D
A
C
erage microbial cell contains per dry cell weight (%) C 46,
H 7.5, O 31, N 11; and P, 1.3, then the biomass formula is
The total growth balance for two phases of nitrification: oxidation of ammonium to nitrite and subsequent oxidation of nitrite to nitrate. Y is growth yield of bacterial mass per mass unit of oxidized N.
2Y1 Yq, a5 Y1 0.5Y( p 3q)
CH1.9O0.5N0.2P0.01. The stoichiometric quotients a1a5 . . . ,
Stoichiometric parameters
0.5(Yn Ys l a4) a3
gross formulas of all substrates and products, then quo-
4 0.5Y(4 2n 3q p)
Yq Yt, a3 1 Y Y
Y(n t) t, a3 1 Y
tients a1a6 . . . are easily calculated from conservation
0.5(2 a1 Yn a3s)
conditions. There are at least two such conditions. First,
Y1 Yq, a3 Y1
the mass of each element (C, H, O, N, P, K, . . . ) on the left
side of equation 1 should be equal to that on the right side
Yq, a3 1 Y
(mass balance). Second, if ionized substances are involved,
we should take into account the balance of charges to sat-
Table 1. Selected Macrostoichiometric Equations Describing Growth of Microorganisms with Different Types of Energy Generation
isfy the condition of electroneutrality. Table 1 demon-
2 Yn
strates some examples of stoichiometric growth reactions
relevant to biotechnology.
a1
a2
a4
a1
a2
a4
a1
a2
a4
a1
a2
a4
Described formalism is useful as a first step in biotech-
nological studies aimed at planning and optimizing micro-
bial growth. It estimates how much nutrient should be sup-
plied to the fermenter to obtain the required amount of
Products
a3CHrOsNt a4O2
reagents, microbial cells are characterized by changeable
a3CH4 a4H2O
composition, and stoichiometric coefficients are not true
constants. One task of contemporary microbial stoichiom-
etry is to find out the functional relationships between stoi-
chiometric parameters and internal (physiological) and ex-
ternal (environmental) factors.
The growth yield is one of the main stoichiometric param-
eters. It is defined as follows
YCHpOnNq
YCHpOnNq
YCHpOnNq
YCHpOnNq
Biomass
dx Dx
Y (2)
ds Ds
Phototrophic growth
lows:
Microbial process
Methanogenesisa
The second term in this equation is the fraction of ae trans- Let us divide it by dx, the amount of biomass produced,
ferred to biomass from utilized substrate, termed the en- then
ergetic growth yield.
1 dSG dSM 1 m
max (17)
g YCcx /cs (14) Y dx dx Y l
The third term designates that fraction of total substrate Here, Ymax dx/dSG is true growth yield, that is, yield
internal energy that is transferred to the product. It is under imaginary conditions of maintenance being zero.
called the energetic product yield The maintenance coefficient, m, is introduced as the spe-
cific (i.e., expressed per unit of biomass) rate of energy con-
f YPcp /cs (15) sumption for maintenance functions: m (1/x)(dSM /dt).
The ratio m/l on the right side of equation 17 was derived
Energetic yield g is related to other stoichiometric param- as follows: m/l [(1/x)(dSM /dt)]/[(1/x)(dx/dt)] dSM /dx.
eters as follows: If we divide equation 16 by xdt (note that the second
term is dSG /(xdt) [dx/(xdt)]/[dx/dSG] l/Ymax), then we
g Yrxcx /(rscs) have:
g YCcx /cs
q l/Ymax m (18)
where Y is g CDW/g substrate and YC is g CDW-C/g sub-
strate C. where q is specific rate of energy source consumption, q
The advantage of using g is that it varies within a much (1/x)(dSE /dt).
smaller range than other yield expressions. At one and the It should be noticed that Ymax is a parameter, but not
same efficiency of energy utilization (g), the conventional the yield of a real culture that always has some nonzero
biomass C yield YC is proportional to substrate reduction maintenance requirements. It is a very common mistake
degree cs and, for example, it is four times higher on glu- in the application of the maintenance concept to a partic-
cose (cs 4) than on oxalate (cs 1), 0.48 and 0.12 g C ular organism: to take the real measured Y value and pick
g1 C, respectively (assuming g 0.5 and cx 4.2). The up from literature some average m coefficient. The correct
energetic growth yield g is more or less constant (0.5 to 0.7) way would be either to borrow concurrently two parame-
for substrates with cs 4.2 (4.2 corresponds to average ters Ymax and m or to treat actually observed Y as a vari-
reduction degree of microbial biomass), and it declines at able that is altered along with specific growth rate l ac-
higher cs. cording to equation 17:
The attractiveness of macrostoichiometry and TMEB is
that all growth coefficients are interrelated and could be lYmax
Y (19)
measured from any available components of the culture l mYmax
mass balance. For example, if you cannot record microbial
growth by conventional routine as dry weight biomass (be- There is another way to formulate maintenance re-
cause of presence of solids in broth liquid), you may still quirements by stating that the net growth of cells l is the
calculate it from N or O2 uptake, CO2 evolution, pH titra- difference between true growth (ltrue) and endogenous de-
tion rate, and so on. cay of cellular components (specific rate, a):
2 1.4
12 14C
C
N, mg N 10 9 cell
YN
1.6 1.1
CO2
1.2 0.8
N
0.8 0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Specific growth rate, h1
15
Figure 3. Relationship between stoichiometric parameters Y and
s and specific growth rates of Chlorella vulgaris grown in che-
mostat culture limited by nitrogen source (10). The curves are
calculated using equations 23 and 24.
10
CO2, mg CL1
q 1 Qs
or substrate oxidation through alternative oxidases with- l
r r Ks s
out ATP generation. These and related phenomena take
place in chemostat culture limited by conserved substrates (rm r0)s
r r0 (22)
(opposite to limitation by energy source) as well as during Kr s
lag phase of batch culture started from starving inoculum.
We will discuss the mathematical formulation of these phe- where l is specific growth rate, q is specific substrate up-
nomena in the section devoted to growth kinetics. take rates; r0 and rm are, respectively, lower and upper
limits of r variation; low limit r r r0 is attained when s r
Variation in Biomass Yield from Conserved Substrates 0 and upper limits r r rm-when s r . By excluding s from
both these equations we arrive at following relationship
Yield on conserved substrates varies mainly as a result of between r and l:
alterations in biomass chemical composition expressed by
parameter rs, the intracellular content of deficient element rm(r r0)
or cell quota (see equation 9). For most of known cases, the l lm
r[k(rm r0) r r0]
content rs increases parallel to growth acceleration (Fig.
3). As yield and cell quota are inversely related to each Ks
k (23)
other (equation 9), then Y values decrease with growth Kr
rate. The physiological mechanisms of this variation are
as follows. The intensive growth requires higher internal Under realistic assumption k 1 (Ks Kr) we have
KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH 1519
r0 0.6
r
1 (1 r0 /rm)l/lm
0.5
l Reliable data
Y Ym (Ym Y0) (24)
lm
0.4
Frequency
where Ym and Y0 are, respectively, upper and lower limits
0.3
of yield variation (Ym 1/r0, Y0 1/rm). As we can see,
the linear relationship between Y and l is normally ob-
served in chemostat culture (Fig. 3). 0.2
CDW/mol (180 is glucose molecular weight); assuming tate, lactate, pyruvate, glucose, gluconate, succinate, and
that P/O 2 (that is, 2 mol of ATP produced per atom citrate (totally 10 transport reactions); amino acid synthe-
oxygen taken up) and that 2 ATP mol are produced via sis (15) and polymerization (2); nucleotide synthesis (9);
glycolysis (substrate phosphorylation) we arrived at n 2 RNA synthesis; ATP consumption for maintenance; fatty
12 2 26 and YATP 268/26 10.3 g CDW/mol acids synthesis (2); formation of glycogen and polysaccha-
ATP. Careful determination of n and YATP is possible only rides; and finally, the biomass formation from proteins,
for anaerobic growth of fermenting microorganisms gen- polysaccharides, RNA, fatty acids, and glycerol.
erating ATP via substrate phosphorylation. The mean For each compound, i, involved in a metabolic system,
value tends to be around 10.5 g CDW/mol ATP (Fig. 4). For a mass balance can be defined:
aerobic growth, we need to make assumptions on the P/O
ratio. As soon as the respiratory chain of bacteria differ dCi
rAi Ui (26)
widely for various organisms and growth conditions, this dt
assumption can never be reliable. To avoid this obstacle,
an interesting approach was proposed (1): microbial cul- where Ci is concentration of ith compound, rAi, and Ui de-
ture is grown in a chemostat limited by two carbon- note the net rates of, respectively, i chemical conversion
containing energy sources, their ratio is varied while the and transport over the boundaries of bioreactor (fluxes of
1520 KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH
CO2, O2, nutrients, cells, and products). Most metabolic copy. NMR provides data on 13C enrichment at each spec-
balancing equations are applied to steady-state growth ified carbon position of amino acid. Because metabolic
(which means that no intracellular accumulation of me- pathways for amino acid synthesis are exactly defined,
tabolites occurs). In such cases, the differential equations then the entire central metabolism can be assessed for in
like equation 26 are reduced to linear algebraic ones. Be- vivo fluxes, including determination of the forward and
sides, an extensive use of matrix calculus is customarily back rates of bidirectional reactions. In C. glutamicum, the
made to obtain a concise notation. The problem of experi- flux through the pentose phosphate pathway turned out to
mental support of such model is especially important (13). be 66.4% (relative to glucose input flux 1.49 mmol g1
The degree of freedom, df, of the resulting system of linear CDW h1); the entry into tricarboxylic acid cycle, 62.2%,
equations is equal to the total number of unknown rates and the contribution of the succinylase pathway to lysine
(both intracellular and exchange reactions) minus the total synthesis, 13.7%. The total net flux of the anaplerotic re-
number of linear equations. To resolve the system, df rates actions (carboxylation of PEP/pyruvate into oxaloacetate/
have to be measured, and then the system is fully deter- malate) was quantitated as 38%, the true forward flux of
mined. If the number of measured rates is greater than df, C3 r C4 being 68.6% (1.8 times of 38%) and a back flux of
then the system is overdetermined, and the redundancy of C4 r C3 being 30.6% (0.8 times of 38%) (19). The metabolic
the data can be used for statistical analysis and error min- balancing proved to be very promising and useful to iden-
imization. However, it is much more typical to have an un- tify metabolic constraints for intensive synthesis (overpro-
derdetermined system when the sum of measured rates is duction) of products such as amino acids. On the other
less than df. In this case, the number of possible solutions hand, this approach still is restricted to steady-state and
is infinite unless additional constraints are applied (e.g., balanced growth and is not able to cope with complex dy-
maximization of biomass yield, minimization of energy ex- namic behavior of microorganisms (transient growth,
penditure) to find the one and only one solution by the lin- changes in biomass composition).
ear optimization technique.
In most studies, flux estimates are obtained using mea-
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH KINETICS
surements of substrate consumption and product forma-
tion. This approach has proved to be efficient in some par-
Kinetics of Chemical and Enzyme Reactions
ticular biotechnological cases, such as when only specific
pathways need to be considered (16) or if the contribution We need to introduce some basic principles of kinetic anal-
of flux for cellular growth is weak, as with mammalian or ysis of chemical and enzymatic reactions. Quantitative de-
hybridoma cells (17). The more complex microbial systems scription and understanding of microbial growth dynamics
are turned out to be seriously underdetermined. In such and kinetics are impossible without some elementary
cases, the application of metabolic balancing requires the knowledge in underlying scientific disciplines. Enzymatic
use of one or another maneuvers: (1) to lump together sev- and chemical reactions play an essential role in biotech-
eral sets of reactions (18); (2) to utilize data from in vitro nology, which is one of the most important fields in indus-
enzyme assays; (3) to make assumptions on numeric val- trial development.
ues of some stoichiometric growth parameters, such as
YATP, P/O, and H /e ratios, which are the subject of con- Order and Molecularity of Chemical Reactions. The mo-
troversial debates (13). lecularity of any chemical reaction is defined by the num-
However, the best solution would be to get direct exper- ber of molecules that are altered in the reaction (Table 3).
imental data on in vivo flux and resolve the system. Iso- The order is a description of the number of concentration
topic tracers are one of the best candidates for such a pur- terms multipled together in the rate equation (Table 4).
pose. We will illustrate this point by describing a recently Hence, in a first-order reaction, the rate is proportional to
published work (19). This novel approach is based on the one concentration of reactant; in a second-order reaction,
analytical power of 1H-detected 13C nuclear magnetic res- it is proportional to two concentrations or to the square of
onance. Corynebacterium glutamicum was grown in che- one concentration. For a simple single-step reaction, the
mostat culture continuously fed with [1-13C]-glucose; when order is generally the same as the molecularity. For a com-
steady state was established, the cells were harvested and plex reactions involving a sequence of unimolecular and
hydrolyzed and the amino acids were separated by ion- bimolecular steps, the molecularity is not the same as its
exchange chromatography and analyzed by NMR spectros- order. Reactions of molecularity greater than 2 are com-
KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH 1521
Table 3. Molecularity of Chemical Reaction of inspected reactions is different, then we have to equalize
Molecularity of reaction Reactants Product
the respective rate of expressions; for example, the second-
order rate constant k (time)1 (concentration)1 should be
Unimolecular or monomolecular S r P multiplied by instant concentration of reactant s to be com-
Bimolecular SS r P pared with the first-order rate constant having dimension
or S1 S2 r P
(time)1. The dimensions of the zero-, first-, and second-
Trimolecular or termolecular SSS r P
or S1 S1 S2 r P
order rate constants are shown in Table 4.
or S1 S2 S3 r P
Reaction Dynamics. If rate constant and so-called initial
conditions (concentrations of reactants at zero-time [s01,
s02, . . . ]) are known, then it is possible to calculate the
mon, but reactions of order greater than 2 are very rare. time course of reactions either in terms of dynamics of re-
For instance, a trimolecular reaction, such as A B C sidual reactant concentration, s(t) or product accumula-
r P, as a rule proceeds through two elementary steps, A tion, p(t). For this purpose, we have to integrate a differ-
B r X and X C r P, each of which are of the second ential equation under specified initial conditions (see
or first order. Very often, bimolecular reactions between S1 results of integration in Table 4). The dynamics of s(t) are
and S2 occur under the condition that their respective con- linear in the case of a zero-order reaction and hyperbolic
centrations s2 s1 (e.g., if the second reactant S2 is sol- in the case of the first and second order. The difference
vent), then we have a pseudo first-order reaction. Some re- between the last two dynamic curves can be made visible
actions are observed to be of the zero order, that is, the rate with a semilogarithmic plot of log(concentration) versus
appears to be constant, independent of the concentration time; it should became linear for the first-order reaction
of reactant. This is a characteristic feature of catalyzed and remain to be curvilinear for the reaction of higher or-
reactions and occurs if reactant is present in such large der.
excess that the full potential of catalyst is realized.
Dimensions of Rate Constants. Knowledge of dimensions Reaction Half-Time. The reaction half-time (t0.5) is a
is very useful to check the correctness of derived kinetic very popular kinetic parameter, especially among biolo-
equations: the left- and right-hand sides of an equation gists. It is easily calculated from integral equations by put-
must always have the same dimensions. This general rule ting s s0 /2 when t t0.5. A unique feature of the first-
is applicable to all mathematical models (not only in chem- order reaction is the constancy of t0.5 independently of the
ical kinetics). It is incorrect to add or subtract terms of initial reactant concentration s0. However, the half-time of
different dimensions, although you may multiply or divide other reactions does depend on s0; it increases for zero-
them. For example, if expression . . . (1 s) occurs in order reactions and decreases for the second-order reac-
an equation, where s has dimension (concentration), then tions with increase in s0. Thus, it is not recommended to
either equation is incorrect, or the 1 is a concentration that use half-time as a parameter or estimator for reactions
happens to have a numerical value of 1 unit. The operation other than first-order reactions.
rising to power is allowed for only simple dimensionless
numbers, for example, expression e2.5t, where t is time, is Determination of the Order of Reaction and Numeric Val-
correct only if 2.5 has dimension (time)1. The comparison ues of Kinetic Constants. If the reaction has an order n and
of velocities of two reactions does make any sense only for rate constant k, then the reaction rate v and reactant con-
kinetic terms of the same dimension. If the kinetic order centration s are related by the equation
Km is interpreted as a substrate binding constant, Ks, as- 103 s for most of enzymes. During this phase, the sub-
suming that k2 k1. This is a very dubious assumption. strate concentration remains fairly constant (s s0), allow-
There are very few enzymes for which the individual val- ing for the following analytical solution:
ues of k2 and k1 are known. Ironically, the best-studied
examples (e.g., horseradish peroxidase) present just op- k1e0s0 Vs
posite case: k2 k1. It is important that many specific x(t) [1 eAt], v(t) [1 eAt]
A Km c
mechanisms (not necessarily equations 28 and 32) gener-
A k1s0 k1 k2 (35)
ate the same steady-state rate equation 34. However, the
particular expression for Km should be different for each
individual case. As compared with equation 34, it contains a relaxation
Although undefined in mechanistic terms, the param- term [1 exp(At)] that is very large when t is small, but
eters Km and V are very useful at the first steps of kinetic decays to zero as t increases above s 1/A. Accordingly,
studies: the rate of enzymatic reaction is initially zero but increases
rapidly to the steady-state value as the exponential term
decays. Because the relaxation term contains s0, then the
1. The use of equation 34 allows the expression of the
experimentally observed delay depends on substrate con-
complex effects with simpler terms.
centration. It allows for direct determination of individual
2. Km and V are helpful as predictive parameters to de- rate constants k1 and (k1 k2) by techniques such as
sign a valid enzyme assay. One practical recommen- in stopped-flow apparatus (23).
dation is to keep substrate concentration in incuba-
2. The second steady-state phase is characterized by
tion mixture at the level of 10 Km or higher.
the constancy of reaction rate due to the exact balance be-
3. Equation 34 permits one to obtain at least rough es- tween the rates of ESC formation and breakdown (dx/dt
timate of in vivo enzyme activity provided the inter- 0) while the substrate concentration remains close to
nal substrate concentrations are known. the initial value s0. This phase proceeds for at least several
seconds. As a rule, it is enough to measure the initial ve-
General Non-Steady-State Approach. Equation 32 con- locity of enzymatic reactions unaffected by substrate de-
tains four variables (s, p, e, and x) constrained by two mass- pletion or product accumulation. Steady-state kinetics is
balance equations (e0 e x and s0 s p x). There- the most popular research domain; it is the most accessible
fore, it is enough to integrate just two differential and developed and provides the most kinetic data. How-
equations (e.g., equations 33 and 34) to characterize the ever, it fails to determine individual rate constants as fully
whole system. A typical example of a numeric solution is as the transient and relaxation approaches do. Steady-
shown in Figure 5. We can see that enzyme-catalyzed re- state equations were derived earlier (equation 34).
action proceeds through three definite phases well sepa-
3. The third phase is characterized by considerable
rated on the time scale. Each phase is now safe to analyze
changes in the concentrations of substrate and product.
with simpler mathematical expressions because any as-
Thus, we can no longer assume that s s0, and we should
sumptions could be tested against the full exact solution.
integrate equations 32 and 33. However, very good preci-
sion provides the quasi-steady-state approximation ds/dt
1. The first transient phase occurs before the steady-
dx/dt 0. Then, we arrive at a relatively simple differ-
state concentration of ESC is reached. It occupies less than
ential equation that is solved analytically:
ds Vs(t)
100 (36)
Steady-state dt Km s(t)
Substrate
Instant reaction rate, nmol s1
phase
depletion
80
phase For initial conditions s s0, p 0, t 0, we have
s0
60 Km ln s0 s Vt (37)
Transient s
phase
40 Equation 37 is called the integrated Michaelis-Menten
equation. It remains to be valid not only for initial rate
measurements but for any point within the reaction pro-
20
gress curve.
k2k3e0 S
Vf
k2 k2 k3
k1k2 k1k3 k2k3 EI EIS
Ksm
k1(k2 k2 k3)
k1k2e0 P
Vr
k1 k2 k2
There are three major simple (or linear) inhibition
k k k1k3 k2k3 mechanisms, which can be generated from this scheme by
Kpm 1 2 (39)
k3(k1 k2 k2) omitting some of the six involved:
where superscripts f and s denotes parameters of forward Competitive inhibition if EIS is missing (inhibitor
reaction, and r and p are indicators of reverse reaction. binds to the same site on the enzyme as the substrate
When a reaction is at equilibrium, the net velocity must forming abortive nonproductive complex EI).
be zero and, consequently, if s and p are the equilibrium Uncompetitive if EI is missing and EIS occurs as a
values of s and p, it follows from equation 39 that equilib- dead-end complex; it implies that the inhibitor-
rium constant K is expressed via kinetic parameters (the binding site becomes available only after the sub-
Haldane relationship): strate has bound.
KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH 1525
Mixed if EI and EIS both occur but are not intercon- between, respectively, identical and different ligands (e.g.,
vertible (the complex EIS does not break down to substrate and an allosteric effector).
products; this situation frequently occurs when the To explain the cooperativity and associated sigmoid ki-
inhibitor is reaction product). The particular case of netics, a number of models have been suggested. The ear-
mixed inhibition is pure noncompetitive inhibition, liest one is the Hill equation, which was originally de-
which takes place if two inhibitor dissociation con- signed to describe the S-shaped curve of oxygen binding to
stants (for EI and EIS) are exactly matched to each hemoglobin. It was assumed that each protein molecule E
other. binds n molecules of ligands S in a single step, an amount
of other possible forms (ESn1, ESn2, . . . ES) being neg-
For all types of inhibition, the Michaelis-Menten equa- ligible:
tion remains valid: under constant inhibitor concentration,
Kh
i, the v-s relationship is of the same hyperbolic type as E nS } ESn
predicted by equation 34, the only difference is that ap-
parent values of Km and V are now more or less simple where Kh is the respective equilibrium constant (Hill and
functions of i (Table 6). colleagues described equilibrium in terms of association
Some parameters (in boldface in Table 6) are not af- constant, but for the sake of uniformity we will adhere to
fected by inhibitors, whereas others are changed: compet- the previous formalisms, keeping in mind the dissociation
itive inhibitors increase Km, pure noncompetitive inhibi- constant, Kh [E][S]n /[ESn]). The fractional saturation of
tors reduce V, uncompetitive inhibitors decrease at the protein (enzyme or hemoglobin). H is given as
same degree both V and Km, leaving first-order rate con-
stant V/Km to be unchanged. In mixed inhibition, there are Number of occupied binding sites
no unchanged parameters. H
Total number of binding sites
One interesting case is so-called substrate inhibition. It
[ESn] [S]n
occurs when two substrates are bound to the same active (43)
site on the enzyme, forming nonproductive triple complex [E] [ESn] Kh [S]n
ES2:
Equation 43 can be rearranged into
Kss k2
ES } ES r E P H [S]n H
, log logKh n log[S] (44)
KSS @ 1 H Kh 1 H
ES2
A plot of log H/(1 H) against log [S] is known as the Hill
plot and should be a straight line of slope n (so). This equa-
then, the enzyme rate (24) is:
tion is used to fit the experimental binding and kinetic data
displaying a sigmoid shape. When plotting kinetic mea-
Vs
v (42) surements, it is assumed that H v/V, and maximum ve-
Ks s s2 /Kss locity V should be known from independent measurements
taken at saturation substrate concentration. However, the
where Kss is the dissociation constant for complex ES2. results of fitting should be interpreted with care. First, the
Hill equation is empirical and generally provides good
Cooperativity. Many enzymes respond to changes in me- agreement only in the H range 0.1 to 0.9 (the discrepancy
tabolite concentrations (substrates, modifiers) with much at extreme s is probably caused by neglecting of other
higher sensitivity as compared with predictions from the forms of ESC apart from ESn). Second, parameter n (Hill
classic hyperbolic equations 34 to 42. This property is gen- coefficient) could not be interpreted as the number of sub-
erally known as cooperativity, because it is thought to arise units in the fully associated protein, rather it is an index
from cooperation between the active sites of the polymeric of cooperativity.
enzymes. As a rule, such enzymes consist of several sub- Monod et al. (25) proposed a general model explaining
units and display so-called sigmoid or S-shaped depen- cooperativity and allosteric phenomena within a simple set
dence of rate on substrate concentration. Many cooperative of postulates:
enzymes (but not all!) have active sites binding substrate
and allosteric sites binding effectors. There are homotropic 1. Each subunit of enzyme can exist in two different
and heterotropic cooperative effects caused by interactions conformations, designated R (relaxed) and T (tense).
2. All subunits of a molecule must occupy the same con- ESC, whereas V/Km reflects the ionization of the free en-
formation at any time (e.g., for tetrameric enzyme zyme. The pH effects on Km are more complicated, being
only R4 or T4 are permitted, not R3T or R2T2, etc.). affected by both. Generally, the dependence of enzyme ac-
3. The two states are in equilibrium with constant L tivity on pH is described by equation 43 as a bell-shaped
[R4]/[T4]. curve with maximum at 1/2(pK1 pK2).
4. The affinity of ligand to subunit depends on the con-
Effects of Temperature. In chemical kinetics, the depen-
formation state: KR [R][S]/[RS], KT [T][S]/[TS],
dence of reaction rate on temperature is explained by the
c KR /KT.
transition-state theory developed by Eyring in 1930 to
1935. It is based on the use of thermodynamics and prin-
The general equilibrium solution of this scheme is ciples of quantum mechanics. The reaction proceeds
rather bulky, so we demonstrate one particular case of tet- through a continuum of energy states and must surpass
rameric protein, if c 0 (i.e., KR KT, S binds only to the the state of maximum energy, when transient activated
R state), then we have complex is formed. Then the dependence of reaction rate
constant k on absolute temperature, T, is expressed as fol-
(1 s/KR)3s/KR lows:
H (45)
L (1 s/KR)4
d lnk DH* RT
(47)
At high s when s/KR L, we can neglect the term L in the dT RT2
denominator, and the entire expression is converted to no
more than the simple hyperbolic Langmuir isotherm. At where R is the gas constant and DH* is the enthalpy of
low s, the contribution of L is considerable, so the satura- activated complex formation. The classic Arrhenius equa-
tion curve rises slowly from the origin displaying the tion may be obtained from equation 47 under a simplified
S-shape. condition DH* RT DH Ea (where Ea is activation
There are other models describing the mechanisms of energy). Most often, the Arrhenius equation is used in its
cooperativity and allosteric effects (20), for example, the integrated form:
sequential model of Koshland and colleagues and the
associationdissociation model of Freiden. lnk lnA Ea /RT
ergy, enthalpy, and entropy of denaturation reaction, re- therefore, it is advisable to make a selection. The biomass,
spectively, and v is the observed rate of biological process. x, has obvious advantage in studies aimed at understand-
This equation produces a curve with single maximum and ing or control of mass flows, and cell number, N, is pre-
fits to most of the available experimental data on ferred in population studies when, for example, mutation
temperature-dependent variations of enzymatic activity. or plasmid transfer is an essential factor controlling the
Sometimes denaturation is irreversible, and there are efficiency of the biotechnological process.
no possibilities for simple mathematical expressions, be- The choice of method to determine biomass or cell num-
cause temperature effects depends on the exposing time. ber depends on many factors (2,5). Today, the preference
However, numeric solutions of respective differential equa- should be given to those techniques that allow exact and
tions can still be used. automated measurements (Table 8). The most advanced
analytical methodology is now available for automatic re-
Simple Models of Microbial and Cell Growth cording of gaseous or volatile substrates, intermediates,
and end products, such as methane, CO2, O2, H2, volatile
This section deals with simple unstructured models. These fatty acids, alcohols, and other fermentation products (IR-
models mainly ignore any changes in cell quality (biochem- analyzers, mass spectrometry, gas chromatography, NMR,
ical composition, spectrum of enzymatic activity, etc.) in- etc.).
duced by environmental factors. The primary state variables that are measured directly
in cell culture are usually recalculated into the secondary
Main State Variables and Growth Parameters. There are growth characteristics: gross growth rate, dx/dt; specific
two types of growth models, deterministic and stochastic. growth rate, l (dx/dt)/x; degree of multiplication, x/x0;
The former describe clear determined and regular pro- biomass doubling time, td ln 2/l; growth yield, Y dx/
cesses. The latter deal with random or stochastic pro- ds; product yield, Yp /s dp/ds, Yp /x dp/dx; specific
cesses. The main variables used in deterministic models rate of substrate consumption, qs (ds/dt)/x l/Y; spe-
are the same as in chemical kinetics, concentrations of bio- cific rate of product formation, qp (dp/dt)/x lYp /x
mass, substrates, and products, and stochastic models con- l(Yp /x /Y). Most of the listed secondary growth character-
sider instead the probabilities, frequency distributions, istics are called specific rates expressed as a first-time de-
variance, and so on. For example, a stochastic model can rivatives of measured variable per unit of cell mass. The
consider the probability of a single bacteria cell dividing specific rates are not sensitive to variations in total cell
under specified environmental conditions. Although any biomass, so they can be considered as analogous to enzyme
real-life biotechnological process has both deterministic activity (qs, qp) in most kinetic derivations. The specific
and stochastic components, most useful growth models are growth rate, l, may be viewed as the activity of an auto-
strictly deterministic. In this section, we will concentrate catalytic enzyme producing itself. The specific growth rate,
on this type of model, and the stochastic counterparts will l, measured from biomass dynamic, x, can differ from that
be considered only in Cell Cycle. estimated from the increase in cell number, N (denoted as
The major state variables of deterministic models de- lN). It follows from equation 51 that
scribing cell growth are described in Table 7. The concen-
tration of biomass and cell number are related to each 1 d(N m)
other by simple formula: l
1 dx
x dt
x dt
1
Nm
N
dm
dt
m
dN
dt
x m N (51) 1 dm 1 dN
lcell lN (52)
m dt N dt
where conversion factor m1 is the average dry mass of a
single cell. In some studies, it is save to assume m to be a If mass of single cell m is constant, then lcell 0 and l
constant and use both variables x and N as equivalent lN. Otherwise, we have to take into account m variation.
measures of growth. However, the average size and mass
of single cells vary depending on the nature of studied or- Validity of Exponential Growth Low. One of the earliest
ganisms and environmental conditions (see Cell Cycle); postulates in microbial kinetics is that under optimal non-
restrictive conditions (nutrient media containing all essen- lnx lnx0 lt x x0 exp(lt) (54)
tial components at nonlimiting concentrations, absence of
inhibitors, adequate physicochemical parameters, perfect where x0 is biomass at zero time or inoculum size.
mixing), the increase in biomass (dx) during an infinitely According to early views, true exponential growth oc-
small time interval (dt) is proportional to this time interval curs only in the case of symmetrically dividing bacteria
and the instant biomass concentration (x), that is with equal probability of subsequent division for the
mother and daughter cells. Organisms with asymmetrical
dx lxdt multiplication (budding yeasts) were thought to obey the
exponential low only approximately, whereas the growth
or of filamentous organisms (fungi, streptomycetes) was de-
viated considerably. However, direct measurements per-
dx/dt lx (53) formed from 1930 to 1960 (5) revealed that exponential
growth does occur in all prokaryotes and eukaryotes in-
where l is the proportionality coefficient. If l is constant, dependent of their biomorphological features, including
integration of equation 53 gives protozoa, fungi, and homogeneously cultivated plant and
KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH 1529
animal cells. The deviation is observed only as a result of A similar (but not identical) equation of cell biomass
a growth-associated change in the environment. Wang and dynamics would be produced if we assumed that the lim-
Koch (26) made very precise measurements of l dynamics iting substrate is consumed according to first-order kinet-
by growing Escherichia coli directly in an aerated cuvette ics and is converted to biomass with a fixed yield factor:
of the computer-linked double-beam spectrophotometer.
They found temporary slowdowns in the complex peptone Y (x x0)/(s0 s) (58)
plus beef extract media attributed to diauxie phenomena
(e.g., depletion of some preferred oligopeptides) and a grad-
ual increase of the l value during sequential subculture in then
succinate minimal medium. Long-term cultivation of mi-
croorganisms in continuous turbidostat or pH-stat culture ds
(14) revealed that the increase in l is mainly the result of ks
dt
autoselection of mutants having higher maximum specific
x0 Ys0 x x x dx
growth under specified cultivation conditions (see Popu- s m
lation Dynamics). Y Y dt
k1 k2 kn kn1
As compared with Y expression for batch culture S X r P1 r P2 r . . . r Pn r 2X (66)
(equation 58) the formula in equation 63 no longer
contains the term, x0, the inoculum size. Thus, a Assuming steady state in respect to intermediate concen-
steady-state culture is not dependent on past history, tration pi, dpi /dt 0, we arrive at the Monod equation,
and its properties are determined solely by current composite parameters lm and Ks being expressed via ele-
cultivation parameters. mentary kinetic constants of individual enzymatic reac-
2. The dilution rates permitting stable microbial tions:
growth (i.e., those D, at which x 0) are confined
between 0 and washout point or critical dilution dx s
rate Dc lm x
dt Ks s
Dc lmsr /(Ks sr) (64) lm
1
n1
strate (processes of active transport, transphosphorylation cell density, xm. The residual substrate concentration, s is
of sugars etc.) (33) and the formation of intracellular calculated from mass balance (equation 58); yield is cal-
protein-synthesizing structures such as rRNA and the ri- culated as (xm x0)/s0; the s0 value should be known) and
bosomal proteins (34). corresponding l(t) values from the slopes d(lnx)/dt. Finally,
2. Stochastic considerations. Microbial populations parameters Ks and lm (equation 65) are to be found graph-
were assumed to consist of active (which utilize the sub- ically or from nonlinear regression as in the case of the
strate) and inactive cells (35). The probability of a transi- Michaelis-Menten equation (see later text).
tion from the inactive state to the active one was supposed 2. Batch culture, ignoring the substrate uptake. The in-
to be proportional to s, whereas the probability of the re- oculum size, x0, and the duration of experiment are chosen
verse transition was s independent. From these assump- to minimize the uptake of added substrate s s0 (37). Typ-
tions, a relationship between l and s can be inferred, simi- ically, bacterial cell density should be of the order 105 or
lar to equation 65. less, and it is measured by such sensitive instruments as
3. Derivations based on mechanistic considerations of the Coulter counter. The quasi-steady-state growth rate is
protein synthesis (36). The rate of protein synthesis, dp/ measured at several s0 values and then fitted to equation
dt, is supposed to be determined by rRNA concentration R 65 as described before. In numerous determinations made
and by the size of the amino acids pool, A, dp/dt kxRA/ at high cell densities (when we can no longer neglect sub-
(KA A), k constant. Other conditions are defined as R strate consumption), it was observed that dependence of l
R0 (Rm R0)l/lm, A bs, and P p/x, where Rm during exponential growth phase on s0 is formally de-
and R0 are, respectively, the upper and lower limits of R scribed by the Monod equation with s replaced by s0 (38).
variation, and P and b are constants. For a steady-state The explanation of these results could be made only by
chemostat culture, dp/dt 0 and dx/dt (1/P)(dp/dt) more complex structured models; however, the described
0, then procedure is not appropriate for Ks and lm determination.
3. Batch culture, integral form of equation 61. The S-
l (kRm /P)s/(RmKA /br0 s) lms/(Ks s) (68)
shaped curve of biomass dynamics is fitted directly to
equation 61 through either preliminary linearization or
Here again, the Monod equation is derived through a con- nonlinear regression (preferential). Sometimes (e.g., when
sideration of underlying intracellular processes. Needless cells are grown in opaque media) it is more convenient to
to say, none of the cited derivations are free from criticism. follow the dynamics of residual substrate s(t) or product
The Monod equation remains empirical. Any attempts to formation p(t), for example, CO2 evolution or dynamics of
provide the mechanistic interpretation of this equation in- O2 uptake (respiration). In these cases, we can integrate
evitably lead to much more complicated mathematical ex- the set of differential equation 60 in terms of s(t) or p(t)
pressions (see late section on structured models). dynamics, taking into account massbalance relationships
in equations 7, 8, and 58 and similar equations.
Biological Meaning and Experimental Determination of
Growth Parameters Ks and lm. The parameter lm, maximal 4. Steady-state chemostat culture. The chemostat pro-
specific growth rate, has very lucid biological meaning: it vides the opportunity for estimations under steady-state
is the upper limit of l variation on specified nutrient me- condition, which is commonly believed to be more reliable.
dium. It could not be attained in reality because of its as- By running an experiment at different dilution rates, D,
ymptotic nature: l r lm as s r . However, in practice lm the corresponding s values may be measured and the de-
is achieved if s Ks. It should be remembered that lm is pendence of l D on s obtained; in principle, this can be
not absolute maximum of growth rate, because it depends done as accurately and carefully as desired. Such an ap-
on the nature of the limiting substrate. For example, E. proach, however, may and frequently does encounter se-
coli has lm above 2.5 h1 on complex beef-extract medium rious technical problems because of the high affinity to lim-
and below 1.0 h1 on minimal medium with succinate. Sat- iting substrate of some microorganisms. There is a need to
uration constant Ks could be defined functionally as such (1) select highly sensitive analytical techniques to measure
concentration of limiting substrate that provides a specific extremely low residual concentrations of particular sub-
growth rate equal to 0.5 of lm. We can say also that Ks is stances; (2) develop instant sampling procedures to mini-
a measure cell affinity to substrate: the lower is Ks the mize substrate loss, and (3) eliminate apparatus-related
better the organism is adapted to consume substrate from artifacts such as nonperfect mixing and fluctuations in nu-
diluted solution. Any other definitions are speculative, e.g., trient medium supply. This can be accomplished by use of
Ks interpretation as the dissociation constant of ESC of the radiolabeled substrate, and other tips are covered in spe-
cellular enzyme involved in the first step of substrate con- cific experimental works (39,40). However, the most essen-
version. tial objection to this method is that organisms at various
There are several ways to determine numeric values of steady states do change their kinetic properties, which is
Ks and lm: not accounted by Monods model (see Structured Models).
5. Non-steady-state chemostat culture. The measure-
1. Batch culture, differential form of Monod equation. ments are made during short-term experiments started by
The biomass dynamics, x(t), are followed from the start of addition of different amounts of limiting substrate to a
the exponential phase until the complete consumption of steady-state chemostat culture. Then, substrate uptake or
the limiting substrate and the attainment of the maximal respiration rates are recorded in perturbed culture until
1532 KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH
the new steady state is established (2). The opportunity of l lms/(Ks s) mYm (75)
continuous culture is that the physiological state of cells
just before perturbation is well defined and reproducible.
If we define lm Ym(Qs m) (2), then
On the other hand, these experiments do provide data on
affinity to substrate (Ks) and maximal rates of respiration
(e.g., QCO2 or uptake Qs, which are related but are not iden- l lm(s s*)/(Ks s)
tical with lm): s* KsmYm /lm (76)
lm Yp /xQCO2 Ys /xQs (69)
Equations 75 and 76 both predict the occurrence of thresh-
where stoichiometric parameters Yp /x dp/dx and Ys /x old substrate concentration s*, below which growth is im-
ds/dx should be determined in independent experiments. possible. It yields a substantially better fit to experimental
Immediate assay of lm in such an experimental setup is data. The difference is that according to equation 75, the
possible as follows: the steady state is perturbed by setting parameter lm is the specific growth rate under imaginary
the dilution rate by 20 to 100% higher than the critical conditions of zero maintenance requirements, whereas
value Dc (equation 64). The washout dynamics are followed equation 76 implies the traditional definition of lm as the
and lm is determined from approximate relationship (5): x specific growth rate under substrate excess: l r lm when
x(0) exp[(lmD)t], where x(0) is biomass before pertur- s r .
bation. More rigorous estimate of lm could be provided if Account for Substrate Leakage. Mathematically identi-
such washout experiments were made at several (at least cal to equation 76, a modification of the Monod equation
two) input substrate concentrations s0 to account for the was proposed for the case of conserved substrates. How-
fact that sr is still not infinity. ever, the biological meaning is entirely different: if the spe-
cific leakage rate is assumed to be constant, then a de-
Modification of the Monod Equation. It was found that crease in s down to some threshold value s* will lead to the
not all experimental data could be reasonably well fitted counterbalance of the two reverse processes (uptake and
by equation 65. The best-fit hyperbola often passed above leakage), so that the net consumption of the limiting sub-
experimental points at small s and below them at large s. strate will be zero.
A better fit was claimed to be provided by using the follow- Account of Inhibitory Effects. A few valuable refine-
ing, entirely empirical, equations: ments of the Monod equation were borrowed from enzy-
mology; most often they were noncompetitive and sub-
l lm[1 exp(Ks)] (70) strate inhibition. The former inhibition mechanism is by
l lms /(Ks s )
n n
(71) the so-called Monod-Ierusalimsky equation:
l lms/(Ksx s) (72)
s Kp
l lm (77)
The preference of the first expression, equation 70 (41), is Ks s Kp p
questionable. An expansion of Monod equation by addition
of the third parameter, n in equation 72 (42), or introduc-
The growth retardation with an excess of such substrates
tion of the second variable, x in equation 71 (43), does im-
as phenol, methanol, and ethanol is described by an ana-
prove the approximation capability of kinetic equations.
logue of Haldanes equation (45):
We can even provide the mechanistic basis for this im-
provement. Thus, the Moser equation (equation 71) is simi-
lar to the Hill equation in enzymology (equation 43), in- s
l lm (78)
dicating the cooperativity effects in performance of some Ks s s2 /Kss
master reaction of cellular metabolisms. The Contois equa-
tion (equation 72) could be interpreted in terms of growth
Equation 78 simulates a single-peak curve, and so the
autoinhibition by-products, because under the realistic as-
same l value may be obtained at two different s, one in the
sumptions (x x0, xYp /x /Kp 1 and product p formation
substrate-limiting range, dl/dt 0 (stable), and the other
coupled with growth), the apparent saturation constant
in the substrate inhibition range, dl/dt 0 (unstable). A
Kapp
s is almost proportional to accumulated biomass x:
sustainable maintenance of a population under conditions
Ksapp Ks(1 p/Kp) Ks[1 Yp /x(x x0)/Kp] Ksx of substrate inhibition is possible either in the second stage
(73) of a two-stage chemostat or in the case of plentiful wall
growth in a conventional chemostat (46).
An Account of Maintenance Requirements. Powell (44) Account of Diffusion Effects. We will present one ex-
assumed that substrate uptake rate q obeys the Michaelis- ample of such models (44). The basic assumption is that
Menten kinetics; then, from massbalance equation 18 it substrate is taken up by an enzyme that obeys Michaelis
follows that kinetics and is localized on the inner side of cell membrane.
The actual substrate concentration around the enzyme-
qs Qs /(Ks s) l/Ym m (74) active centers is smaller than in the solution, because of a
limited diffusion rate. By applying a simplified Laplace
If lm is defined as lm YQs (5), then equation, it was found eventually that
KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH 1533
1 (K L s)
lm(Ks L s)
4Ls poseful non-steady-state growth may display greater
l 1
2L s
2 efficiency and higher productivity (48).
s
lm (79) The notions of steady-state and balanced growth are
Ks L s
close but not identical. The first is more strict; steady-state
where L is a factor determined by membrane permeability growth has to be balanced by definition (otherwise some of
and by the maximum rate of the enzymatic reaction. the specific rates responsible for synthesis of the changed
cell component should vary). On the other hand, the bal-
Structured Models anced growth can be for some time nonsteady, perhaps dur-
ing the late exponential phase of batch culture when l de-
The unstructured models (such as Monods model or its clines while cell composition remains unchanged. During
modifications) are able to predict and describe only sim- long-term experiments, non-steady-state growth leads in-
plest manifestation of growth phenomena. Sometimes it is evitably to a change of cell composition; it becomes unbal-
declared that Monod-type models are able to describe only anced. For heterogeneous populations, the situation may
balanced and steady-state growth. The analysis of more be more complicated. For example, the growth in the sec-
complicated unbalanced and non-steady-state growth re- ond stage of a two-stage chemostat attains a steady state,
quires formulation of structured models. and the biomass and residual substrate concentration are
constant. However, such growth is not balanced, because
Definitions. Balanced growth was defined by Campbell cells delivered from the first stage differ in their properties
(47) as a proportional increase in the amounts of all cell and composition as compared with the bulk of cells in the
components, in other words, balanced growth produces second stage. This situation was termed the transient
cells of the same quality without any variation of compo- steady state (49).
sition. The terms steady state and non steady state stem By structured, we mean mathematical models describ-
from chemical and enzyme kinetics. The first one refers to ing growth-associated changes in microbial cell composi-
such a regime when the reaction rate remains constant tion. It includes massbalance equations for all assigned
because of an exact balance between formation and break- intracellular components. Their concentrations can be ex-
down of intermediary products such as the enzyme pressed either per unit volume of fermenter vessel (c1, c2,
substrate complex. In microbial culture, the growth is . . . , cn), or per unit cell mass (C1, C2, . . . , Cn), and hence
called steady state if specific rather than total rates remain Ci ci /x. The massbalance equations can be written as
constant. In an open system, such as a chemostat, both follows
total (dx/dt, ds/dt) and specific rates (l (1/x)dx/dt, qs
(1/x)ds/dt) tend to have constant steady-state values. A n
closed system, such as a batch culture, should be consid- ci x
i1
ered under steady state only during the exponential phase
n
when l and qs are constant. The linear growth with a con-
stant total rate (dx/dt lx constant) is characterized Ci 1
i1
(80)
by monotonously declining l, and is not steady-state
growth. However, under some conditions (such as in dial- For each variable Ci, a differential equation is written that
ysis culture) it may attain quasi steady state, when ds/dt takes into account all sources, r, and sinks, r, as well as
0. its dilution from cell mass expansion (growth)
The non-steady-state kinetic regimes take place before
establishment of steady state or after its perturbation. In dCi
enzyme kinetics, non-steady-state measurements are r(s, C1, . . . , Cn) r (s, C1, . . . , Cn) lCi
dt
taken in the millisecond range of time scale. In microbial (81)
cultures, similar non-steady-state transient and pertur-
bation processes advance much more slowly, typically dur- The simplest structured models with n no more than 2
ing several hours and days. An example is a transient pro- or 3 are called two- or three-compartment models. For ex-
cess in the chemostat induced by changes in D or sr ample, a model (50) incorporated two compartments: nu-
(fed-substrate concentration). In such growth, l, qs, qp, and cleic acids and proteins combined with other active cell
other metabolic rates exhibit continuous variation in time. components. The model variables also included concentra-
The attractiveness of non-steady-state studies for micro- tions of the limiting substrate and the inhibitor. Compared
biology and biotechnology is obvious: to Monods model, the proposed set of four equations was
able to account for a much wider range of dynamic pat-
They allow a wider range of hypotheses to be tested terns. Specifically, it simulated D-dependent changes in
and yield much more data on the studied objects. the cell composition (chemostat) and all known growth
They have higher practical value; in biotechnology, phases of batch culture from the lag to decline. However,
steady-state operation is the exception rather than the choice of variables in this model was more or less ar-
the common routine because of unavoidable distur- bitrary, so it should be regarded more as a bright illustra-
bances in cultivation conditions. tion rather than a research tool.
They provide additional tools for optimal regulation During the past decade, much more realistic structured
of cell performance in the bioreactor, because pur- models based on biochemical data have been developed.
1534 KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH
The simulation model of E. coli growth (51) contains the jumps from s(0) to s(1). Immediately, qs will increase from
following dynamic variables: glucose and NH 4 , as exosub- Q(0)S[s(0)] to Q(0)S[s(1)]. If no further changes in s(1) oc-
strates; CO2 and acetate, as products excreted into the me- cur, then Q will also eventually attain a new steady-state
dium; amino acids; ribonucleotides; deoxyribonucleotides; value equal to q[s(1)]
a . In essence, Q is the potential met-
monomeric precursors of cell wall components; rRNA and abolic activity, that is, the specific rate of a key metabolic
tRNA; nonprotein polymeric components; glycogen; guano- process measured just at the moment of relief from sub-
sinetetraphosphate; enzymes transforming ribonucleo- strate limitation. The transient Q dynamics are described
tides into deoxyribonucleotides; ATP; NAD(H); and pro- as net change equals production minus dilution caused by
tons. Altogether, the dynamic model amounts to a system cell growth:
of 21 differential and 14 algebraic equations. An even more
complicated model simulating growth of Bacillus subtilis dQ
r(Q, s) l(Q, s)Q (83)
(52) is the set of 39 nonlinear and coupled differential dt
equations containing nearly 200 parameters! These mod-
els are able to simulate particular growth features such as Substance Q may, in reality, be represented by a single
changes in cell sizes, shape, and composition as well as the enzyme or multienzymatic complexes as well as by ribo-
D-dependent variations in replication time brought about somes or other cell components occupying the bottleneck
by the shifts in glucose concentration. However, the pre- position. Monods model, supplemented by equation 83,
dictive capability of such an intricate dynamic model made possible at least a qualitative understanding of
should be still estimated as modest as compared with in- chemostat-transient processes triggered by a D switch
vested modeling efforts; they are still nothing more than a (55).
caricature parody of microbial biochemistry and are too The synthetic chemostat model (SCM) (2) combines Pow-
complex to be studied by conventional mathematical tools ells ideas with the routine of conventional structured mod-
(stability analysis, parameters identification, etc.) or to be els. This model is similar to the cybernetic model (56,57).
used in biotechnological applications. The best choice of a The basic SCM interprets microbial growth as a conversion
mathematical model lies, apparently, midway between un- of exosubstrate S into cell macromolecules X via a pool of
structured and highly structured models outlined here. intermediates L:
One of the known compromises has been found through
attempts to express quantitatively the cell physiological CO2
Cell wall
state.
Transport qs Synthesis qL
Physiological State of Chemostat Culture. The term was S L X'
Leakage v Turnover a
coined by Malek (53) without giving a clear definition. The
impetus for the development of the concept of a physiolog-
ical state was the evidence on changes in the chemical com- Macromolecular cell components are susceptible to degra-
position of microorganisms as dependent on dilution rate dation (turnover), and monomeric metabolites can escape
D and medium composition in chemostat culture (54). It into environment because of leakage. Contrary to simple
has been found that some of the studied parameters re- chemical catalysts, the composition of end product X is not
mained constant (content of cell DNA and carbon) while uniform and varies in response to a changing environment
others exhibited regular D-dependent variations, either an because of the adaptive nature of microbial metabolism. At
increase (RNA content, cell sizes) or a decrease (the con- the heart of the SCM are the solution of the problem, how
tent of reserved polysaccharides). Those properties that to cope with these variations, and how to describe adaptive
were D dependent were recognized as components of the changes in cell composition by relative simple models.
vector of the physiological state. All macromolecular cell constituents are divided into
Powell (44) combined and put on a quantitative math- two groups: primary cell constituents necessary for inten-
ematical footing three notions, which were beforehand sive growth (P components), and components needed for
separated and cloudy: (1) physiological state, (2) past his- cell survival under any kinds of growth restriction (U com-
tory, and (3) non-steady-state growth kinetics of microbial ponents). The characteristic examples of P components are
culture. The specific rate of substrate uptake, qs, was pre- ribosomes (rRNA and ribosomal proteins) and enzymes of
sented as a product the primary metabolic pathways. Their intracellular con-
tent increases parallel to an increase in l. The contribution
qs(s) q(s)S(s)
a (82) of U components to cell biomass decreases with growth ac-
celeration. Examples are enzymes of the secondary metab-
where S(s) is a simple saturation function (e.g., a Michaelis olism, protective pigments, reserved substances, and
hyperbola), S(s) s/(Ks s), and q(s)
a is a function asso- transport systems of high affinity.
ciated with the microbial physiological state. The instant The analysis of available data as well as mass-
value of q(s)
a is determined by way in which s varies until conservation conditions allowed the formulation of several
the given moment (s h ago), effects of later events contrib- rules of variation of cell components taking place because
uting more than earlier ones. Transient processes are in- of optimal control of cell biosynthesis:
fluenced by the past history of the culture in the following
manner. Suppose that steady-state growth of a chemostat 1. Amounts of P and U components expressed as a frac-
culture is upset and the residual substrate concentration tion of total cell mass (P and U, gram per gram of
KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH 1535
biomass respectively) vary within the upper (Pmax, similar trend was complemented by considerable decrease
Umax) and low (Pmin, Umin) limits, the latter being the of YN due to alteration of cell composition in favor of N-rich
constitutive part. P components (Fig. 6). SCM adequately describes the tran-
2. An increase of one individual P component is accom- sient growth caused by shift-up in chemostat culture. The
panied by increase of other P components. phenomena of overshoot in substrate concentration and
3. The total enlargement of Psum is accompanied by cor- undershoot in biomass during transient growth are ex-
responding decrease of Usum and vice versa. plained by slow adjustment of cell composition (RNA con-
tent, respiratory activity) to new growth conditions (Fig.
4. The P/U ratio is controlled by the limiting substrate
7). Batch culture limited by carbon and energy source was
concentration in an environment.
simulated by SCM on the whole from inoculation to death
stage; conventional growth phases (lag, exponential, de-
These rules are translated into mathematical terms as celeration, stationary, decline) were generated automati-
follows: cally without setting any specific conditions (Fig. 8). It is
important that SCM realistically describes and predicts
P1 P1min Pn Pnmin not only net growth but also the survival dynamics of
r
Pmax
1 Pmin
1 Pmax
n Pnmin starving cells after substrate depletion. During this phase,
U1 Umin
1 Um Umin
m
min 1r
U1 U1
max
Umax
m Umin
m
1.0
dr s
l r (85)
dt Kr s Figure 6. Simulation of D-dependent changes in cell composition
of Aerobacter aerogenes grown in NH
4 -limited chemostat culture.
The curves are calculated from SCM (2), and the original experi-
The introduction of the r variable greatly simplifies the
mental data are from Ref. 58.
use of structured models because the adaptive variation of
cell composition (and metabolic activity, which is deter-
mined by the intracellular content of particular enzymes)
Biomass, residual substrate, mg L1
where the first and the second terms on the right side
stand, respectively, for low (P component) and high (U com- 2 0.04
ponent) affinity of transport system. Similar r-dependent
expressions are derived for other reactions (qL, v, a) and 1
stoichiometric parameters. 0 0
10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Predictive and clarifying capabilities of SCM turned out
to be higher than more complex structured models. Con- Time (h)
trary to all known chemostat models, SCM provides ade-
Figure 7. SCM simulation of transient growth induced by change
quate simulation of D-dependent variation of the microbial of chemostat dilution rate. Residual glycerol concentration (1), bio-
physiological state. Under energy- and C-limited growth, mass (2), and cell RNA content (3). At t 0, dilution rate was
it was expressed as an increase of apparent Ks, potential shifted from 0.004 to 0.24 h1. Source: Redrawn from Ref. 2; the
uptake and respiration rates, maintenance ration, and original data (59) are for chemostat culture of Aerobacter aero-
turnover parallel to increase of D. Under N limitation, a genes limited by glycerol.
1536 KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH
1 1
2 dependent variations of cell sizes, because faster-growing
150 120 cells produce for the same s C D time a larger cell
rate and requires exactly one mass doubling time to reach Statistical Analysis of the Population Distributions. Equa-
its threshold concentration again. This mechanism is tion 87 to 89 were derived for average cells in the popula-
translated into mathematical form of a structured model tion. To embrace the variability of sizes, we have to analyze
such as SCM as follows (2): the frequency distributions. If certain conditions are met
the culture is fully desynchronized, cells grow according to
dV some deterministic low, all divide into only two identical
H(l a) lV daughter cells, and there is no cell eliminationthen age
dt
distribution (61) is given by:
dk
dt
f
if V V* then f f1 0 else f 0 (initiation)
if k k* then k k/2, V 0, m m/2 (division)
u(a)da 2lelada: 0 a ln 2/l td (90)
(89)
where l is specific growth rate, td is mean doubling time,
where H is the fractional contribution of protein V to total
a is the age since birth, and u(a) da is the frequency of cells
cell synthesis. The V content is an intrinsically transient
whose ages are between a and a da. Assuming that cells
entity; even during steady-state growth, it continuously
grow exponentially between divisions, then the frequency
changes between zero (Helmstetter and Cooper postulated
of mass distribution is
the annihilation of the initiator protein after every repli-
cation cycle) to an upper-threshold value, V*, which is less
u(m)dm 2m0 /m2dm: m0 m 2m0 (91)
than the potential steady-state level, H(l a)/l. The sec-
ond variable, k, imitates the replicating chromosome; it
where m0 is the mass of newborn cell and u(m) dm is the
sets up the discontinuity associated with cell division.
frequency of cells whose masses are between m and m
Analysis of coupled equation set 89 reveals that this
dm. The mean cell size is 2m0 ln 2 (calculated as an
model is stable toward perturbations. Suppose that by
integral of m u(m)dm). If cell growth between two con-
chance, the content of initiator protein has risen to some
secutive divisions is linear (65), then
abnormally high level. The immediate result would be sev-
eral more frequent cell divisions, with smooth reversal to
u(m)dm 4 ln 2/m0
a normal multiplication pace. Similar events take place
under the opposite situation of V deficiency; several divi- exp(m ln 2/m0)dm: m0 m 2m0 (92)
sions are delayed, resulting in production of abnormally
long cells, but then steady state is restored. The negative Equations 90 and 91 are called canonical age or mass dis-
feedback mechanism that brings things back into line is tributions to emphasize that they are an idealized form
based on the dynamic nature of variable V; it is character- applicable when cell division takes place at a precise size.
ized by a unique, stable steady state that is approached Assuming that momentary distribution of size at division
from different initial conditions. It may be easily shown of individual cells is normal and random (not correlated
that the described model adequately simulates various with other cell cycle events), we can obtain computer-
morphological effects exhibited during non-steady-state simulated curves for any fixed level of noise expressed as
growth (Table 10). the coefficient of variation (CV). As shown in Figure 9, ran-
dom variations of size at division tend to round the corners
of the canonical distribution.
Another source of cell size variation can be nonequal
Table 10. Morphological Effects during Non-Steady-State separation of mother cells into two daughter cells. It is
Growth characterized by the K distribution, which is the distribu-
Effects Explanation
The longer lag phase in batch The partial synchronization of 2.5
culture when growth is cell division is delayed as
surveyed by cell count compared with mass growth Canonical mass distribution, CV = 0
rather than biomass until attainment of the 2
measurements value 2m
Frequency
tion of the ratio of daughter-cell length to mother-cell Most of the obtained results are in better agreement
length. The average values absolutely necessary equals with the exponential growth model rather than with the
0.5, but CV is at best about 4% (e.g., for well-behaved E. linear model. However, there are some serious doubts
coli strains) and can attain rather high values for other about whether there is a unique simple mathematical
organisms. The deviation of observed versus predicted size growth low describing bacterial growth during the division
distribution may be caused also by cell death and different cycle. Cooper (67) proposed distinguishing three categories
kinds of cell pathology (abnormally long or dwarf cells). of cell components that are synthesized with a unique pat-
Collins and Richmond (66) introduced an entirely dif- tern:
ferent approach based on the use of three distributions:
1. Cytoplasm (proteins, RNA and ribosomes, small mol-
m m m
vm l{2
0
Wdm
0
u(m)dm
0
k(m)dm}/k(m)
ecules) that is accumulated exponentially.
2. Cell DNA that is replicated in a linear fashion as a
(93) sequence of constant and zero rates.
3. Cell surface composed of peptiodoglycan and mem-
where vx is the growth rate of cells of size m, k(m) is the
branes that are synthesized exponentially during
extent of population distribution, W is the momentary dis-
most parts of the cell cycle, but immediately before
tribution of dividing cells, and u(m) is the momentary dis-
cell division the synthesis accelerates to accomplish
tribution of newborn cells. This equation allows the cal-
new pole formation.
culation of the mean growth rate of cells of particular size
class. Instead of this analytical method, Koch in his work
with Shaechter (61) proposed the synthetic approach. Thus, the growth pattern of the whole cell is the sum of
Starting from the set of specific postulates of the cell mul- these three patterns. Because the cytoplasm is the major
tiplication mechanism (linear or exponential growth of cell constituent (up to 80% of CDW), then the growth of the cell
mass between divisions, kind of control, the evenness of should be approximately exponential.
the division), they derived the size or age distribution,
which then was compared with the observations. Population Dynamics (Mutations, Autoselection, Plasmid
Transfer)
The Growth Low. Some believe that there should be a Description of Mutation and Autoselection. The contin-
general low of cell growth that can be discovered by sen- uous culture turned out to be a very efficient tool to study
sitive methods of analysis. The rate of biomass growth mutation and autoselection (67). Let N be the total cell
throughout the cell cycle was hypothesized to be linear, concentration, M the concentration of mutants, l the spe-
bilinear, exponential, double-exponential, and so on. Two cific growth rate of the main nonmutated part of the cell
limiting cases have generally been considered: the expo- population, and g the specific growth rate of neutral mu-
nential and linear growth models proposed, respectively, tants, then
by Cooper and Kubitschek (57). To differentiate between
these two mechanisms, three classes of experiments have dM
been used: klN gM DM
dt
1. Size measurements of individual cells growing in the dN
lN klN DN (94)
microculture by use of phase-contrast microscopy or dt
recently developed confocal scanning light micros-
copy combined with image analysis. where k is the mutation rate expressed as the ratio of the
2. Pulse-chase labeling of cells with their subsequent numbers of mutants to total number of cells formed. If k
separation into different phases of the cell cycle. 1 and l g, in the steady state, we obtain l g D, and
Most frequently, labeled uracil and leucine are used
as precursors of RNA and protein synthesis, respec- dM
kND
tively. There are two major sources of errors in this dt
approach: poor resolving power of separation meth-
ods and artifacts associated with effects of exogenous or
compounds on intracellular fluxes (feedback inhibi-
tion, pool expansion, label dilution, etc.). One of the M M0 kDNt (95)
best options for separation is probably the baby ma-
chine, based on the membrane elution principle If g l, then the original strain will be displaced by the
(67). To minimize the second source of error, the mu- mutant, otherwise, if g l, M will tend to a lower limit
tants blocked in the synthesis of the probe compound M* kN/(1 g/D).
can be used. Experimental studies of phage-resistant mutants in a
3. Analysis of the frequency distributions of steady- tryptophan-limited chemostat culture of E. coli showed
state populations (see equations 91 and 92). How- that the period of linear M increase in accordance with
ever, the resolving power of this approach is rather equation 95 was fairly short. Every 20 to 100 generations
low because linear and exponential models produce there was an abrupt fall in the number of mutants, after
similar patterns. which the linear growth resumed at the same rate (67).
KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH 1539
The observed saw-tooth dynamics in M were explained by 3. Growth of a mutant with a higher resistance to in-
Moser (43) as a combined effect of mutation and selection. hibitory metabolic products can be described by equation
The original wild clone gives not a single but a whole array 77 with Kpk Kp. Under selection pressure r lk l
of mutations with subsequent reversions. Let us denote the lm(s/Ks s)[Kpk /(Kpk p) Kp /(Kp p)], the original
total cell population in a chemostat culture as N, which is population will be completely displaced, and the product
the sum of all subpopulations, including original and concentration will reach a higher steady-state level, p
emerging variants, N RNi. All possible transitions be- lmKpks/(Ks s)D Kpk.
tween variants are given by the matrix, kirj( j 1, . . . , n; 4. Growth of mutants resistant to an antibiotic will not
i 1, . . . , n; j i). Then, the chemostat model takes the be affected by competition if the respective antibiotic is
following form: continuously supplied: r lk(s), because l 0 for all
other forms. The dynamics of the total population will be
n
dN dNj governed by the initial density of the mutant.
l(s)N DN
dt j1 dt 5. A mutation resulting in enhanced adhesion to fer-
1
n menter walls will lead to accumulation of slow growing
l ljNj
N j1
cells (because the adhesion prevents washout); eventually
we have r lk D lj.
n n
dNj
lj(s)Nj DNj kjriNj kirjNi
dt ij ji Extrachromosomal Cell Elements. The present-day hot
ds
n spot in microbial population genetics is the study of extra-
D(s0 s) lj(s)Nj /Yj chromosomal cell elements (ECE) such as plasmids,
dt j1
phages, transposons, and insertion elements. Normally,
s ECEs do not carry genes, absolutely essential for growth,
lj(s) lm (96)
Ksj s but they are capable of fast replication, surpassing the
chromosome DNA in the number of copies. R plasmids are
Every drop in the saw-tooth dynamics of neutral mutants responsible for bacterial growth in the presence of antibi-
detected by their phage resistance can be interpreted as otics, but under normal conditions (with no antibiotics
the appearance of other types of spontaneous mutant with present), their synthesis becomes too heavy a burden for
higher growth capabilities. In a chemostat culture, such the host cell, which is manifested in a decreased growth
mutants overcompete and displace all other cells by virtue rate. Among the more than 100 R factors studied, about a
of their higher affinity to limiting substrate (a decreased quarter were found to increase the bacterial generation
Ks value). Let such a mutant be denoted by the subscript time by 15% (68). For this reason, plasmid-bearing strains
k and l(s) be the average growth rate of all other subpop- are unable to compete with plasmid-free populations, al-
ulations. The selection pressure for this mutant, r, is given though there are a few exceptions. Thus, colicin-positive
by cells carrying respective plasmids are able to withstand
the competition with faster-growing plasmid-free strains
d(Mk /N) M M by virtue of antagonistic inhibition. In recent years, rather
r k [lk(s) l(s)] k (97) intricate and detailed dynamic models of autoselection
dt N N
have been proposed that take into account the ECE-related
If Ksk Ksj( j k), then r 0 until a new equilibrium is effects, including the transfer of ECEs within the popula-
established. In this process, the original cells will be dis- tion, their segregation loss, changes in l arising from the
placed by the mutants and the growth-limiting substrate ECEs carriage, and so on. Some of these models have bio-
concentration will decrease from s1 DKsj /(lm D) to s2 technological and medical applications (69).
DKsk /(lm D), and the culture density will rise by Y(s1
s2). MICROBIAL GROWTH AS DEPENDENT ON CULTIVATION
SYSTEMS
Autoselection in Turbidostat and pH Auxostat. The affin-
ity to substrate was not always the only driving force of The array of laboratory cultivation systems that define the
selection outcome. A number of instructive examples were dynamic patterns of microbial growth is summarized in
reviewed by Pechurkin (14). Table 11. Microbial growth patterns are distinguished by
three features:
1. In turbidostat and pH auxostat, autoselection is in
favor of mutants with higher maximum specific growth Regime of substrate supply (1, continuous supply;
rates, r lmk lmj 0. Because the population density and 2, single-term addition)
is kept constant instrumentally and the dilution rate is Elimination of growing microorganisms (, signifi-
allowed to vary, then autoselection results in the increase cant; b, absent)
in D from lmj to lmk. Magnitude of spatial gradients (a, homogeneous sys-
2. Mutation toward a higher growth efficiency, Yk Yj, tems; b, heterogenous systems)
will lead to the same result as an increase in lm: r lk
lj (lmk lmj)s/(Ksj s), as soon as lk qsYk and lj Each specific cultivation procedure can be represented by
qsYj. a point inside a cube with the axes 1 to 2, to b, and a to
1540 KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH
b. The 2b combination is logically forbidden because any linked products, that is, optical density (turbidostat), cul-
spatial segregation results in protracted substrate utili- ture liquid viscosity (viscostat), CO2 concentration in out-
zation and so transforms a batch process into a continuous put air, culture pH (pH auxostat), and so on.
one. The dynamics of microbial growth in any type of cul- In theory, the steady-state growth may be established
tivation system can be described by the following mass in chemostat between 0 and lm, but in practical terms nei-
balance equations: ther very low nor very high values are attainable because
of the long time needed to reach the steady state in the
ds first case and the risk of culture washout in the second.
F G(s) l(s)x/Y mx The second group of continuous techniques (turbidostat,
dt
pH auxostat, viscostat, etc.) are capable of maintaining
dx
V H(x)x l(s)x (98) steady growth at high s when either l r lm or under sub-
dt strate inhibition, when dl/ds 0. There is also a potpourri
mixed technique known as the bistat (70), which combines
where F is the substrate input rate; G(s) is the rate of un- a chemostat and a pH auxostat. The massbalance equa-
used substrate removal from cultivation vessel (washout, tions for the chemostat and its modifications have already
leaching, evaporation, etc.); V is the rate of microbial bio- been given (equations 62 to 64). In a simple, complete mix-
mass input, which may be a single-term inoculation or con- ing cultivator, all cells have an equal probability of being
tinuous delivery of cells to the fermenter (specially de- washed out, hence l D. If there is substantial wall
signed or unintentional, e.g., contamination); and H(x) is growth, biomass retention, or feedback, then l D; this
the rate of microbial elimination, such as washout, death, difference increases with the extent of biomass retention
grazing, or lysis. The rest of the notation is conventional. in the fermentation vessel. In terms of our scheme, such
To simulate microbial growth dynamics in a particular ho- cultivation systems correspond to points on the edge 1a
mogeneous system, one has to make the following selec- to 1ab.
tion: F(t) 0, s0 0 for a category 2 (batch culture), F(t)
0 for category 1 (continuous cultivations); H(t) 0 for 1abContinuous Cultivation without Cell Washout
systems retaining cell biomass (dialysis, fed-batch, simple
batch, column with immobilized cells), and H(t) 0 when This group embraces cultures with batch or continuous di-
cell elimination occurs (chemostat, turbidostat, phased cul- alysis, fed-batch culture (FBC), and batch culture with a
ture, etc.) supply of limiting substrate via the gas phase (gases and
Spatially heterogeneous systems can be simulated ei- volatile compounds). It also includes the chemostat with
ther by partial derivatives or compartmental models (e.g., complete biomass feedback by means of filtration (71). The
the total biomass x of a microbial colony may be repre- latter fermenters are less reliable in practical terms as
sented as a sum of the peripheral and central components). compared with dialysis culture, because the membrane fil-
ters are quickly plugged with cells. The limiting substrate
is supplied into the dialysis culture through a semiper-
1aHomogeneous Continuous Culture (Continuous-Flow
meable membrane and, in the case of a gaseous nutrient,
Fermenters with Complete Mixing)
through the gasliquid interface. In both cases, mass
There are two subgroups within this type of cultivation transfer is reasonably well described by Ficks law. The
technique. In the first one, steady-state growth is main- culture volume remains fixed in all systems, with the ex-
tained naturally by the microbial culture itself. Self- ception of a FBC. In a FBC, a constant nutrient feed F
regulation is performed through negative feedback that provides a linear increase of culture volume V during the
originates from the dependence of the growth rate on sub- cultivation span; the dilution rate D F/V is decreased
strate concentration (chemostat) or on temperature (calor- hyperbolically. The great advantage of these cultivation
istat). In the second group, electronic devices are used for techniques for biotechnology is that they provide the pos-
the automatic adjustment of dilution rate to the instan- sibility of realizing very slow continuous growth accom-
taneous growth rate of the microbial culture. Electronic panied with derepression of synthesis of many secondary
control is based on the sensing of cell density or growth- metabolites. With a constant limiting substrate flux, Fs0,
KINETICS, MICROBIAL GROWTH 1541
the absence of cell washout means that at each subsequent culture liquid, moving along the spatial coordinate z at a
moment an equal ration is shared by an increasing micro- linear velocity f F/A (where F is flow rate, cm3 /h, and A
bial biomass, and, as a result, l eventually falls down to is the cross-sectional area, cm3), growth of biomass pro-
negligible values or even to zero (the maintenance state). ceeds as in a simple batch culture. To account for the cul-
Unlike the chemostat, no true steady state is established ture movement per se, we have to pass from ordinary to
in this case, but when the substrate is virtually depleted, partial derivatives and replace dx/dt by x/t fx/z
we have ds/dt 0 and the system reaches a quasi steady (along-the flow-growth rate). Allowing for some dispersion
state (5). If a quasi steady state approximation is found to of the moving front by diffusion, we can write
be sufficient, then extremely slow continuous growth can
be obtained after a reasonable period of time, perhaps a s s 2s
f Ds 2 q(s)x
few weeks, as compared to the several months needed in t z z
a chemostat. x x 2x
f Dx 2 l(s)x (100)
t z z
2aContinuous Cultivation with a Discontinuous Supply
of Limiting Substrate where Ds and Dx are the diffusion coefficients of the sub-
strate and microbial cells, respectively.
Suppose we have a simple chemostat culture fed by nutri-
ent medium lacking just one essential component. This 1bbContinuous-Flow Reactors with Microbes Attached
component is added as a small volume of concentrated so-
lution at regular and sufficiently large time intervals, Dt. The nutrient solution is pumped through a column filled
Then with adsorbent material and is utilized as it moves by
growing immobilized cells. The massbalance equations
ds for a packed column are obtained from equation 100 by
D[s0(t) s] q(s)x simplifying the equation for x,
dt
dx s s 2s
l(s)x Dx f Ds 2 q(s)x(z)
dt t z z
x
s0(t) 0,A otherwise
0, when t iDt, i 0, 1, ...,n
(99)
t
l(s)x Y[q(s) m]x (101)
This cultivation method was originally used to obtain syn- Bacterial cells accumulate faster on the top of the column
chronized cell division (72). A continuous phased culture because of larger q(s) values, and as a result, a distinctive
(73) is a repeated simple batch culture, that is, at regular spatial biomass distribution develops in the form of a hy-
intervals, Dt, half of the culture volume is withdrawn and perbolic decrease of x with column depth. Growth does not
the fermenter is refilled with an equal volume of fresh me- reach steady state with respect to x until cell elimination
dium. Under such conditions, repeated batchwise growth becomes well expressed (the effects of inhibitory products,
proceeds with biomass increasing cyclically from x0 to 2x0. endogenous cell decomposition, and leaching).
Obviously, the growth dynamics are governed by the time
Colonies
interval between consecutive substrate additions Dt. If Dt
ln2/lm, a sawtooth nonlimited growth takes place as in Besides continuous-flow columns, other heterogeneous
a turbidostat. With Dt ln2/lm the culture should be systems are widely used. Especially popular is plating on
washed out and, when Dt ln2/lm, the maximal attainable solid media made from natural or synthetic gels (agar,
biomass decreases with increasing Dt because of endoge- PAAG, silica gel, synthetic alumosilicates, etc.) as well as
nous biomass decomposition and waste respiration during on some porous materials (sand, glass beads, glass fiber).
the lag phase. Impregnated with nutrient solution, such materials are
used to grow microorganisms in the form of colonies or
2abSimple Batch Culture lawns. At first glance, it is tempting to consider these tech-
niques as analogies of a simple batch culture with single-
Cultivation begins at the initial limiting substrate concen-
term substrate input (type 2bb in Table 11). However, a
tration, s0, and inoculum size, x0. The biomass reaches its
closer look at the mechanism of colony growth reveals a
maximum, xm, when the limiting substrate is depleted (s
greater resemblance to chemostat culture! Here we will
0) and then declines even in the absence of exogenous
outline our considerations.
elimination, so that x r 0 as t r . Description of batch
The spread of a colony over a solid substrate, for ex-
dynamics has been given earlier. Specified growth phases
ample, a layer of agar, proceeds by the growth of only a
are described by simple nonstructured models (equations
peripheral zone with biomass, xp (Fig. 10). Then
56, 61, and 73), and entire dynamics are described by SCM
and other structured models (equations 84 to 86; Fig. 8). ds
q(s)x
dt
1bPlug-Flow (Tubular) Culture
dx
The inoculum and the medium are mixed on entry into a lwxp ax (102)
dt
long reactor tube, and the culture flows in the tube at a
constant velocity without mixing. In each small element of where a is the specific decay rate of cell (mycelium) com-
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