2 1
y = p 1 + 2 2
z = q 1 2 2
(12.120)
4 p + q 4 p + q

or

32
 b 1
2
b 1
2

y = Cos ( ) r + z = Sin ( ) r (12.121)

4 r 4 r

The mapping in cylindrical coordinates is

b2
b4 b2 r 4r Tan ( )
= + r 2
+ Cos ( 2 ) = ArcTan (12.122)
16r 2 2 r+ b2
4r

The mapping (12.116) takes the line z = 0 , b / 2 < y < b / 2 in the plane to the circle

b b
Sheet = ( Cos ( ) + iSin ( )) = ei (12.123)
4 4

in the plane as shown in Figure 12.26.

Figure 12.26 Mapping the vortex sheet to a circle

The flow we are seeking is outside the vortex sheet in the plane and outside the circle
in the plane. Let the complex potential in the plane be

G ( ) = ( r, ) + i ( r, ) (12.124)

Under the conformal mapping (12.116) the complex potential in the plane is

G ( ) = F ( ( )) (12.125)

and the complex potential in the plane is generated from

F ( ) = G ( ( )) (12.126)

33
Following (12.126) the scalar potentials in the two planes are related by

( y, z ) = ( r ( y, z ) , ( y, z )) (12.127)

where ( y, z ) and ( r, ) are related by (12.121)

Now work out G ( ) . Assume that G ( ) is of the form

b + ia
G ( ) = n n n (12.128)
n =1

In polar coordinates (12.117) the complex potential is

( b Cos ( n ) + an Sin ( n )) + i ( anCos ( n ) bn Sin ( n ))

G ( ) = n (12.129)
n =1 rn

and the scalar potential in the plane is

( b Cos ( n ) + an Sin ( n ))
( r, ) = n (12.130)
n =1 rn

The conditions (12.104), (12.105), (12.106) and (12.107) in the plane imply the
requirement

( r, ) = ( r, ) for rb/4 (12.131)

( r, 0 ) = ( r, ) for r > b / 4 (12.132)

Conditions (12.131) and (12.132) imply that the coefficients of the symmetric terms in
(12.130) must all be zero. Now

an Sin ( n )
( r, ) = (12.133)
n =1 rn

The complex potential in the plane is

a
G ( ) = i nn (12.134)
n =1

From (12.127) the scalar potential in the plane is

34

an Sin ( n ( y, z ))
( y, z ) = ( r ( y, z ) , ( y, z )) = (12.135)
r ( y, z )
n
n =1

From (12.126) the complex velocity is

dF dG 1
W ( ) = u y ( y, z ) iuz ( y, z ) = = (12.136)
d d d / d

Substitute (12.134) into (12.136) and differentiate (12.116). The complex velocity in the
plane is


na 2
u y ( y, z ) iuz ( y, z ) = i n +1n (12.137)
n =1 2 b2
4

The result (12.137) can be expressed in terms of ( r, )

na e n
r 2
u y ( y, z ) iuz ( y, z ) = i nn +1 (12.138)
n =1
2
r 2 i b i
r e 4 e

Separate the right hand side of (12.138) into real and imaginary parts.

2 i b 2 i

nan ein r2 r e 4 e
u y ( y, z ) iuz ( y, z ) = i n +1 =
n =1 r 2 i b 2 i 2 i b 2 i
r e 4 e r e 4 e

b
2
2 b2
r + Cos ( n ) Sin ( ) + r Sin ( n ) Cos ( ) +
2

4 4
n
na
2 b 2 b2
2

i r 4 Cos ( n ) Cos ( ) r + 4 Sin ( n ) Sin ( )



b
4
b
2

r n 1 r 4 + 2 r 2Cos ( 2 )
n =1

4 4

(12.139)

35
Rearrange the complex velocity (12.139).
( y, z ) ( y, z )
u y ( y, z ) iuz ( y, z ) = i =
y z
b
2
2 b2
nan r + Cos ( n ) Sin ( ) + r Sin ( n ) Cos ( )
2

4 4
(12.140)
n =1 4 b 4
b 2
2

r r + 2 r Cos ( 2 )
n 1
4 4

b
2
2 b2
nan r Cos ( n ) Cos ( ) r + Sin ( n ) Sin ( )
2

4 4
i
n =1 b
4
b
2

r n 1 r 4 + 2 r 2Cos ( 2 )
4 4

The downwash velocity in the plane is

( y, z )
=
z
b
2
2 b2
n
na r 2
Cos ( n ) Cos ( ) r + Sin ( n ) Sin ( ) (12.141)

4 4
4 b4 2


n =1 b 2
r r + 2 r Cos ( 2 )
n 1
4 4

Refer back to the Prandtl equation (12.108). We need to determine ( y, 0 ) / z .

( y, z )
=
z z = 0
b
2
2 b2
nan r Cos ( n ) Cos ( ) r + Sin ( n ) Sin ( )
2

4 4
4 b 4 2

=
n =1 b 2
r r + 2 r Cos ( 2 )
n 1
4 4
r =b / 4

na Sin ( n ) Sin ( )
nan Sin ( n )
n
n +1
= b n +1 Sin ( )

n =1 b
4 (1 Cos ( 2 ))
n =1
2 4

(12.142)

36
Now

( y, z ) na Sin ( n )
= n
(12.143)
z z = 0 n =1 b
n +1
Sin ( )
2 4

(
The Prandtl equation (12.108) also requires y, 0 + which we can get from (12.135).)

an Sin ( n ( y, z ))
an Sin ( n )
( y, z ) z = 0+ = = (12.144)
r ( y, z )
n n
n =1
r =b / 4
n =1 b

4

Now substitute (12.143) and (12.144) into (12.108) repeated here in a slightly different
form for convenience.

( y, 0 + ) 1 C ( y ) 1 1 C ( y) b b
a0 ( y ) ( y, 0 ) = a0 ( y ) ( y ) for < y <
U b 8 b U z 4 b 2 2

(12.145)

The steps are

( y, 0 + ) 1 C ( y ) 1 1 C ( y)
a0 ( y ) ( y, 0 ) = a0 ( y ) ( y)
U b 8 b U z 4 b

1
an Sin ( n ) 1 C ( y) 1 na Sin ( n ) 1

C ( y)

U b n =1 b n + a0 ( y )
8
b U n =1 b
n
n +1
= a0 ( y )
Sin ( ) 4 b
( y)
2 4
4

an Sin ( n ) na0 ( y ) C ( y ) C ( y)
b
n Sin ( ) +
4b

= a0 ( y )
4b
( y ) Sin ( )
n =1
U b
4

a Sin ( n ) na0 ( y ) C ( y ) C ( y)
b n
n
Sin ( ) +
4b

= a0 ( y )
4b
( y ) Sin ( )
n =1
U b 4

(12.146)

Finally we have the solution (12.135)

37

an Sin ( n ( y, z ))
( y, z ) = (12.147)
r ( y, z )
n
n =1

The coefficients in the series in (12.147) are determined from the last relation in (12.146).

a Sin ( n ) a0 ( y ) C ( y ) a0 ( y ) C ( y )
b n ( )
n
Sin + n
4b =
4b ( y ) Sin ( ) (12.148)
n =1
U b 4

Equation (12.148) is evaluated on the vortex sheet 2y / b = Cos ( ) . The range of is

< < 0 . Equation (12.148) for the coefficients becomes

b b
a Sin ( n ) na0 Cos ( ) C Cos ( )

2 2
n b n Sin ( ) + =
n =1 4b
U b 4
(12.149)
b
C
2 Cos ( )
b
a0 ( y ) Cos ( ) Sin ( )
4b 2

Check (12.147) and (12.149) against the case of an elliptical wing

1/2
2y 2
C ( y ) = C0 1 = C0 Sin ( ) (12.150)
b

38

a Sin ( n ) na ( y ) C ( y ) C ( y)
n b n Sin ( ) + 0 4b = a0 ( y ) 4b ( y ) Sin ( )
n =1
U b 4

C ( y ) = C0 Sin ( )

a Sin ( n ) na ( y ) C Sin ( ) C0 Sin ( )
n b n Sin ( ) + 0 4b0 = a0 ( y )
4b
( y ) Sin ( )
n =1
U b 4

a Sin ( n ) na C C Sin ( )
n b n 1 + 4b0 0 = a0 0 4b (12.151)
n =1
U b 4
an = 0, n = 2, 3,...
a0 C0 b a0C0 a b a
1= U = C0 0 U 0
4
a1 4 4 4b 4a1 4b
4b
C0 =
U b 2
a0 1
a1 2

Compare the last equation in (12.151) to

4b 0 4b
C0 = = =
( 2bU a0 a0 0 ) 2bU
a0

1
0
(12.152)
4b
C0 =
U b 2
a0 1
( 0b / 8 ) 2

The results are identical if we choose the first coefficient in the series (12.147) to be

0b
a1 = (12.153)
8

For the elliptic wing the downwash at infinity is

39
 ( y, z ) 8a
= 21
z z = 0 b
0b
a1 = (12.154)
8
( y, z )
= 0
z z = 0 b

which is twice the downwash at the wing.

That is some reassurance that (12.148) is correct. Since y = bCos ( ) / 2 we can let
C ( y ) = C ( ) , a0 ( y ) = a0 ( ) and ( y ) = ( ) . The Prandtl equation becomes

a Sin ( n ) a ( ) C ( ) a ( ) C ( )
n b n Sin ( ) + n 0 4b = 0 4b ( ) Sin ( ) (12.155)
n =1
U b 4

Finally the solutions for the circulation and downwash of a general wing shape are from
(12.99), (12.100), (12.144) and (12.143)

( y)
= An Sin ( n ) (12.156)
2U b n =1

U z ( 0, y, 0 )
Sin ( n )
= nAn (12.157)
U n =1 Sin ( )

where

an
An = n (12.158)
b
U b
4

12.9 FORCES ON A GENERAL WING

In section 12.4 we summarized the relations for the forces and moments on a wing. The
differential lift and induced drag at a given span-wise location are

dL ( y ) = U ( y ) dy (12.159)

and

dDi ( y ) = U z ( 0, y, 0 ) ( y ) dy (12.160)

40
Let

b b
y= Cos ( ) and dy = Sin ( ) d
2 2
(12.161)

The range on y is b / 2 < y < b / 2 and < < 0 . Now the differential lift of a general
wing is

dL ( y ) = U 2b 2 An Sin ( n )Sin ( ) d (12.162)
n =1

and the induced drag is

dDi ( y ) = U 2b 2 ( nAn Sin ( n )) Am Sin ( m ) d (12.163)
n =1 m =1

The lift and drag are found by integrating the above differential relations

L = U 2b 2 An Sin ( n )Sin ( ) d
0
(12.164)

n =1

Di = U 2b 2 nAn Am Sin ( n )Sin ( m ) d
0
(12.165)

n =1 m =1

The integrals that appear in (12.164) and (12.165) are easily evaluated and lead to a
considerable simplification.

Sin ( n ) Sin ( m )d = 0 if n m , Sin ( n ) Sin ( m )d =
0 0

2
if n = m (12.166)

Now

L= U 2b 2 A1 (12.167)
2

and

Di = U b nAn2
2 2
(12.168)
2 n =1

Interestingly the lift only depends on the first coefficient in the series (12.156) for the
circulation. Whereas, the drag depends on every term in the series; a much more difficult
quantity to evaluate. The rolling moment vector is aligned with the positive x-axis and
also involves integrating the circulation.

41

1
y ( y )dy = U 2b 3 An Sin ( n )Cos ( ) Sin ( ) d (12.169)
b /2 0
M x = M Roll = U
b /2 2
n =1

The integral in (12.169) is

Sin ( n ) Cos ( ) Sin ( )d = 0 Sin ( 2 ) Cos ( ) Sin ( )d =
0 0

all n 2, 4
(12.170)

The rolling moment only depends on the second term in the series.

y ( y )dy =
b /2
M x = M Roll = U U 2b 3 A2 (12.171)
b /2 8

The yawing moment is aligned with the positive z-axis and, like drag, its integral
involves the circulation and downwash velocity.

y dDi ( y ) = yU z ( 0, y, 0 ) ( y ) dy
b /2 b /2
M z = M Yaw = (12.172)
b /2 b /2

which becomes

yU z ( 0, y, 0 ) ( y ) dy =
b /2
M z = M Yaw =
b /2

1 (12.173)
U 2b 3 nAn Am Sin ( n )Sin ( m ) Sin ( ) Cos ( ) d
0

2
n =1 m =1

The integral in (12.173) can be evaluated.

Sin ( n ) Sin ( m ) Cos ( )d =
0
4
if m = n + 1
(12.174)
Sin ( n ) Sin ( m ) Cos ( )d = 0 otherwise
0

Finally

M z = M Yaw = U 2b 3 ( 2n + 1) An An +1 (12.175)
8 n =1

Not surprisingly, the yawing moment depends on all the coefficients in the series since it
is directly related to differences in drag along the wing. The corresponding force
coefficients are

42
 L b2
CL = = A1 = ( AR ) A1
1
U 2 S S
2
Di b2
C Di = = nAn2 = ( AR ) nAn2
1
U 2 S S n =1 n =1
2
(12.176)
Mx b2
C MRoll = = A2 = AR A2
1 4 S 4
U 2 Sb
2
Mz b2
C MYaw = = ( 2n + 1) An An +1 = AR ( 2n + 1) An An +1
4 n =1
U 2 Sb 4 S n =1
1
2

12.10 MINIMUM INDUCED DRAG WING

The coefficients in (12.176) depend on the distributions of a0 ( y ) ,C ( y ) , ( y ) along the
span of the wing. The lift only depends on the the first coefficient. The drag depends on a
sum of squares of all the coefficients. Clearly the lowest drag occurs when An = 0 for all
n > 1 . In this case the circulation (12.156) becomes
1/2 1/2
2y 2 a 2y
2

( y ) = 2U bA1Sin ( ) = 2U bA1 1 = 8 1 1 (12.177)

b b b

Recall (12.153), a1 = 0b / 8 . Now

1/2
2y 2
( y ) = 0 1 (12.178)
b

Minimum induced drag occurs when the lift distribution on a wing is elliptic. For an
untwisted wing this corresponds to an elliptic chord distribution.

12.11 INDUCED DRAG OF A RECTANGULAR WING

Circulation distributions calculated from the Prandtl equation (12.51) for a rectangular
wing are shown in Figure 12.27.

43
Figure 12.27 Circulation distribution along straight wings of various aspect ratios from
Prandtl & Tietjens (Applied Hydro and Aeromechanics). The aspect ratio parameter is
P = (2 / )b / C .

In the limit b / c 0 the circulation distribution from (12.51) is elliptic and for small
aspect ratios the circulation distribution is almost elliptic. However as the aspect ratio
increases the portion of the span over which the circulation decreases to zero becomes a
smaller and smaller part of the span and the circulation distribution over most of the span
is almost rectangular. In the limit of infinite span the wing becomes two-dimensional and
the circulation becomes exactly constant along the span.

Prandtl and Tietjens point out that the induced drag of a rectangular wing does not
deviate that much from the drag of an elliptic wing. Figure 12.28 illustrates the lift,
downwash and induced drag for a typical rectangular wing.

Figure 12.28 Typical variations of lift, downwash and induced drag for a rectangular
wing from Prandtl & Tietjens.

The higher downwash at the wing tips and concomitant higher induced drag is due to the
area distribution of a rectangular wing that puts more area at the wing tips than an

44
elliptical wing of the same total area. At the same time the centerline chord of the
rectangular wing is smaller producing lower induced drag over the center span so the net
effect is a relatively small overall drag increase compared to the elliptical wing. An
approximate formula for 1 < 2b / c < 10 is

Di 2b
= 0.99 + 0.015 (12.179)
Di min C

plotted in Figure 12.29.

Figure 12.29 Induced drag of a straight wing of varying aspect ratio compared to the
induced drag of an elliptic wing Di min from Prandtl & Tietjens.

Viscosity and the no slip condition create a boundary layer on the wing that is responsible
for two additional contributions to the drag. There is a direct contribution from the skin
friction integrated over the surface of the wing. In addition, the displacement effect of the
boundary layer on the surrounding potential flow modifies the pressure from the pure
potential flow solution leading to a drag contribution. Together these two contributions
are called profile drag.

When we determined the induced drag of an elliptic wing we developed the relation

C L2 S
C Di = (12.180)
b2

where S = C0b / 4 is the wing area. We can generalize (12.180) to approximate the
induced drag of a rectangular wing with S = Cb . Let

C L2 C
C Di = (12.181)
b

Figure 12.30 shows the Lift-drag parabola of a rectangular wing compared to its
calculated lift-induced-drag parabola. It can be seen that when the angle of attack exceeds
about 3 degrees most of the drag is induced drag. The relatively small difference between

45
the two curves is the profile drag. Interestingly, the contribution from the profile drag is
almost independent of the angle of attack of the wing.

Figure 12.30 Lift-drag parabola for a rectangular wing with aspect ratio parameter
P = ( 2 / ) b / C = 5 compared to the induced drag of a rectangular wing.

Similar data at a variety of aspect ratios shows that the profile drag coefficient is also
relatively insensitive to aspect ratio. This can be used as the basis for an approximate
method for converting the lift-drag curve for one aspect ratio wing to another aspect ratio.

The drag coefficient is the sum of induced drag and profile drag.

C D = C Di + C Dp (12.182)

Now consider two wings of similar profile but different aspect ratio.

C L2 S1
C D1 = + C Dp
b12
(12.183)
C2 S
C D2 = L 22 + C Dp
b2

If the profile drag contribution is the same for both wings then the drag coefficient of one
wing can be converted to the other using

C L2 S2 S1
C D2 = C D1 + (12.184)
b22 b12

46
In Figure 12.31 the transformation formula (12.184) has been used to convert all the data
in the left figure for various aspect ratios to the single curve for aspect ratio 5 in the right
figure.

Figure 12.31 Left, lift-drag parabola for a rectangular wing of various aspect ratios.
Same data scaled to P = ( 2 / ) b / C = 5 using (12.184).

A similar approach can be used to to convert the lift data for one aspect ratio wing to
another. Here again the idea is to generalize the result obtained for an elliptic wing.
Recall the downwash velocity for an elliptic wing (12.60)

0
U z ( 0, y, 0 ) = (12.185)
2b

The lift for an elliptic wing is

L = U 0b (12.186)
4

and the lift coefficient is

L
CL = = 0 (12.187)
1 2 US
U 2 S
2

Combine (12.185) and (12.187).

47
 Uz 0 C S
= = L 2 (12.188)
U 2bU b

Recall that one of the effects of the downwash of a finite wing is to decrease the effective
angle of attack of the wing and thereby reduce the lift. If a section of a finite wing were to
have the same lift as the same section considered to be part of an infinite wing at angle of
C S
attack 0 its angle of attack would have to be increased by i = L 2 . The angle of
b
attack of the wing would need to be

CL S
= 0 i = 0 + (12.189)
b2

where Tan (U z / U ) U z / U has been used. If we compare two wings with the same
profile and therefore the same 0 but different aspect ratios we can write

C L S1
1 = 0 +
b12
(12.190)
C S
2 = 0 + L 22
b2

Eliminate the common infinite aspect ratio angle of attack 0 between the two wings.
The transformation of angle of attack becomes

C L S2 S1
2 = 1 + (12.191)
b22 b12

Figure 12.32 shows lift versus-angle-of-attack data for rectangular wings of various
aspect ratio transformed to a single aspect ratio using (12.191).

48
Figure 12.32 Left, Lift versus angle-of-attack for a rectangular wing of various aspect
ratios. Same data scaled to P = ( 2 / ) b / C = 5 using (12.191).

The data mappings in Figures 12.31 and 12.32 have been derived using results for wings
with elliptic lift distributions. However the fact that the lift distributions for rectangular
wings do not deviate too much from elliptic suggests that the transformation rules
(12.184) and (12.191) can be used to correlate aspect ratio data for a wide variety of wing
shapes.

12.12 UNSTEADY MOMENTUM INTEGRAL IN A TREFFTZ PLANE FIXED WITH

RESPECT TO THE SURROUNDING FLUID

After a period of time has passed, the vast majority of momentum in the minus z-
direction generated by the wing is contained in the far wake. Moreover the length of the
wake in the positive x-direction that contains virtually all the momentum is
wake length = U t . Using this idea and the results for the momentum generated by a
point force described at the end of Chapter 10, we can approximate the momentum
balance by

2L
U t U z dydz = u (t ) t (12.192)
3

or

2 L


U z dydz =
3 U
(12.193)

49
The integral in (12.193) is carried out in a Trefftz plane that is fixed with respect to the
surrounding fluid and increasingly far behind the aircraft as it moves away at speed U
in the minus x-direction. This situation is illustrated in Figure 12.33.

Figure 12.33 Aircraft wake with Trefftz plane fixed with respect to the surrounding fluid

If we are far enough behind the aircraft so that any stream-wise velocity components
have died off then the wake should be completely described by the two-dimensional flow
in the Trefftz plane. Remember the drag and thrust are in perfect balance so the
streamwise velocities should die off rapidly.

The integral momentum balance in two dimensions is

D P F ( x,t )
Dt A
U dA C

+ UU + I

i n dC + (
n dA)= A dA (12.194)
C

where C is a fixed circular contour of large radius R surrounding the 2-D momentum
source (force) located at the origin. The force divided by density acting on the flow is
really a force per unit length with units L3 / T instead of L4 / T as in the 3-D case. In the
far field the velocity behaves as U 1 / R 2 , the vorticity is zero and the momentum
balance becomes

D P F ( x,t )
lim
R Dt
A
U dA

+ C
I

i n dC =
A
dA (12.195)

The force creating the flow is

F ( x,t ) I
= 0, ( t ) ( y ) ( z ) (12.196)

and the total impulse generated by the force is

50
 I tI I
= 0, ( t ) dt = 0, (12.197)
0

with units [ I / ] = Length 3 / Time . The 2-D momentum balance in the z-direction is

D P I
lim U z dA + lim I in dC = ( t ) (12.198)
R Dt
A R C z

The flow in the far field created by the isolated force (12.196) is a planar dipole with a 3-
D vector potential that turns on at t = 0 .

I
{ }
A = Ax , Ay , Az = u (t ) 2
y
,
(
0, 0
)
(12.199)
2 y + z2

and a velocity field in the Trefftz plane

I
{
U = U y ,U z } = u (t )
yz
,
I
u ( t )
2y 2
+ 2
1
(12.200)
( ) 2 (
y 2 + z 2 ) ( y + z2 )
2 2
y + z2
2

The corresponding scalar potential can be determined by integrating (12.200) by

quadrature.

I z
= u (t ) 2 (12.201)
2 y + z 2

The pressure is determined from the far field balance between pressure and momentum

U P P
+ = 0 = (12.202)
t t

and

P I z
= (t ) 2 (12.203)
2 y + z 2

The pressure integral in the 2-D momentum balance (12.198) is now

P I 2 1I
lim I in dC = ( t ) Sin 2 ( ) d = (t ) (12.204)
R C z
2 0 2

and the momentum balance (12.198) becomes

51
 D 1I
lim U z dA = (t ) (12.205)
R Dt
A 2

The integral of the momentum over the Trefftz plane is

1I
Hz =

U z dydz =
2
(12.206)

During the brief moment when the line impulsive force creating the vortex pair is turned
on, the pressure force at infinity removes one half of the impulse applied to the flow
(versus 1/3 in 3-D). Once the force is turned off the pressure at infinity also turns off and
the vortex pair drifts downward under its own self-induction.

If the vortex pair produced by the impulsive line force is interpreted as the far wake of a
lifting aircraft then the impulse per unit length of wake is interpreted as the downward
impulsive force applied by the aircraft to the fluid as it passes over a given position
x = U t . Using this idea, the lift is related to the impulse by

I L
= (12.207)
U

and the z-momentum per unit length of wake is

1 L
Hz =

U z dydz =
2 U
(12.208)

Now consider an inviscid model of the wake that does include the downward convection
of the vortex pair.

12.13 INVISCID VORTEX PAIR MODEL OF THE WAKE.

Let the wake of the aircraft be modeled as two infinite inviscid line vortices of circulation
0 convecting downward by their own mutual induction. Figure 12.34 depicts the
situation.

52
 Figure 12.34 Inviscid vortex pair.

The vorticity source distribution for a single line vortex is

{
( x,t ) = 0 ( y b0 / 2 ) ( z + a ( t )) , 0, 0 } (12.209)

where a ( t ) is a positive function of time to be determined that defines the speed with
which the vortex pair system drifts downward. The vector potential of (12.209) is
A = { Ax , 0, 0} where

1 0 ( ys b0 / 2 ) ( zs + a ( t ))
Ax = dxs dys dzs =
4
( ( x x s ) 2 + ( y ys ) 2 + ( z z s ) 2 )
1/2

(12.210)
1
Ax = 0 dxs
4
(( x xs )2 + ( y b0 / 2)2 + ( z + a (t )) )
2 1/2

The integral over xs is

+ x + ( x + )2 + y b / 2 2 + z + a ( t ) 2
0 ( 0 ) ( )
Ax = lim Ln (12.211)
4 + x + ( x )2 + ( y b / 2 )2 + ( z + a ( t ))2
0

When the limit is taken in (12.211) the result is

53
 0
( )
Ln ( y b0 / 2 ) + ( z + a ( t )) Ln ( 2 )
2 2 1/2
Ax =
2

Ax = 0 Ln
(( 0) ( ( )) )
yb /2 + z+a t
2 2 1/2

(12.212)

2 2

The vector potential of the vortex pair is generated by superposing the vector potentials
of the two vortex lines of opposite sign.

0 ( y b0 / 2 )2 + ( z + a ( t ))2
Ax = Ln (12.213)
4 ( y + b0 / 2 )2 + ( z + a ( t ))2

The corresponding scalar potential of the system is

0 z + a (t ) z + a (t )
( y, z ) = ArcTan ArcTan (12.214)
2
y b0 / 2 y + b0 / 2

and the velocity field derived from either potential is

0b0
{
U = U y ,U z } =
( 2
)(
2 ( y b0 / 2 ) + ( z + a ( t ))2 ( y + b0 / 2 )2 + ( z + a ( t ))2 )

2 b0 2 2
2y ( z + a ( t ) ) , y ( z + a ( t ) )
2
(12.215)
0 ( z + a) ( z + a)
Uy = +
2 ( z + a )2 + ( y b0 / 2 )2 ( z + a )2 + ( y + b0 / 2 )2

Uz =
0 ( y b0 / 2 )
( y + b0 / 2 )

2 ( z + a )2 + ( y b0 / 2 )2 ( z + a )2 + ( y + b0 / 2 )2

Now, the momentum of the inviscid vortex pair is

2
H=

U dz dy = 0
rnd

0 rSin ( ) + a ( t ) rSin ( ) + a ( t )
ArcTan rCos b / 2 ArcTan rCos + b / 2 r {Cos ( ) , Sin ( )}d
2

2
0
( ) 0 ( ) 0
(12.216)

Use the identity

54
 uv
ArcTan ( u ) ArcTan ( v ) = ArcTan (12.217)
1 uv

where

uv b0 ( rSin ( ) + a ( t ))
= 2 (12.218)
1 uv r Cos 2 ( ) ( b0 / 2 )2 ( rSin ( ) + a ( t ))2

Now the momentum becomes

H=

U dz dy =

0 b0 ( rSin ( ) + a ( t ))
2 r {Cos ( ) , Sin ( )}d
2

2
0


ArcTan 2
r Cos 2
( ) ( b / 2 ) 2
( rSin ( ) + a ( t ) )
0

(12.219)

When the integral is carried out

b
{
}
H = H y , H z = 0, 0 0
2
(12.220)

Equate the z-momentum from (12.208) to the z-momentum from (12.220). The result is

L = U 0b0 (12.221)

We worked out the lift for the case of elliptic loading in (12.55).

L = U 0 b (12.222)
4

Equating (12.221) and (12.222) leads to the spacing between vortex lines compared to the
wing span required to properly model the lift.

b0 = b (12.223)
4

The visualization of the vorticity shed from the trailing edge of the wing in Figure 12.1c
confirms that there is a tendency to form relatively thin vortex tubes at least in the near
wake of the wing. The plan view of the wing shown in Figure 12.1b also indicates a
natural tendency for the trailing vortex pair to move toward one another. For an
elliptically loaded wing we might see something like the sketch in Figure 12.35.

55
 Figure 12.35 Vortex spacing in the wake of an elliptically loaded wing.

We still need to determine the downward drift a ( t ) of the vortex pair. Here we will use
the requirement that there is no net pressure on the vortex pair; they are free vortices. The
pressure field on the z-axis can be determined from the z-momentum equation.

P U z U z U z da U z
= + Uz = + Uz (12.224)
z t z a dt z

Equation (12.224) can be integrated to give the pressure on y = 0

P ( 0, z ) U z ( 0, z ) U ( 0, z )
= + U z ( 0, z ) z =
z t z
U z ( 0, z ) da U ( 0, z ) U z ( 0, z ) da U ( 0, z )
+ U z ( 0, z ) z = + U z ( 0, z ) z (12.225)
a dt z z dt z
P P da 1 2
= U z ( 0, z ) + U z ( 0, z )
dt 2

Now we require that there be no net pressure on the vortex pair.

P P da 1 2
dz = U z ( 0, z ) + U z ( 0, z ) dz = 0 (12.226)

dt 2

which gives the drift as

(U ( 0, z ) )dz
2
da 1 z
=
(12.227)
(U ( 0, z ))dz

dt 2
z

56
The z-velocity component on the centerline y = 0 is

b 1
U z ( 0, z ) = 0 0 (12.228)
2 2
b0
( z + a ) + 2
2

Substitute (12.228) into (12.227). The drift velocity of the vortex pair is
2

b0
2

1 / ( z + a ) + 2 dz
2

da 0b0
= =
dt 4 b0
2

1 / ( z + a ) + 2 dz
2

2 (12.229)
z + a 2 z + a
1 / b0 / 2 + 1 d b0 / 2
da 0b0 1 0
= =
dt 4 b0 2 z + a z + a
2
2 b0

2 b0 / 2 d b0 / 2
1 / + 1

in agreement with the well known classical value.

Lets look at the flow about the vortex pair in a frame of reference moving downward at
the speed (12.229). The unsteady velocity potential and vector potential are

t t
z+ 0 z+ 0
2 b0 2 b0
( y, z ) = 0 ArcTan ArcTan (12.230)
2 y b0 / 2 y + b0 / 2

0t
2

( y b0 / 2 ) + z +
2

2 b0
Ax = 0 Ln (12.231)
4 0t
2

( y + b0 / 2 ) + z +
2

2 b
0

The unsteady velocity field in the non-moving frame is from (12.215).

57
 0t 0t
z + z +
2 b0 2 b0
Uy = 0 +

2 t
2 2
t
2 2
z + 0 + y 0
b b
z+ 0 +y+ 0
2 b0 2 2 b0 2
(12.232)

b0 b0
y y +
0 2 2
Uz =

2 t
2 2
t
2 2
z + 0 + y 0
b b
z+ 0 +y+ 0
2 b0 2 2 b0 2

Transform (12.230), (12.231) and (12.232) to an observer moving downward at a

constant speed with the vortex pair. Let

y! = y
0t
z! = z +
2 b0
U! y! = U y

U! z! = U z + 0 (12.233)
2 b0
P! = P
y
A! x! = Ax 0
2 b0

! = + 0 z + 0t

2 b0 2 b0

0 z!
! ( y!, z! ) = 0 ArcTan

z!

z!
2 y! b / 2 ArcTan y! + b / 2 + 2 b (12.234)
0 0 0

0 ( y! b0 / 2 )2 + z! 2 y!
Ax! ( y!, z! ) =
! Ln
0
(12.235)
4 ( y! + b0 / 2 )2 + z! 2 2 b0

The velocity field with respect to the moving (tildaed) observer is steady.

58

z! z!
U! y! = 0 +
2 2 b0
2
b
2

z! + y! 2 z! 2 + y! + 0
2
(12.236)
b0 b0
!
y !
y +
! 0 2 2
U z! = 2
+ 0
2 2 b0 b 2 b0
2

z! + y! 2 z! 2 + y! + 0
2

The steady streamline pattern seen by the observer drifting downward with the vortex
pair is shown in Figure 7.36.

Figure 12.36 Streamline pattern of an inviscid trailing vortex pair as seen by an observer
convecting downward with the pair.

In this frame of reference we can see the body of fluid carried downward by the vortex
pair in the form of a closed streamline surrounding the two vortex centers.

12.14 EFFECT OF A GROUND PLANE ON THE DOWNWASH VELOCITY

We can solve the problem of a wake vortex sheet placed a height h above a wall by
placing a system of image vortices an equal distance h below the wall as shown in the
figure below.

59
Figure 12.37 Continuous distribution of vortex lines with image system beneath the
ground plane.

The vector potential of the aggregate system is, by superposition A = { Ax , 0,U y} where
Ax is

1 d ( y0 )
Ax ( x, y, z ) =
b /2

4
0 dy
0

(x + ( y + y0 ) + ( z h )) (( y y ) + ( z h) )
2 1/2 2
x+
2 2 2
0
Ln
x+ (x + ( y y ) + ( z h ) ) (( y + y ) + ( z h ) )
1/2
2 2 2 2 2
(12.237)

0 0

dy0
x+
(x + ( y + y0 ) + ( z + h )) (( y y ) + ( z + h ) )
2 1/2 2
2 2 2

Ln 0

(x + ( y y ) + ( z + h ) ) (( y + y ) + ( z + h ) )

2 1/2 2
x +
2 2 2
0
0

where the integral is from y0 = 0 to y0 = b / 2 and the vortex sheet is assumed to be anti-
symmetric. The downwash velocity of the overall system (object plus image) is

60
 2y0
0 b
U z ( x, y, z ) =
b/2

2 b 2y0 2
0 1/ 2

1 b

(
( y y0 )(( y + y0 )2 + ( z h )2 ) 2 ( y + y0 ) x + ( x 2 + ( y y0 )2 + ( z h )2 )1/ 2 ( x 2 + ( y y0 )2 + ( z h )2 )1/ 2 )
+

( 2 2 2
1/ 2
2 2 2
(
x + ( y y0 ) + ( z h ) ) x + ( x + ( y y0 ) + ( z h ) ) (( y + y0 ) + ( z h ) )
1/ 2 2 2
)
dy
0 ( ) ( ) ( (
( y + y ) ( y y )2 + ( z h )2 + 2 ( y y ) x + x 2 + ( y + y )2 + ( z h )2 1/ 2 x 2 + ( y + y )2 + ( z h )2 1/ 2
0 0 0 0 ) ) 0

1/ 2

(
( x 2 + ( y + y0 )2 + ( z h )2 ) x + ( x 2 + ( y + y0 )2 + ( z h )2 ) (( y y0 )2 + ( z h )2 )
1/ 2

)

2y0 (12.238)
0 b

b/2

At
2 bthe0 origin
2y of the object system { x, y, z} = {0, 0, h} (ie., the lifting line) the downwash
1/ 2

0
2

velocityis1 b

z ((0,
U

y ( )
0,yh0 )) =( y + y0 )2 + ( z + h )2 2 ( y + y0 ) x + x 2 + ( y y0 )2 + ( z + h )2 (
) )( x + ( y y ) + ( z + h ) )
(
1/ 2
2
0
2 2
1/ 2

+
( x + ( y y ) + ( z + h ) ) ( x + ( x + ( y y 2y ) +( z + h ) ) ) (( y + y ) + ( z+ h ) )
2 2 2
1/ 2
2 2 2 2
1/ 2 2 2

0

0
(12.239)
0 0
dy
(y +y ) ( y y 1) + ( z + dh ) 2y+ 2(y y ) x + x + ( y + yb ) + ( z + h )
( 2y 2y
) )( x +( yb+ y ) + ( z + h ) )
2y
b ( 2y )b ( 0
1 1
0 0 1/ 2 0 1/ 2
2 2
d 2 2 2 2 2 2

1/2 1/2
2h
00 0 2 0 0 2 0 2 2 0

( )
1(x + b( y + y ) + ( z + h ) ) x1+(x b+ (y + y ) + (bz + h+) 4) b(( y y ) + ( z + h ) )
0 0 0
2 1/ 2 2 1/ 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0

which integrates to

h
4
b
U z ( 0, 0, h ) = 0 (12.240)
2b 2
1 + 4 h
b

plotted below.

61
Figure 12.38 Effect of the presence of a ground plane on the downwash at the center of
the lifting line.

The conclusion from Figure 12.29 is that the ground effect begins to come into play when
4h / b is less than about three, ie, when the height of the lifting line is less than about
of the span of the lifting line.

62