a r t i c l e i n f o abstract
Article history: With the development of high-strength materials, the existing fatigue strength formulae cannot
Received 8 May 2012 satisfactorily describe the relation between fatigue strength sw and tensile strength sb of metallic
Received in revised form materials with a wide range of strength. For a simple but more precise prediction, the tensile and
7 November 2012
fatigue properties of SAE 4340 steel with the tensile strengths ranging from 1290 MPa to 2130 MPa
Accepted 27 November 2012
Available online 1 December 2012
obtained in virtue of different tempering temperatures were studied in this paper. Based on the
experimental results of SAE 4340 steel and numerous other data available (conventional and newly
Keywords: developed materials), through introducing a sensitive factor of defects P, a new universal fatigue
High-strength materials strength formula sw sb(C Pdsb) was established for the rst time. Combining the variation tendency
Tensile strength
of fatigue crack initiation sites and the competition of defects, the fatigue damage mechanisms
Fatigue strength
associated with different tensile strengths and cracking sites are explained well. The decrease in the
Fatigue crack initiation site
Fatigue damage mechanism fatigue strength at high-strength level can be explained by fracture mechanics and attributed to the
transition of fatigue cracking sites from surface to the inner inclusions, resulting in the maximum
fatigue strength smax
w at an appropriate tensile strength level. Therefore, the universal fatigue strength
formula cannot only explain why many metallic materials with excessively high strength do not display
high fatigue strength, but also provide a new clue for designing the materials or eliminating the
processing defects of the materials.
& 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
0921-5093/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2012.11.103
332 J.C. Pang et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 564 (2013) 331341
3.1. Microstructures
2. Experimental material and procedures
With increasing the tempering temperature, the body-
centered tetragonal (BCT) martensite, which is a supersaturated
In the current study, SAE 4340 steel bars were received with a
solution of carbon in a-Fe, transforms to different microstructures
diameter of 14 mm under annealing condition and its composition
as shown in Fig. 2. Referring to the textbook [36,37] and XRD
is given in Table 1. To gain different strength levels, ve optimized
proles, the microstructure features of sample AE are illustrated
heat-treatment procedures as shown in Table 2 were employed
as follows: the sample A tempered at 180 1C contains many
and the corresponding specimens are dened as AE, respectively.
needle- or plate-shaped tempered martensites (see Fig. 2(a))
The congurations of the tensile and fatigue specimens are shown
and some retained austenites. The sample B tempered at 250 1C
in Fig. 1. All fatigue samples were polished in the longitudinal
consists of microstructure (Fig. 2(b)) similar to that of the sample
direction using an emery paper having a mesh of 2000#.
A, but the size of retained austenite decreases because of its
The tensile tests were conducted at a strain rate of 2 10 4 s 1;
decomposition; however, the sample C tempered at 350 1C only
very high-cycle (VHC) fatigue tests were conducted at a frequency of
displays needle- or plate-shaped tempered martensite. The sam-
20 kHz up to 109 cycles using a ultrasonic fatigue testing system
ples D and E, respectively tempered at 420 1C and 500 1C, exhibit
(Shimadzu USF-2000). To avoid the sample heating, the middle
tempered troostite with plate-like appearance (Fig. 2(d) and (e)),
section of each ultrasonic fatigue specimen was cooled by com-
and the lath width of troostite in sample E increases in compar-
pressed air. All fatigue tests were performed with the sinusoidal
ison with sample D because a phase has obviously recovered after
wave shape under applied stress ratio of R 1. The fatigue
tempering above 400 1C.
strength was determined by the staircase method in which at least
six pairs of specimens were tested according to ISO12107:2003.
The microstructures of the specimens with different strength levels 3.2. Tensile properties
were examined by electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) with
After different tempering procedures, the specimens A to E
Table 1 exhibit different tensile properties and their tensile stressstrain
Chemical composition of SAE 4340 steel (Wt%). curves are shown in Fig. 3(a). It can be seen that the specimens A to
E display different yield strength, work-hardening ability, ultimate
C Mn Si P S Cr Ni Mo Cu As tensile strength and elongation. Fig. 3(b) and (c) show the relations
0.42 0.66 0.25 0.009 0.014 0.74 1.41 0.17 0.11 0.034
among the strength, elongation to fracture and reduction in area
versus tempering temperature: it can be seen that as tempering
temperature increases, tensile strength successively decreases,
however, elongation to fracture and reduction in area successively
Table 2 increase, which are in agreement with other steels [34,35,38].
Heat-treatment procedures of SAE 4340 steel. On the other hand, the yield strength rst increases slightly
and then decreases, which agrees with 300 M steel [39] and some
No. Quenching Tempering
other ultrahigh-strength steels tempered below 200 1C [34,35].
A preheating to 850 1C 180 1C tempering for 120 min Fig. 3(d) demonstrates the relationships of yield strength and
B for 10 min and quenching in oil 250 1C tempering for 120 min tensile strength versus elongation to failure of the SAE 4340 steel.
C 350 1C tempering for 120 min As tensile and yield strengths increase, elongation to failure
D 420 1C tempering for 30 min continuously decreases, which is consistent with the trade-offs
E 500 1C tempering for 30 min
between strength and elongation of steels [34,35]. By comparison,
J.C. Pang et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 564 (2013) 331341 333
Fig. 2. EBSD microstructures of SAE 4340 steel processed at different tempering temperature: (a) 180 1C; (b) 250 1C; (c) 350 1C; (d) 420 1C and (e) 500 1C.
Fig. 3. Tensile properties of SAE 4340 steel: (a) tensile engineering stressstrain curves; (b) the relation between strength and tempering temperature; (c) relations of
elongation and reduction in area vs. the tempering temperature and (d) relation between strength and elongation to fracture.
the elongation to failure of specimen C appears smaller because of of VHC fatigue. There are four types of crack origin modes:
the tempering brittleness at 350 1C [33]. (a) surface scratch; (b) surface inclusion; (c) subsurface inclusion;
(d) inner inclusion, which are in accordance with the crack
3.3. Fatigue properties initiation modes of high-strength steels [5,6]. Besides, special
granular bright and rough area in comparison with other area,
Six groups of VHC fatigue tests (the highest strength level was which is named as Granular-bright-facet (GBF) by Shiozawa et al.
repeated once more) were conducted to obtain the fatigue [40], appears around the inclusion, as indicated by the blue cycle
strengths by the staircase method. Fig. 4 shows the crack origin in Fig. 4(d), but is not shown in Fig. 4(c).
334 J.C. Pang et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 564 (2013) 331341
Fig. 4. Crack origin of VHC fatigue: (a) surface scratch; (b) surface inclusion; (c) subsurface inclusion and (d) inner inclusion.
Fig. 6. (a) Relation between tensile and fatigue strengths of the 4340 steel; (b) relation between tensile strength and fatigue ratio; (c) tting relation between tensile
strength and fatigue ratio and (d) tting curves of tensile and fatigue strengths.
a quadratic equation of the tensile strength sb as below, R 0:922:37 104 sb For SAE 4063 5d
therefore, their fatigue strength sw can be expressed in quadratic
sw 0:701:85 104 sb sb 4
equations of the tensile strength sb as below, respectively
Eq. (4) is drawn in Fig. 6(d), it can be seen that the fatigue
strengths are basically within the 5% error band. This illustrates sw 0:872:65 104 sb sb For SAE 4140 6a
that Eq. (4) can well describe the general relation between fatigue
strength and tensile strength of the SAE 4340 steel in a wide
sw 0:761:78 104 sb sb For SAE 4340 6b
strength range.
sw 0:741:89 104 sb sb For SAE 2340 6c
Fig. 7. Fitting relation between tensile strength and rotating bending fatigue ratio of high strength steels: (a) SAE 4140; (b) SAE 4340; (c) SAE 2340 and (d) SAE 4063. (Data
are cited from Ref. [38]).
Fig. 8. Fitting relation between tensile strength and rotating bending fatigue strength of high strength steels: (a) SAE 4140; (b) SAE 4340; (c) SAE 2340 and (d) SAE 4063.
(Data are cited from Ref. [38]).
J.C. Pang et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 564 (2013) 331341 337
Fig. 9. (a) Fitting relations (a) between tensile strength and fatigue ratio and (b) relation between tensile strength and VHC fatigue strength of steels with the smallest
diameter of 3 mm. Data are from Ref. [920].
not. Thus, many fatigue data of engineering materials, such as After analyzing the fatigue data of four specic materials (SAE
wrought steels, aluminum and copper alloys [3,4] were further 4340, 4140, 2340, 4063) and three types of materials (steels, copper
collected. Fig. 10(a), (c) and (e) shows the tting curves of the alloys, aluminum alloys) the two general conclusions can be drawn:
fatigue ratios of wrought steels, copper alloys and aluminum (1) the relation between fatigue ratios and tensile strengths is linear;
alloys available, and the tting equations can be expressed as (2) the relation between fatigue strengths and tensile strengths is
follows, respectively, quadratic. Therefore, Eqs. (3), (7a), (10a) (5a)(d) and (8a)(c) can be
expressed in the general form as below,
R 0:611:24 104 sb For wrought steels, 8a
R CP sb 11
R 0:543:72 104 sb For wrought Cu alloys 8b where C and P are two constants; moreover, each material has its
own constants as listed in Table 3. Furthermore, Eqs. (4), (7b), (10b)
R 0:535:66 104 sb For aluminum alloys 8c (9a)(c) and (6a)(d), can be unied in a more universal formula as
It can be seen that most data of fatigue ratios are also within below,
the 20% error band and the relation between the fatigue ratio and sw CP sb sb 12
tensile strength of metallic materials still looks like linear. Based
on the results, the fatigue strength sw for the three kinds of
materials can be separately tted by the following quadratic
4.2. Fatigue damage mechanism of materials
equations:
sw 0:611:24 104 sb sb For wrought steels 9a To reveal the reasons caused the results above, it is necessary
to further study the fatigue damage mechanism of the high-
sw 0:543:72 104 sb sb For wrought Cu alloys 9b strength steel. Since it is inevitable that the real materials contain
different kinds of defects [2,5], they can be roughly categorized
into two types: one is the intrinsic defect (ID), such as vacancies,
sw 0:535:66 104 sb sb For aluminum alloys 9c
interstitial atoms, dislocations, stacking faults (SF), grain bound-
In Fig. 10(b), (d) and (f), most fatigue strength sw data are aries (GB) and so on, as illustrated in Fig. 12. The IDs are related to
within the 20% error band, which tells us that the fatigue strength the materials itself and can not be completely avoided by the
formula above is also appropriate for the conventional engineer- technology innovation of processing or by controlling the forma-
ing materials. tion of microstructure. The other is the processing defect (PD),
Recently, many new high-strength materials have been suc- including nonmetallic inclusions, cavities, segregation and
cessfully developed as mentioned above. We curiously know scratches etc, as shown in Fig. 12. The PDs are associated with
whether the quadratic relation applies to them or not. However, the technology of production or processing and can be avoided in
there is almost no fatigue data of the identical materials with practice to some extent.
varying tensile strength in a very wide range. Luckily, we have First, for the low-strength ductile materials, fatigue cracks
carried out some fatigue tests on ultrane grained low carbon normally do not nucleate at PDs (inclusion or scratch), but at slip
steel [42], and collected some fatigue data of coarse grained bands (SB) or GBs [46] on the sample surface (see Fig. 12). The
[43,44] and ultrane grained [42,44,45] low-carbon steels and materials with ID and without PD can be regarded as ideal ones
analyzed them as shown in Fig. 11. The tting relations between because ID mainly controls the microstructure and determines
tensile strength and fatigue ratio as well as fatigue strength can the main mechanical properties. Therefore, for the ideal materials,
be written as below: the fatigue strength sw might only depend on its IDs and the
corresponding ideal fatigue strength sIw should show a propor-
R 0:602:13 104 sb For low carbon steel, 10a
tional correlation with its tensile strength sb i.e.,
The data of fatigue ratios and fatigue strengths are also within where, sIw : ideal fatigue strength; C: a constant, which agrees
the 10% error band. This indicates that the fatigue strength with the proportional relation in intrinsic aw regime [21], where
formula also ts the low-carbon steel. intrinsic aw is ID mentioned above.
338 J.C. Pang et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 564 (2013) 331341
Fig. 10. Fitting relations of the rotating bending fatigue ratio and fatigue strength vs. tensile strength for different engineering materials, (a) and (b) for wrought steels at
106 cycles; (c) and (d) for copper alloys at 108 cycles; (e) and (f) for aluminum alloys at 5 108 cycles. (Data are collected from Ref. [3,4]).
For the grain-renement strengthening, the smaller grain size strength also follows the HallPetch relation [24,25] as blew,
is, the larger will be the total boundary surface area per unit
1
volume. Therefore, this can increase the pileup of dislocation and sw p p 15
D
make the motion of dislocation difcult, resulting in the increase
of tensile strength, as explained by the well-known HallPetch Therefore, the relation between tensile strength and fatigue
relation. Therefore, the relation between tensile strength and strength can be regarded as linear, which can be veried by
grain size D 1/2 is linear, which can be expressed as the experimental results of some ultrane-grained materials in
Refs. [25,26].
1 Second, for the high-strength materials, fatigue cracks do not
sb p p 14
D frequently initiate along SB or GBs and other IDs, but at PDs
(inclusion or scratch in Fig. 12). At this time, the fatigue strength
For fatigue strength, small sized grains can lead to the reduced of materials can be considered as PD-controlled, and the effects of
aw sizes and increase difculties for the imposed stress con- IDs on fatigue strength could be minied to some extent. If the
centration at the aw to exceed the critical stress of the material, material can be considered as an isotropic solid with a crack,
thus suppressing early crack nucleation and propagation. Fatigue hence the fracture mechanics can be applied. By which, Murakami
J.C. Pang et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 564 (2013) 331341 339
Fig. 11. (a) Relation between tensile strength and fatigue ratio and (b) relation between tensile strength and fatigue strength: CG [43,44], UFG [42,44,45].
Table 3
Values of the constants C, P, M and E and corresponding sbc and smax here, K Imax is the applied stress intensity factor given in MPa m1/2,
w . p
where sa is the applied stress (MPa) and area is crack size (m).
Material C P/10 4 M E/GPa sbc /MPa smax
w /MPa Error The threshold for crack growth can be written [5]
MPa 1 band (%)
p1=3
Our work 0.70 1.85 38.5 208 1891 662 75
DK th 3:3 103 HV 120 area 17
SAE 4140 0.87 2.65 54.9 207 1642 714 75 p
SAE 4340 0.76 1.78 37.0 208 2135 811 75 where DKth is in MPa m1/2 and HVis in kgf mm 2, and area is in
SAE 2340 0.74 1.89 39.1 207 1958 724 75 mm. When K Imax DKth, the fatigue strength can be determined.
SAE 4063 0.92 2.37 49.1 207 1941 893 75 Combining Eqs. (16) and (17), and noticing the difference of the
Steel alloya 0.67 1.52 31.5 207 2204 738 7 15 p
Steel alloyb 0.61 1.24 25.7 207 2460 750 7 20
unit of the area between those equations, the fatigue strength
LC Steelc 0.60 2.13 45.3 208 1408 423 7 10 sw can be expressed as below [48],
Cu alloy 0.54 3.72 44.3 119 726 196 7 20
p1=6
Al alloy 0.53 5.66 40.6 71.7 468 124 7 20 sw C HV 120= area 18
a
VHC fatigue under tension and compression.
b
Rotating bending fatigue.
where, C: material constant relative to crack initiation site.
c
Low carbon steel. Eq. (18) is widely used to predict the fatigue strength of high-
strength steel with inclusion. While, the fatigue strength mea-
sured by staircase method is a statistical value; If the specimens
were prepared with the same batch of steel bars but different heat
treatments, the average inclusion sizes contained in those speci-
mens should be close to each other. Therefore, the inclusion size
p
area in Eq. (18) can be considered as a constant, thus, Eq. (18)
becomes
sw C 00 Hv 120 19
C0
where, C 00 p 1=6 . In practice, the hardness Hv and tensile
area
strength sb show linear relation [2,39]; so that Eq. (19) is
approximately consistent with Eq. (13). It implies that the rela-
tion between tensile strength and fatigue strength of one mate-
rial, no matter whether in low-strength level or in high-strength
level, is still linear in theory.
However, a question is raised as below. For our fatigue test, the
specimens A to E were prepared with the same batch of steel bars
but different heat treatments, the inclusion size contained in
Fig. 12. Schematic illustration of fatigue mechanisms and strength formula with those specimens should be the same in the statistical meaning.
tensile strength increasing. Therefore, the inuence of the inclusion size on fatigue strength
of those specimens could be neglected. According to Eqs. (13) or
(19), the fatigue strength should be proportional to the tensile
et al. [5] found a well-known fatigue strength formula related to strength; however, it is inconsistent with the experiment results
p
the parameters such as hardness Hv and the inclusion size area as mentioned above. The reason may be as follows. By analyzing
as detail below. If the area of a crack at inclusion is denoted by of the relation between DKth and tensile strength sb of 300 M
area, then the maximum value, K Imax of the stress intensity factor steel in Ref. [49], as shown Fig. 13, it is found that DKth linearly
along its crack front is given approximately by [47] decreases with tensile strength sb increasing. The linear relation
q can be written in the form like:
p
K Imax 0:5sa p area 16
DK th pC 1 C 2 sb 20
340 J.C. Pang et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 564 (2013) 331341
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