Computers in Human Behavior 31 (2014) 412418

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Computers in Human Behavior

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Unwanted but consensual sexting among young adults: Relations with

attachment and sexual motivations
Michelle Drouin , Elizabeth Tobin
Indiana UniversityPurdue University Fort Wayne, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A wide body of research has examined unwanted but consensual sex in a face-to-face context, focusing
Available online 8 December 2013 on intercourse, petting, kissing, and other sexual activity that people consent to even though they do not
want to. Recent research has shown many people engage in sexual interactions via computer-mediated
Keywords: mediums; yet, to date, there are no studies that have investigated whether unwanted but consensual sex-
Unwanted but consensual sex ual activity exists in these contexts. In this study, we examined the extent to which 93 women and 62
Sexting men had consented to unwanted sexting within committed relationships and the attachment character-
Attachment
istics and motivations that are associated with this behavior. Approximately one half of the sample
Motivations
Undergraduates
(52.3%) had engaged in unwanted but consensual sexting with a committed partner, and most did so
for irtation, foreplay, to fulll a partners needs, or for intimacy. Among men, neither of the attachment
dimensions was related to unwanted but consensual sexting. However, among women, anxious attach-
ment was signicantly related to frequency of consenting to unwanted sexting, and consenting to avoid
an argument was a mediator in the relationship between anxious attachment and consenting to
unwanted sexting. These results are compared to previous work on unwanted but consensual sex, and
future directions are discussed.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Computer-mediated communication (e.g., texting and social
networking) has become a popular means of interpersonal com-
munication in the United States, especially among teens and young
adults (Lenhart, 2012; Lenhart, Ling, Campbell, & Purcell, 2010;
Madden et al., 2013; Smith, 2011). Considering its prominent role
in interpersonal interactions, it is unsurprising that computer-
mediated communication is also a vehicle for sexual interactions,
usually in the form of sexually-explicit words, pictures, or videos.
Termed sexting, this phenomenon has gained the attention of
communication and relationship researchers, who have examined
the prevalence of sexting among young adults as well as the psy-
chological and relationship characteristics that are associated with
this behavior (e.g., Associated Press & MTV, 2009; Drouin & Landg-
raff, 2012; Drouin, Vogel, Surbey, & Stills, 2013; Ferguson, 2011;
Gordon-Messer, Bauermeister, Grodzinski, & Zimmerman, 2012;
National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy,
2008; Weisskirch & Delevi, 2011; Wysocki & Childers, 2011). Sex-
ting has also been the focus of media reports, usually highlighting
Corresponding author. Address: Department of Psychology, Indiana University
Purdue University Fort Wayne, United States. Tel.: +1 260 481 6398; fax: +1 260 481
6972.
E-mail address: drouinm@ipfw.edu (M. Drouin).
legal issues or cases involving minors who have sent or received
sexually-explicit images (e.g., Pike, 2010; Pilkington, 2009; Valen-
zuela, 2013).
One type of sexting that has not had any empirical attention but
may have possible legal implications is compliant sexting behavior
or unwanted but consensual sexting, which can be dened as will-
ingly engaging in unwanted sexual behavior via sexually explicit
text, pictures, or video. Analogous terms already exist for face-to-
face sexual behavior, and this topic has been explored for almost
two decades in the sexual relationship literature (e.g., Gentzler &
Kerns, 2004; Impett & Peplau, 2002, 2003; Muehlenhard & Peter-
son, 2005; OSullivan & Allgeier, 1998; Peterson & Muehlenhard,
2007; Vannier & OSullivan, 2010). As studies have shown that
prevalence rates are fairly high for both engaging in unwanted sex-
ual activity (e.g., OSullivan & Allgeier, 1998; Sprecher, Hateld,
Cortese, Potapova, & Levitskaya, 1994) and sexting (Associated
Press & MTV, 2009; Drouin & Landgraff, 2012; Drouin et al.,
2013; Ferguson, 2011; Gordon-Messer et al., 2012; National Cam-
paign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 2008), it is likely
that these compliant sexual behaviors have extended to the virtual
world. However, there are also differences between the face-to-
face and computer-mediated environments that may make it less
or more likely for unwanted sexual activity to occur through com-
puter-mediated communication (CMC). For example, there are
risks in the transmission of sexually-explicit material because sex-

0747-5632/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.11.001
 M. Drouin, E. Tobin / Computers in Human Behavior 31 (2014) 412418
ual words and images are sometimes forwarded (Associated Press
& MTV, 2009; Drouin et al., 2013); therefore, those who do not
want to engage in sexting have an added incentive to abstain.
Additionally, the CMC environment is more socially constrained
than the face-to-face environment (Guadagno & Cialsini, 2002),
so those wishing to engage another in sexual behavior online can-
not use nonverbal cues or other types of social or personal cues to
persuade their partner to engage. On the other hand, unlike face-
to-face sexual activity, CMC sexual activity could be entirely fabri-
cated; therefore, those consenting to unwanted sexting may do so
with little commitment or consequence. Considering these differ-
ences, it is important to examine the frequency of and motivations
for unwanted but consensual sexual activity via CMC
environments.
Therefore, the goals of this study were to examine the preva-
lence of unwanted but consensual sexting as well as the motiva-
tions for and attachment patterns associated with this behavior.
Our study focused on young adults, because this has been the pri-
mary sample utilized in past research on the topic, and relatively
high rates of sexting and unwanted sexual activity have been
found within this age group.
1.1. Unwanted but consensual sexual activity
According to Peterson and Muehlenhard (2007), the prevailing
model of sexual wanting polarizes sexual activity into two varie-
ties: wanted, consensual sexual activity and unwanted, noncon-
sensual sexual activity. However, this model confounds two
conceptswantedness and consentthat are actually distinct
(Muehlenhard & Peterson, 2005; Peterson & Muehlenhard, 2007).
According to these researchers, people also can and do engage in
sexual activity that is nonconsensual but wanted, and more rele-
vant to the current inquiry, sexual activity that is unwanted but
consensual.
Research into the latter phenomenon has shown that engaging
in unwanted sexual activity is fairly common among young adults
(OSullivan & Allgeier, 1998; Sprecher et al., 1994). As an example,
more than one third of the college students in committed relation-
ships in OSullivan and Allgeiers (1998) sample reported engaging
in unwanted yet consensual sex at least once during a two-week
time period. Additionally, in Sprecher et al.s (1994) cross-cultural
study, approximately one third to one half of nonvirgins in three
different countries reported having engaged in unwanted but
consensual sex (Japan, 27%; Russia, 34%; and the U.S. 47%).
In terms of gender differences in this behavior, some studies
have shown that signicantly more women than men engage in
unwanted but consensual sexual activity. For example, in OSulli-
van and Allgeier (1998) 50% of women reported engaging in un-
wanted but consensual sexual activity during the past two weeks
as opposed to only 26% of men. Meanwhile, 55% of the American
women nonvirgins in Sprecher et al.s (1994) study reported hav-
ing ever consented to unwanted sex as opposed to 35% of the
American men. Researchers have suggested a number of reasons
why women would engage in unwanted but consensual sex more
often than men, including sexual passivity, a felt responsibility for
relationship maintenance, or perceptions that mens sexual urges
are strong or uncontrollable, which makes refusal futile (Bay-
Cheng & Eliseo-Arras, 2008; Impett & Peplau, 2002, 2003). How-
ever, there are also studies which have shown that men are just
as likely to engage in unwanted sexual activity. For example, in
Muehlenhard and Cooks (1988) college sample, the prevalence
rates for unwanted intercourse or petting for men and women
were relatively equivalent, and more men (62.7%) than women
(46.3%) reported engaging in unwanted intercourse only. Accord-
ing to Muehlenhard and Cook (1998), their ndings can be ac-
counted for by the double standardmen feeling pressure to
413
consent to sex and women feeling pressure to abstain because of
societal norms and sex-role expectations. Thus, the ndings with
regard to gender and frequency of unwanted but consensual sexual
activity are somewhat mixed; however, there are strong theoreti-
cal arguments supporting each of the ndings.
1.2. Attachment style, sex motives, and sexual compliance
Although attachment research was originally focused on chil-
dren and the attachments they make with their caregivers (e.g.,
Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978), researchers soon became
interested in attachment styles within adult relationships (e.g.,
Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998;
Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003, 2007). The pre-
vailing model of adult attachment consists of two dimensions:
attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance (Brennan et al.,
1998). Within romantic relationships, adults who are high in
attachment anxiety have an intense desire to be connected to their
partners, and they fear that their partners might abandon them
(Hazan & Shaver, 1987). In effort to keep their partners or draw
them nearer, they tend to use hyperactivating strategies to keep
their interest (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003, 2007). Adults high in
avoidant attachment, on the other hand, are independent and
self-reliant with a fear of becoming too dependent or intimate with
even close relationship partners (Hazan & Shaver, 1987). So that
they are not relied upon, those high in avoidant attachment use
deactivating strategies, in attempt to distance themselves from
their partners (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003, 2007).
A number of researchers have examined the attachment charac-
teristics that are associated with different types of sexual activity
in relationships, and a subset of these researchers have focused
specically on sexual compliance. With regard to sexual activity
generally, researchers have found that those high in attachment
anxiety tend to be motivated towards sex for emotional closeness
and intimacy; and those high in attachment avoidance tend to
have more casual sex and do not have motivations for emotional
closeness or intimacy (Davis, Shaver, & Vernon, 2004; Schachner
& Shaver, 2004). With regard to sexual compliance, researchers
have provided evidence that both attachment anxiety and attach-
ment avoidance are positively related to unwanted but consensual
sexual activity. Again, gender appears to play a role in these inter-
actions (see Impett & Peplau, 2003, for review). For example, Gent-
zler and Kerns (2004) found that among women, both anxious and
avoidant attachment were related to a greater number of un-
wanted but consensual sexual experiences; however, among
men, only avoidant attachment was related to a greater number
of unwanted but consensual sexual experiences. Meanwhile, in
Impett and Peplaus (2002) sample of college women, only anxious
attachment was related to consenting to unwanted sex in a hypo-
thetical scenario.
The relationship becomes even more complex when one consid-
ers the motivations for engaging in unwanted but consensual sex.
OSullivan and Allgeier (1998) found that people in general con-
sented to unwanted sex to promote intimacy, satisfy their partners
needs, and to avoid tension. However, Muehlenhard and Cook
(1988) found that men and women cited different motivations
for engaging in unwanted sex: women were more likely to consent
to unwanted sexual activity out of altruism (e.g., fullling partners
needs) and fears of the relationship ending, whereas men were
more likely to consent for popularity or because of peer pressure.
This pattern of results suggests that womens consent to unwanted
sex may relate more to attachment or relationship maintenance,
and mens consent may relate more to gender-role expectations.
In a study that examined how motivations relate to attachment
style among women only, Impett and Peplau (2002) found that
those high in anxious attachment were more likely to cite avoiding
414 M. Drouin, E. Tobin / Computers in Human Behavior 31 (2014) 412418
tension in the relationship and worry that their partners might
leave them, whereas those high in avoidance attachment were
more likely to consent to unwanted sex because it was just easier
or to conform to an already established pattern of sexual activity.
Although they examined both motivations and attachment pat-
terns, Impett and Peplau (2002) did not examine whether any of
these motivations were mediators between attachment patterns
and womens willingness to engage in unwanted but consensual
activity. Instead, they focused on perceived commitment discrep-
ancy as a mediator, which was dened as the difference between
their own commitment and their perceived commitment level of
their partner (Impett & Peplau, 2002), and found that perceived
commitment discrepancy did mediate this relationship. However,
it is also possible that these motivations for unwanted sex could
be full or partial mediators in the relationship between attachment
and engaging in unwanted but consensual sex.
1.3. The current study
Unwanted but consensual sex has been studied extensively in
the research literature; however, to date, there has been no empir-
ical research examining whether compliant sexual behaviors exist
via computer-mediated mediums. In this study, we had three main
research questions with regard to this proposed phenomenon.
First, we wanted to determine to what extent unwanted but con-
sensual sexting exists within the context of young adult relation-
ships and whether the frequency of this behavior varies by
gender. Based on previous research on unwanted sexual activity
and sexting, we expected that many young adults will have en-
gaged in this behavior, and that it would be more frequent among
women than men. Although some research has shown that men
are more or equally likely to engage in unwanted sexual behavior
(e.g., Muehlenhard & Cook, 1988), most of the research in this area
has shown that American women are more likely to be sexually
compliant (OSullivan & Allgeier, 1998; Sprecher et al., 1994). Sec-
ond, we wanted to examine whether the attachment variables and
motivations that are related to consenting in face-to-face un-
wanted sexual activity (e.g., Impett & Peplau, 2002; Muehlenhard
& Cook, 1988; OSullivan & Allgeier, 1998) are also related to un-
wanted but consensual sexting. As Drouin and Landgraff (2012)
and Weisskirch and Delevi (2011) found that attachment variables
are related to sexting generally, we expected attachment charac-
teristics to also be related to unwanted but consensual sexting.
Although the literature on attachment and unwanted but consen-
sual sex presents mixed ndings on this issue, both Gentzler and
Kerns (2004) and Impett and Peplau (2002) found that anxious
attachment was related to unwanted but consensual sex among
women; therefore, we expected this same relationship in the con-
text of unwanted but consensual sexting. Finally, we wanted to
determine whether motivations for engaging in unwanted sex-
tingspecically, sexting to avoid an argumentwould be a medi-
ator in the relationship between attachment patterns and
unwanted but consensual sexting. We expected that engaging in
unwanted sex to avoid an argument or tension would be a media-
tor for those with anxious attachment, who have persistent fears
about losing their partners, and among women, whose motivations
towards unwanted sexual activity appear to be more strongly re-
lated to attachment and relationship maintenance.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Participants were 155 undergraduate students (93 women and
62 men) from at a mid-sized, Midwestern university. From a larger
sample (N = 186), only those who had ever been in a committed
relationship (i.e., either married or serious boyfriend/girlfriend)
were included in this study. The average age of the participants
was 21.64 years (SD = 4.41). Participants were largely Caucasian
(77% White, Non-Hispanic; 8% Hispanic; 7% African American; 1%
Asian; and 6% Biracial or other ethnicity) and unmarried (4% mar-
ried, 2% divorced or separated). They were mostly freshmen (58%
freshmen, 26% sophomores, 12% juniors, and 3% seniors) and re-
ported various major elds of study (more than 50 different majors
were represented). For those who indicated they were in a rela-
tionship at the time of the study (n = 103), 97% indicated that the
relationship was heterosexual.
2.2. Procedure
Participants were recruited from introductory psychology clas-
ses in summer and fall, 2012 and received a research credit for par-
ticipation. All participants completed online consent forms and
were then given access to an online anonymous survey.
2.3. Measures
The survey included demographic questions as well as ques-
tions about the frequency with which they had been pressured
by committed partners to engage in sexting, their motivations for
engaging in sexting with committed partners when they did not
want to, and their attachment styles, as described below.
2.3.1. Unwanted but consensual sexting
Participants were rst asked if they had ever had a committed
relationship. For those that indicated that they had, they were di-
rected to the following question: How often have you consented
to sexting (sending sexually explicit text, picture, or video mes-
sages) with a committed relationship partner when you actually
did not want to sext? Participants responded on a 16 Likert scale
(1 = not at all, 6 = very frequently).
2.3.2. Motivations for unwanted but consensual sexting
Participants were asked about their motivations for engaging in
unwanted sexting with a committed partner. They were given a list
of 10 motivations, which was derived partially from the motiva-
tions for unwanted sex listed in Impett and Peplau (2002) and
OSullivan and Allgeier (1998) and were asked to indicate how of-
ten they consented to unwanted sexting with a committed partner
on a 16 Likert scale (1 = never, 6 = very frequently). This list in-
cluded motivations associated with attachment variables such as
I wanted intimacy and I wanted to avoid an argument as well
as motivations that are associated to risk-taking behaviors such as
I was drinking and I was taking drugs. The full list of motiva-
tions is displayed in Table 2.
2.3.3. Attachment
Participants completed the 12-item short form of the Experi-
ences in Close Relationship Scale (ECR; Wei, Russell, Mallinckrodt,
& Vogel, 2007). The ECR measures attachment in relationships
along two dimensions: anxious (e.g., I need a lot of reassurance
that I am loved by my partner) and avoidant (e.g., I try to avoid
getting too close to my partner). Participants were asked to rate
their level of agreement with each statement on a 17 Likert scale
(1 = disagree strongly, 7 = agree strongly). Higher scores indicated
higher levels of anxious or avoidant attachment (Anxious
1 = .77; Avoidant 1 = .85).
 M. Drouin, E. Tobin / Computers in Human Behavior 31 (2014) 412418 415

Fig. 1. Frequency with which women and men engaged in unwanted but consensual sexting.

3. Results but consensual sexting were not signicantly different for men
and women X2 (4, N = 155) = 3.449, p = .486.
Our rst research question concerned the extent to which Our second research question was whether the attachment and
young adults were engaging in unwanted but consensual sexting. motivation variables associated with unwanted but consensual sex
Approximately half of those who had ever been in a committed in a face-to-face setting would also be related to unwanted but
relationship had engaged in unwanted but consensual sexting consensual sex in a virtual setting. We examined these variables
(48% of men and 55% of women). The frequency of sexting by gen- separately, rst focusing on the relationship between attachment
der is displayed in Fig. 1. Although women were slightly more and unwanted but consensual sexting. Because gender appears to
likely than men to have ever engaged in this behavior, chi-square play a role in the interactions between attachment and engaging
analyses showed that the frequencies of engaging in unwanted in unwanted but consensual sex, we conducted separate correla-
tion analyses for men and women. Table 1 shows the correlations
between attachment and unwanted but consensual sexting for
men and women as well as the means and standard deviations
Table 1 for the variables. As shown, among women anxious attachment
Descriptive statistics for womens and mens unwanted but consensual sexting,
was signicantly related to unwanted but consensual sexting;
avoidant attachment, and anxious attachment and correlations between these
variables. however, the relationships between the attachment variables and
unwanted but consensual sexting among men were weak and
Variable 1 2 3
non-signicant.
1. Unwanted but consensual sexting .07 .03 Table 2 shows the frequency with which participants had en-
2. Avoidant attachment .19 .25*
gaged in unwanted but consensual sexting for the listed motiva-
3. Anxious attachment .24* .40**
tions and the correlations between these motivations and
Women (N = 93)
anxious and avoidant attachment. The most frequently-cited moti-
M 2.17 2.67 3.89
SD 1.33 1.33 1.30 vations were irtation, foreplay, to foster intimacy, and to fulll a
Men (N = 62) partners needs. Although these were the most frequently-cited
M 2.13 2.51 3.63 motivations for consenting to unwanted sexting, these motivations
SD 1.35 1.04 1.23 were not related signicantly to anxious or avoidant attachment.
Womens correlations are displayed below the diagonal. Mens correlations are However, two of the listed motivations were related to attachment
displayed above the diagonal. variables; consenting to avoid an argument was signicantly re-
*
p < .05. lated to both anxious and avoidant attachment, and consenting
**
p < .01.
out of loneliness was signicantly related to anxious attachment.

Table 2
Mean scores for respondents motivations for consenting to unwanted sexting and correlations with attachment anxiety and avoidance.

Motivation M SD r With anxiety r With avoidance

I wanted to be irtatious 3.15 1.74 .08 .03
I wanted foreplay 3.02 1.84 .03 .00
I wanted to fulll my partners needs 2.77 1.78 .09 .06
I wanted intimacy 2.63 1.70 .06 .06
I was bored 2.34 1.58 .07 .06
I was lonely 2.27 1.52 .18* .09
I was drinking 2.13 1.62 .09 .00
I wanted to be like my friends 1.78 1.26 .08 .07
I wanted to avoid an argument 1.72 1.31 .39** .19*
I was taking drugs 1.42 1.09 .09 .02
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
416 M. Drouin, E. Tobin / Computers in Human Behavior 31 (2014) 412418
Sexting to
Avoid .34**
.31**
Argument
.16
Attachment Unwanted,
Anxiety Consensual
(.25*)
Sexting
Fig. 2. Total and direct effects of attachment anxiety on frequency of unwanted but
consensual sexting in women. Total effect in parentheses. p < 0.05, p < .01.
Our next step was to test our mediation model. We expected
that unwanted sexting to avoid an argument would be a mediator
between anxious attachment and the frequency of unwanted but
consensual sexting. We also predicted that this would be signi-
cant for women because the frequency with which they engage
in unwanted sexual activity appears to be related more to attach-
ment variables, which is indeed what we found in our correlational
analyses. Therefore, we examined our mediation model using only
women (see Fig. 2).
As per Baron and Kenny (1986), we used a series of linear
regression analyses to test our proposed model, with sexting to
avoid an argument as a mediator in the relationship between anx-
ious attachment and unwanted but consensual sexting. Step 1 in-
volved examining the predictive relationship between the
independent variable (anxious attachment) and the mediator (sex-
ting to avoid an argument). In this analysis, anxious attachment
was a signicant predictor of sexting to avoid an argument
(b = .31, p = .002, R2 = .10). In step 2, we examined the predictive
relationship between the independent variable (anxious attach-
ment) and the dependent variable (unwanted but consensual sex-
ting). Anxious attachment was a signicant predictor of unwanted
but consensual sexting, b = .25, p = .02, R2 = .06. Step 3 examined
whether the partial effect of the mediator is signicant when both
the mediator (sexting to avoid an argument) and independent var-
iable (anxious attachment) are entered simultaneously as predic-
tors of the dependent variable (unwanted but consensual
sexting). In this analysis, sexting to avoid an argument was still a
predictor of unwanted but consensual sexting (b = .28, p = .02,
R2 = .13). The nal step involves testing for mediation; mediation
is present when the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables is reduced when both the independent vari-
able and mediator are entered simultaneously. In this case, the
relationship between anxious attachment and unwanted but con-
sensual sexting became non-signicant (b = .16, p = .131,
R2 = .13). Hence, all of the conditions for mediation were satised
(see Fig. 2).
4. Discussion
The sexual repertoire of young adults has now expanded so that
sexual interactions are occurring not only in a face-to-face context
but also via text message and online. The aim of this study was to
determine whether compliant sexual activity had also crossed the
boundaries into the virtual world and whether attachment and
motivations towards sex were related to the frequency of this
behavior within committed relationships.
Overall, we found that consenting to unwanted sexting was
fairly common in our sample. Approximately one half of our partic-
ipants had engaged in unwanted but consensual sexting with a
committed partner. Thus, our hypothesis that compliant sexual
activity has extended to cyberspace was supported. Because un-
wanted but consensual sexual activity may be a form of sexual
coercion (Sprecher et al., 1994), it was important to ascertain
whether this activity exists in computer-mediated forms, where
images are sometimes forwarded (e.g., Drouin et al., 2013) or used
in a context beyond what the original sender intended. Thus, our
nding that the majority of our participants had sexted with a rela-
tionship partner even when they did not want to is somewhat con-
cerning, as this type of sexual complianceparticularly if it is in the
form of pictures or videosmay have lifelong repercussions.
In terms of gender differences in this behavior, our hypothesis
was only partially supported. Consenting to unwanted sexting
was slightly more common among women than men, but there
were no signicant differences in the frequency of this behavior.
We expected that women would be more signicantly likely to
have consented to unwanted sexting, possibly out of felt responsi-
bility for relationship maintenance, to fulll mens uncontrollable
urges, or because of their relative sexual passivity (Bay-Cheng &
Eliseo-Arras, 2008; Impett & Peplau, 2002, 2003). However, men
were almost equally likely to have consented to unwanted sexting,
which aligns well with Muehlenhard and Cooks (1998) ndings
that men were just as likely to have engaged in unwanted petting
or intercourse.
Like Muehlenhard and Cook (1998), we believe that our ndings
may be accounted for by gender-role expectations and the double
standard, whereby men are expected to consent to sexual activity
whereas women are expected to refuse. In other words, we believe
that the pressures on women to consent to unwanted sexting for
relationship maintenance or because of their relative sexual pas-
sivity may have been matched by the pressures on men to consent
based on gender-role expectations and the double standard. More-
over, as Muehlenhard and Cook (1998) demonstrated, men are sig-
nicantly more likely than women to cite response to peer
pressure and popularity as reasons for engaging in unwanted sex-
ual activity. Thus, it is also possible that this behavior might be rel-
atively equivalent among men and women in electronic mediums
because there is usually physical evidence of sexual activity (in the
form of words, pictures, or videos), which men could use to provide
evidence in response to peer pressure or to increase popularity
among peers. Additionally, this nding might be attributable to
the socially-constrained nature of the CMC medium. Guadagno
and Cialsini (2002) found that women responded more positively
to messages delivered in face-to-face contexts than in CMC con-
texts, presumably because they provide the most opportunity for
social interaction and fulllment of relationship goals. For men,
the context did not matter as much because their social goal is
independence rather than relationship formation (Guadagno &
Cialsini, 2002). Therefore, women may be more likely to consent
to unwanted sexual activity in a face-to-face than in a CMC con-
text, because more of their social goals can be realized in a face-
to-face context. However, men may be more likely to consent to
unwanted sexual activity in a CMC than in a face-to-face context,
because the uidity of the CMC environment allows them to fulll
their partners needs while maintaining their independence.
With regard to attachment, our hypothesis was supported; anx-
ious attachment was signicantly related to consenting to un-
wanted sexting among women. Thus, our ndings align well with
those of Impett and Peplau (2002), who found a similar relation-
ship between anxious attachment and unwanted but consensual
sex in their sample of college women, and they also align well with
the theoretical literature, which suggests that those high in anx-
ious attachment are likely to use hyperactivating strategies (Mikul-
incer & Shaver, 2003, 2007) out of fear of losing their partners.
However, they do not align well with the ndings of Gentzler
and Kerns (2004), who found that both attachment anxiety and
avoidance were signicantly related to unwanted but consensual
sex among women and that attachment avoidance was signi-
cantly related to unwanted but consensual sex among men.
Although our ndings align partially with the existing literature
on unwanted but consensual sex, the contradictory ndings might
 M. Drouin, E. Tobin / Computers in Human Behavior 31 (2014) 412418
also be highlighting a pronounced difference between CMC and
face-to-face communication. More specically, it is possible that
the CMC environment is especially challenging for those who are
anxiously attached, especially women, who may escalate their
hyperactivating strategies to compensate for the constraints of
the medium. Future studies will explore more directly the inter-
play between medium, gender, and frequency of and attachment
characteristics associated with unwanted but consensual sexual
activity.
With regard to the motivations that underlie unwanted but
consensual sexting, the most popular motivation was irtation, fol-
lowed by foreplay, fullling a partners needs, and intimacy. Con-
senting to avoid an argument was rather low on this list. Overall,
these motivations align well with the reasons cited in previous
studies on unwanted but consensual sex (e.g., OSullivan & Allgeier,
1998) and suggest that most unwanted but consensual sexting oc-
curs to fulll relationship needs rather than to avoid conict in the
relationship. However, even though consenting to unwanted sex to
avoid an argument was relatively low on the list of motivations for
unwanted but consensual sexting, it was strongly related to anx-
ious attachment and also signicantly, though not as strongly, re-
lated to avoidant attachment. This pattern of results aligns
partially with Impett and Peplaus (2002) study, where anxious
attachment was signicantly related to consenting to unwanted
sex to avoid conict.
Finally, our mediation model showed that the relationship be-
tween anxious attachment and unwanted but consensual sexting
was mediated fully by the motive to avoid an argument. This sug-
gests that it is not anxious attachment alone that is predictive of
consenting to this unwanted activity, but rather that those individ-
uals who are anxiously attached are more likely to engage in sexual
behaviors (and likely other types of behaviors) to avoid an argu-
ment. In turn, this motivation to avoid an argument leads to more
unwanted but consensual sexting. For those hoping to develop pro-
grams to curb sexting among teens, this aspect of the study may
offer the most guidance. Instead of addressing attachment pat-
terns, which might be persistent and difcult to change, it might
be more fruitful to give individuals, especially those who are anx-
iously attached to their partners, a means to negotiate sexual rela-
tionships peacefully and quell arguments when they arise.
4.1. Limitations
This study was the rst known study to examine the phenom-
enon of unwanted but consensual sexting; thus, there are many as-
pects of the study that could be improved upon. First, we relied on
a convenience sample of undergraduates from one university.
Although it is likely that the relationship characteristics and moti-
vations that underlie unwanted but consensual sexting would be
consistent across samples, the generalizability of our results is
somewhat limited. Second, our measure of unwanted but consen-
sual sexting was a single item. Future studies might adapt existing
sexual coercion measures so that a validated measure consisting of
multiple items is used to measure this construct. Nonetheless, even
with a single item, we did nd a pattern of results that was mostly
consistent with prior work on unwanted but consensual sex, which
gives some validation to our measure. Additionally, the amount of
variance explained by our model was small, likely because there
are many other factors that affect unwanted but consensual sex-
ting that were not measured in this study. However, the goal of
our study was not to propose a complete model, and because we
found signicant correlations with even our small sample, it is un-
likely that these relationships are due to chance. That said, in fu-
ture studies, we would like to examine the motivations for
unwanted but consensual sexting more directly by including
free-response questions. This qualitative information may help us
417
uncover variables that could explain more of the variance in
unwanted but consensual sexting. Finally, we relied upon
retrospective self-report for gathering our information on un-
wanted but consensual sexting. Although this is a commonly-used
method for conducting this type of research, we acknowledge that
retrospective self-reports have limitations.
4.2. Conclusion
Our study provides an initial glance at the phenomenon of un-
wanted but consensual sexting and also extends the existing work
on attachment and sexuality. Many young adults (both men and
women) had sent sexual text messages to committed partners
when they do not want to. In terms of gender, men were equally
likely to consent to unwanted sexting as women. These ndings
differ from some previous work, in which women far outnumber
men in unwanted but consensual sex, and might be attributable
to gender-role expectations with regard to sexting and the so-
cially-constrained nature of the CMC environment. More speci-
cally, men are expected to consent to sexual activity, and consent
of this nature (i.e., with physical evidence) might gain them accep-
tance among peers. Alternatively, men may be more likely to con-
sent to unwanted sexual activity via CMC than face-to-face
because consenting to virtual sex is relatively easy and does not re-
quire them to invest more into the relationship; whereas for wo-
men, consenting to virtual sex may fulll few of their
relationship goals. Thus, differences between the CMC and face-
to-face environments might be inuencing the relationships be-
tween gender, attachment, and consenting to unwanted sexual
activity.
In terms of motivations for unwanted but consensual sexting,
most young adults consented to be irtatious, as foreplay, or to ful-
ll relationship needs. However, it was more likely to occur among
those who were anxiously attached to their relationship partners,
who consented to do so because they wanted to avoid an argu-
ment. Although each of these motivations is related to relationship
maintenance, the latter motivation is problematic in that the
boundaries between consenting to avoid an argument and sexual
coercion could be easily blurred. Because of the possible legal is-
sues surrounding sexting, especially as it relates to minors, these
boundaries need to be clearly dened among those who are
requesting sex messages as well as those who are sending them.
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