ANGLE MODULATION:
FREQUENCY and PHASE
MODULATIONS(FM,PM)
Outlines
Introduction
Concepts of instantaneous frequency
Bandwidth of angle modulated signals
Narrow-band and wide-band frequency
modulations
Generation of FM signals
Demodulation of FM signals
superhetrodyne FM radio
Introduction
Angle modulation: either frequency modulation
(FM) or phase modulation (PM).
Basic idea: vary the carrier frequency (FM) or
phase (PM) according to the message signal.
While AM is linear process, FM and PM are
highly nonlinear.
FM/PM provide many advantages (main
noise immunity, interference, exchange of
power with bandwidth ) over AM, at a cost of
larger transmission bandwidth.
Demodulation may be complex, but modern
ICs allow cost-effective implementation.
Example: FM radio (high quality, not
expensive receivers).
Concepts of Instantaneous
Frequency
A general form of an angle modulated signal is given
by
S EM (t ) A cos i (t ) A cos(2 f ct i (t ))
d i (t ) d i (t )
i (t ) c
dt dt
The instantaneous frequency of S EM (t )
1 d i (t ) 1 d i (t )
f i (t ) fc
2 dt 2 dt
1 d i (t )
f i (t )
2 dt
Example
x (t ) A cos(10 t t )
2
Phase modulation (PM)
S PM (t ) A cos [2 f c t k p m (t )]
t
S FM (t ) A cos 2 f c t k f m ( )d
kf is the frequency sensitivity of the FM
modulator expressed in rad/ V s if m(t) in Volts.
The instantaneous frequency of S FM (t )
kf
f i (t ) f c m (t )
2
Angle modulation viewed as FM or
PM
m (t ) Phase S PM (t )
Modulator
Frequency S FM (t )
m (t ) Modulator
m (t )
Phase S FM (t )
Modulator
m (t ) d Frequency S PM (t )
dt Modulator
A PM/FM modulator may be used to
generate an FM/PM waveform
FM is much more frequently used than PM
All the properties of a PM signal may be
deduced from that of an FM signal
In the remaining part of the chapter we
deal mainly with FM signals.
Example 5.1
Sketch FM and PM waves for the modulating
signal m(t) shown in Fig. 5.4a. The constants kf
and kp are 2x105 and 10 r, espectively, and
the carrier frequency fc is 100 MHz..
Example
Bandwidth of Angle Modulated
Signals
1) FM signals
S FM (t ) A cos(2 f c t ) k f a (t ) sin(2 f c t )
k f2 2 k f3 3
A a (t ) cos(2 f c t ) a (t ) sin(2 f c t ) ...
2! 3!
t
where a (t ) m ( )d
Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM):
|k f a (t ) | 1
m(t)
Generation of NBPM
m(t)
If |k f a (t ) |1
BFM 2 (f B) 2 B ( 1)
k f mp f
f
2 B
f: maximum carrier frequency deviation
: deviation ratio or modulation index
m P max m (t )
B PM 2(f B ) 2B ( 1)
'
k pm
f m P' max m ' (t )
p
BW BPM 2 f
Single tone modulation
Let m (t ) cos 2 f m t
Determine
a) the carrier frequency fc
b) the modulation index
c) the peak frequency deviation
d) the bandwidth of xFM(t)
Example 2
A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by
a sinusoidal signal such that the peak
frequency deviation is f=50 KHz. Determine
the approximate bandwidth of the FM signal if
the frequency of the modulating sinusoid fm is
a) 500 kHz, b) 500 Hz, c) 10 kHz.
Example 3
An angle modulated signal with carrier
frequency 100kHz is
xEM (t)=10 cos[ 2fct+ 5 sin(3000 t)+10 sin(2000 t) ]
Find
a) the power of xFM(t)
b) the frequency deviation f
c) The deviation ratio
d) the phase deviation
e) the bandwidth of xFM(t).
Example 5.3 (Txt book)
a) Estimate BFM and BPM for m(t) when
kf= 2x105 rad/sV and kp= 5 rad/V
Indirect generation
Direct generation
Indirect Generation of NBFM
m(t)
Indirect Generation of
Wideband FM
In this method, a narrowband frequency-
modulated signal is first generated and then a
frequency multiplier is used to increase the
modulation index.
m(t) xFM(t)
Frequency
NBFM
Multiplier
m(t) fc Frequency
NBFM Multiplier N fc
Frequency Converter
xFM(t) BPF
Local Oscillator
(fLo)
Armstrong Indirect FM Transmitter
fc2=12.8MHz
m(t) Frequency
f2= 1.6 kHz
NBFM Multiplier
x64
fc1=200 kHz
f1= 25 Hz fc3=1.9 MHz
f3= 1.6 kHz
Frequency
Power BPF
Multiplier
Amplifier
x48
fc4= 91.2MHz Crystal
f4= 76.8 kHz Oscillator
10.9 MHz
Direct Generation
The modulating signal m(t) directly controls
the carrier frequency. [ f (t ) f k m (t ) ]
i c f
k m(t ) c
1
c 1
2C0 LC 0
Varactor Modulator Circuit
Advantage - Large frequency deviations are
possible and thus less frequency multiplication
is needed.
Amplitude distortion
Frequency distortion
Example
A given angle modulated signal has a peak
frequency deviation of 20 Hz for an input
sinusoid of unit amplitude and a frequency of
50 Hz. Determine the required frequency
multiplication factor, N, to produce a peak
frequency deviation of 20 kHz when the input
sinusoid has unit amplitude and a frequency
of 100Hz, and the angle-modulation used is
(a) FM; (b) PM
Demodulation of FM Signals
x(t ) A cos c t (t )
FM d (t )
y (t ) k
Demodulator dt
Demodulation of an FM signal requires a
system that produces an output proportional to
the instantaneous frequency deviation of the
input signal.
Such system is called a frequency
discriminator.
A frequency-selective network with a transfer
function of the form |H()|= a +b over the
FM band would yield an output proportional
to the instantaneous frequency.
t
s c (t ) A 2 f c k f m (t ) sin 2 f c t k f
'
m ( )d
The basic idea is to convert FM into AM
and then use AM demodulator.
Bandpass Limiter
Hard BPF
Limiter
vout(t) Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)
vout (t ) B cos( c t o )
Zero-Crossing Detectors
Zero-Crossing Detectors are also used because
of advances in digital integrated circuits.
These are the frequency counters designed to
measure the instantaneous frequency by the
number of zero crossings.
The rate of zero crossings is equal to the
instantaneous frequency of the input signal
Summary
Concepts of instantaneous frequency
FM and PM signals
Bandwidth of angle modulated signals
NBFM and WBFM
Generation of FM signals
Direct and indirect generation
Demodulation of FM signals
frequency discriminator
PLL
Suggested Problems
5.1-1 5.1-2 5.1-3 5.2-1 5.2-
2 5.2-3 5.2-4 , 5.2-5 5.2-6 .