how Content Category 6A: Sensing the environment

Psychological, sociocultural, and biological factors affect our sensation and perception of the
world. All sensory processing begins with first detecting a stimulus in the environment through
sensory cells, receptors, and biological pathways. After collecting sensory information, we then
interpret and make sense of it. Although sensation and perception are distinct functions, they
are both influenced by psychological, social, and biological factors and therefore become almost
indistinguishable in practice. This complexity is illuminated by examining human sight, hearing,
touch, taste, and smell. The content in this category covers sensation and perception across all
human senses. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:

Sensory Processing (PSY, BIO)

Sensation
Threshold
Absolute threshold -- the minimum intensity of a stimulus that one can
detect
Difference threshold -- the minimum difference in intensity between two
stimuli that one can detect.
Webers Law (PSY)
states that the just-noticeable difference between two stimuli is
proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli
if you sense a change in weight of .5 lbs on a 5 pound dumbbell,
you ought to feel the extra pound added to a ten pound dumbbell
Fechner law- sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus
intensity. Fechner scaling has been mathematically formalized. In fact,
human perceptions of sight and sound work as follows: Perceived
loudness/brightness is proportional to log of actual intensity measured
with an accurate nonhuman instrument.
Signal detection theory (PSY)
quantify the ability to discern between information-bearing patterns
(called stimulus in humans, signal in machines) and random patterns that
distract from the information (called noise, consisting of background
stimuli and random activity of the detection machine and of the nervous
system of the operator)

yes no

present hit miss

absent false alarm correct rejection

stronger the signal the higher the chance of hit compared
to miss.
 conservative strategy- always say no unless positive the
signal is present. will get all the correct rejections, but will
get some misses
liberal strategy- always say yes (will always get hits, but
will get some false alarms)
has to differentiate between noise and signal. Must choose when
to detect a signal, depending on intensity of signal in relation to
noise
Sensory adaptation
when sensory receptors decrease their sensitivity to the stimulus
sensory amplification
upregulation of stimulus
Psychophysics
investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations
and perceptions they affect
Sensory receptors
Sensory pathways
Central nervous system is divided into two parts: the brain and the spinal
cord.
The peripheral nervous system is divided into two major parts: the
somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that
send sensory information to the central nervous system AND
motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle
The autonomic nervous system is divided into three parts: the
sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous
system and the enteric nervous system. The autonomic nervous
system controls smooth muscle of the viscera (internal organs)
and glands.
Types of sensory receptor

Vision (PSY, BIO)

Structure and function of the eye

light travels from cornea to anterior chamber to pupil to vitreous chamber
Sclera
White part of the eye
Thick layer
Does not cover cornea
Choroidal vessels
Complex blood vessels that supply nutrients to eyes
Between sclera and the retina
Retinal vessels
Also provide nutrients to eyes
Retina
Has photoreceptors that translate light into electrical information for brain
to process
Innermost layer of the eye
Consists of neutral components and blood vessels
Consists of 6 million cones + 120 million rods
Cones: best absorb bright light
Fovea only has cones visual acuity, sensitivity to daylight
vision
cones have red, green, blue detect
use photopsin to fire action potential
Rods: have a single pigment, rhodopsin, that allows night vision
sensation of light and dark. Spread throughout the back of the eye
Not really for details and color vision
use rhodopsin to fire the action potential

Amacrine and horizontal cells
Before the information gets passed onto ganglion cells, they receive input
from many retinal cells
Increase perception
Optic nerve
Indirect connection between rods and cones
Bipolar cells connects rods and cones synapses with ganglion
cells group together forming optic nerve
also called optic disk, responsible for blind spot
Cornea
Where light first passes through
Focuses on the entering light
Anterior chamber
Located in front of the iris
Posterior chamber
Located in between iris and the lens
Iris
Color part of the eye
Composed of two muscles:
Dilator pupillae under sympathetic stimulation opens the pupil
Constrictor pupillae under parasympathetic stimulation constricts
the pupil
Choroid
Continuous structure of iris along with Ciliary body
Produces aqueous humor
Washes frontal eye
Lens
Located behind the iris
Controls the refraction of entering light
Ciliary muscle
Part of ciliary body
 Under Parasympathetic control contracts
As it contracts, pulls suspensory ligaments changing the shape of the
lens, which is known as accommodation
Vitreous humor
Transparent gel
Supports retina behind the lens
Cones
red, green, and blue detect respective colors (6-7 million cones)
Visual processing
Visual pathways in the brain
Light enter
light hit rod/ cone leading to phototransduction cascade. This turns
off the rod/cone (phototransduction cascade), turning on a
connected bipolar cell, turning on a retinal ganglion cell, which
connects to the optic nerve and the info heads to the brain

Visual pathways in the brain
Explain 1
Pathway for visual information flow from physical
anatomical connections between eyes and the brain
 Optic chiasm
Fibers from nasal part of each retina intersects
Carry temporal visual field from each eye
Information goes from optic chiasm through optic
tract to lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the
thalamus visual cortex in the occipital lobe
LGN neurons respond to stimulation of one
eye only, center-surrounded receptive fields
Some input gets sent to superior colliculus
for controlled response to visual stimuli and
reflexive eye movements
Right visual field projects onto the left half of each eyes
retina left side of the brain
Left visual field projects onto the right half of each eyes
retina right side of the brain
objects are seen as upside down in brain because light
originating from the top of the object is received by the
inferior portion of the retina and it transmits info to the
interior portion of the visual cortex

Explain 2
the ends of the eye, just like a convex lens, forms a real
image on the retina
real image are inverted
brain processes inverted image to make it seem upright in
mind
brain combines 2 images from each eye to make a 3D
image, from which you can judge distance
another reason for combining the 2 images from both eye
is that it gets rid of the blind spot in each eye
Parallel processing (PSY)
Simultaneous analysis and combination of information
Information includes color, shape, depth, and motion
Allows determination of what is being viewed by comparing with
stored memories
Correlated with feature detection (neuroscience)
Stroop effect- demonstration of interference in the reaction time of a task
Feature detection (PSY)
Processed by specialized nerve cells in the brain
Color
Detected by cones
trichromatic theory- cones detect red, green, and blue
Shape
3-D geometry of an object
 Identify an object of interest from the background
Detected by parvocellular cells
High color spatial resolution can see small details of an
object
But, low temporal resolution only for stationary or slow
moving objects
Motion
Detected by magnocellular cells
High temporal resolution can see moving objects
But, low spatial resolution not much detail will be seen
(blurry)

Hearing (PSY, BIO)

Structure and function of the ear

Outer ear include pinna, structure of flesh and cartilage attached to each side of
head
alter reflection of sound waves into the middle ear
help locate source of sound
Middle ear include tympanic membrane (eardrum), vibrate at same rate when
struck by sound waves
Connects to three tiny bones (malleus, incus, and stapes) transform waves into
stronger waves to the oval window (membrane in the inner ear)
oval window- transmit waves through viscous fluid of inner ear
Inner ear contains snail shaped structure called cochlea
 contain three fluid filled tunnels (scala vestibuli, scala media, scala
tympani)
sound- vibrations in cochlear fluid by periodic compressions
hair cells- auditory receptors that lie between basilar membrane and
tectorial membrane in cochlea
when displaced by vibrations in the fluid of cochlea, excite cells of
auditory nerve
Auditory processing (e.g., auditory pathways in the brain)
Afferent neurons innervate cochlear inner hair cells, at synapses where the
neurotransmitter glutamate communicates signals from the hair cells to the
dendrites of the primary auditory neurons.
Primary auditory cortex destination for most info from auditory system
locate in superior temporal cortex
each hemisphere receives most of its info from opposite ear
Sensory reception by hair cells (in organ of corti)
hair cells- auditory receptors that lie between basilar membrane and tectorial
membrane in cochlea
when displaced by vibrations in the fluid of cochlea, translated vibrational
info into electrical signal
cochlear implant
fix hearing for people with sensorineural hearing loss/ nerve deafness
unable to convert the fluid movement in cochlea to electric signal by
sensory hair cells
cochlear implant
bypass damaged portions of the ear and directly stimulate the auditory
nerve
A microphone, which picks up sound from the environment.
A speech processor, which selects and arranges sounds picked up by the
microphone.
A transmitter and receiver/stimulator, which receive signals from the
speech processor and convert them into electric impulses.
An electrode array, which is a group of electrodes that collects the
impulses from the stimulator and sends them to different regions of the
auditory nerve.


Other Senses (PSY, BIO)
Somatosensation (e.g., pain perception)

sensation of the body and its movements
includes discrimination touch, pressure, cold, warmth, pain, itch, tickle,
position, and how we touch the world
mechanoreceptors (touch receptors)- approaches end of axon that can feel
pressure/ vibration/ heat
nerve endings on the edge of the skins (axons)-- detect pain and temperature
(first line of tactile defense because we want to react immediately)

Information from touch receptors in the head enter CNS through cranial nerves
info from receptors below the head enter spinal cord and travel through spinal
nerves to brain
Stimulation opens sodium channels to trigger an action potential
Damage to the somatosensory cortex can result in the impairment of body
perceptions
Pain detection (nociception)
activate trpV1 receptor (same receptor for temperature)
Pain sensation begins with the least specialized of all receptors (bare
nerve endings)
Axons carrying pain info have little or no myelin- impulses travel
slowly
 However, brain processes pain information rapidly and
motor responses are fast
Impulses are slow so we are startled first, then feel pain
Mild pain triggers the release of glutamate in the spinal cord and stronger
pain triggers the release of glutamate and substance P
Substance P- results in the increased intensity of pain
Pain pathways cross to a tract ascending the contralateral side of the
spinal cord
Pain-sensitive cells in the spinal cord relay information to several areas of
the brain
Somatosensory cortex responds to painful stimuli, memories of
pain, and signals that warn of impending pain
Central nuclei of the thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal
cortex and cingulate cortex are associated with emotional
associations
A pathway to the thalamus, and from there to the somatosensory cortex,
conveys the sensory aspects of pain
A separate pathway to the hypothalamus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex
produces the emotional aspects
Activating opiate receptors blocks the release of substance P in the spinal
cord and in the periaqueductal gray area of the midbrain
PGA is where pain is processed and endorphins are released
Endorphins- groups of chemicals that attach to the same brain receptors
as morphine
Different types of endorphins for different types of pain
Gate Theory- suggests that the spinal cord areas that receive messages
from pain receptors also receive input from touch receptors and from
axons descending from the brain
These other areas that provide input can close the gates and
decrease pain perception
Mechanisms of the body to increase sensitivity to pain include:
Damaged or inflamed tissue releases histamine, nerve growth
factor, and other chemicals that increase the responses of nearby
pain receptors
Emotional pain resembles physical pain in many regards:
Increased activity in the cingulate cortex when someone feels left
out of an activity
People taking acetaminophen (Tylenol) reported less incidences
of hurt feelings and social pain

position and movement
Proprioception
measure position. sensor (spindle) in muscles that are connected
to the CNS. Can sense if muscle is stretched or contracted.
Changing in muscle fires action potential
balance, position, cognition. Usually subconscious
kinesthesia
movement, more behavioral
key component of muscle memory
Balints syndrome
defective hand movements under visual guidance. The patient is unable
to grab an object while looking at the object. This kind of coordination is
required for eating with utensils.
Taste (e.g., taste buds/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals)
Taste refers to the stimulation of the taste buds, which are receptors on the
tongue

Our perception of flavor is the combination of both taste and smell
Taste and smell axons converge in the endopiriform cortex
Receptors for taste are modified skin cells
Taste receptors have excitable membranes that release neurotransmitters to
excite neighboring neurons
Taste receptors are replaced every 10 to 14 days
Papillae- structures on the surface of the tongue that contain the taste buds
Each papillae may contain up to ten or more taste buds
Each taste bud contains approximately 50 receptors
Size: Papillae > Taste Buds > Receptors
 Most taste buds are located along the outside edge of the tongue in humans
The saltiness receptor permits sodium ions to cross the membrane (results in
action potential)
Sourness receptors close potassium channels when acid binds to receptors
(Results in depolarization of the membrane)
Sweetness, bitterness, and umami receptors activate a G protein that releases a
second messenger in the cell when a molecule binds to a receptor
Different chemicals also result in different temporal patterns of action potentials
and activity in the brain
Taste is a function of both the type of cell activity and rhythm of cell activity
Different nerves carry taste information to the brain from the anterior two-thirds of
the tongue than from the posterior tongue and throat
Taste nerves project to a structure in the medulla known as the nucleus of the
tractus solitarius (NTS)
Projects information to various parts of the brain
Motor routes of impulses related to the taste in the human brain- the thalamus
and cerebral cortex receive impulses from both the left and the right sides of the
tongue

Various areas of the brain are responsible for processing different taste
information
The somatosensory cortex responds to the touch aspect of taste
The insula is the primary taste cortex
Each hemisphere of the cortex is also responsive to the ipsilateral side of the
tongue
Smell
Olfactory cells/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals
Olfactory Cells- line the olfactory epithelium in the rear of the nasal
passage and are the neurons responsible for smell
 Olfactory receptors are located on cilia which extend from the cell body
into mucous surface of the nasal passage
In olfaction, olfactory cells > cilia > receptors
A chemoreceptor, also known as chemosensor, is a sensory receptor that
transduces a chemical signal into an action potential
Pheromones (BIO)
secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in
members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of
acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior
of the receiving individua
Olfactory pathways in the brain (BIO)
Proteins in olfactory receptors respond to chemicals outside the cells and
trigger changes in G protein inside the cell, which then triggers chem
activity leading to action potential
Axons from olfactory receptors carry information to the olfactory bulb
Chemicals that smell similar excite neighboring areas; chemicals that
smell different excite more separated areas
Coding in the brain is determined by which part of the olfactory bulb is
excited
The olfactory bulb sends axons to the cerebral cortex where messages
are coded by location
Kinesthetic sense (PSY)
an ability to be aware of muscular movement and position. By providing
information through receptors about muscles, tendons, joints, and other body
parts, the kinesthetic sense helps control and coordinate activities such as
walking and talking.
Vestibular sense
which contributes to balance in most mammals and to the sense of spatial
orientation, is the sensory system that provides the leading contribution about
movement and sense of balance (cochlea and inner ear)
Perception (PSY)
Bottom-up/Top-down processing
In the bottom-up processing approach, perception starts at the sensory input, the
stimulus. Thus, perception can be described as data-driven.
Top-down processing is defined as the development of pattern recognition
through the use of contextual information.
Perceptual organization (e.g., depth, form, motion, constancy)
A process that forms a complete picture by applying all the sensory ideas about
an object through top-down/bottom-up processing.
Apply information about depth, form, motion, and constancy helps to complete
the picture
Depth
Seeing the objects in 3D in a 2D space
Binocular cues: cues depend on the eyes
 Monocular cues: cues depends on one eye
Form
Figure ground: organization of the visual field into objects that
makes object to stand out from the background
Grouping: organization of stimuli into coherent groups
Proximity
Similarity
Continuity
Connectedness
Closure

Motion
Seeing the object in motion
Waterfall illusion: watching a moving object for a certain amount of time
looking at the stationary object stationary object seems to moving
as well
Constancy
Recognizing the object without being tricked by changes
Size: size and distance perceived are directly related
Shape: stays the same even after angle or retinal view changes
Color: perceived in context with the surrounding

Gestalt principles
 people tend to organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes when
certain principles are applied.

Law Definition

Similarity items that are similar are grouped

together

pragnanz reality is reduced to its simplest

form

proximity objects that are close together are

grouped together

continuity lines are seen as following

smoothest path

Closure objects grouped together as seen

as a whole

Content Category 6B: Making sense of the environment

The way we think about the world depends on our awareness, thoughts, knowledge, and
memories. It is also influenced by our ability to solve problems, make decisions, form
judgments, and communicate. Psychological, sociocultural, and biological influences determine
the development and use of these different yet convergent processes. Biological factors
underlie the mental processes that create our reality, shape our perception of the world, and
influence the way we perceive and react to every aspect of our lives. The content in this
category covers critical aspects of cognitionincluding consciousness, cognitive development,
problem solving and decision making, intelligence, memory, and language. The topics and
subtopics in this category are the following:

Attention (PSY)
Selective attention
filtering out irrelevant information around us and focusing on the things that
demand our attention
Divided attention
Divided attention occurs when we are required to perform two (or more) tasks at
the same time and attention is required for the performance of both (all) the tasks

Cognition (PSY)
Information-processing model
consists of a series of stages that rep the stages of processing.
first stage is input processes which are concerned with analysis of the
specific stimuli
 second stage is the storage processes which cover everything that
happens to stimuli in the brain
the third stage are outpatient processes which are responsible for
preparing an appropriate response to a stimuli
Cognitive development
Piagets stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor (0-2 years)- coordination of senses with motor responses.
Language starts to be used for demands and cataloguing. Object
permanence starts to be developed. egocentric
preoperational (2-7 years)- symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax/
grammar, imagination and intuition are strong, started to have
conversations, complex thinking still being developed. believe everyone
else has same viewpoint as them. conservation starts to develop
concrete operational (7-11 years)- concepts attached to concrete
situations. Time, space, and quantity are understood, and can be applied.
develops conservation abilities. realize thoughts and feelings are unique
to them
Formal operations (11+)- theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual
thinking. Abstract thinking, strategic planning possible. Concepts in one
context can be applied to others
Reflexes
Rooting reflex- infants turn heads toward anything that touches cheeks
Moro reflex-sudden lose of support. extend arm before pulling them in
and crying in response to sensation of falling
babinski reflex- infants fan their toes when something touches their toes
grasping reflex- infants reflexively grab objects that touch their hands,
termed the grasping reflex
Cognitive changes in late adulthood
Role of culture in cognitive development
Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development
Biological factors that affect cognition (PSY, BIO)
Hippocampus
Creates memories
Damage causes inability to form explicit memories while still can form
implicit memories
Long term memories can be divided into explicit and implicit
memories
Explicit memories: fact-based information
Implicit memories: unconscious information (i.e. habits and skills)

Amgydala
Stores emotional memories
Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): emotional memories (fear) from
certain incidents are unforgotten
 Case study of H.M.
H.M. suffered from intractable epilepsy and at age 27, removed his
hippocampus
After the surgery:
Difficult forming new explicit memories
He couldnt remember new people he met after the surgery
(even seeing them every day from that day on)
Able to form short-term and procedure memories
He got better of carrying out mirror tracing test (drawing
pictures by looking at the mirror) without remembering he
has done the test for past several days

Problem solving and decision making
Inducing structure
Find the relationship between elements including words, symbols, ideas
or numbers
Fill in missing information
Includes analogy
e. Lawyer : Client : : Doctor : ________
Arrangement
Arrange parts of a problem to satisfy certain criteria
Only one or few forms a solution
Transformation
Make series of changes to attain a certain goal
Can be challenging

Barriers to effective problem solving
Four types barriers that prevent us from solving problems efficiently:
Confirmation bias
Unconscious corruption of an idea that leads to favoring a
predetermined opinion in the process of problem solving
Mental set
Also known as function fixedness
Inclination to attempt strategies that were repeatedly
unsuccessful previously
More time put into solve given problems
Unnecessary constraints
Subconscious mind fixes onto a particular way to solve a
given problem
Forms boundaries on the task
Increasing difficult to find any other way to find solution
Irrelevant information
 Unrelated or unimportant information that makes it difficult
to find solution

Approaches to problem solving
Analogy
Cognitive process that involves creating relationships between the
source and the target
Information or meaning of a particular source is transferred to
another particular subject allow us to problem solve, make
decisions, and memorize
Trial and error
Involves repetition of trials while applying different methods to
solve the problem
Error occurs until the problem is solved
Allow us to find solutions or the best solution
Brainstorm
Gather different ideas from others or other sources to find a
solution for a specific problem
Means-end analysis
Set ultimate goal then determine the strategy to attain that goal
Hypothesis testing
Set assumption or explanation of a problem and use statistical
data to prove such hypothesis
Lateral thinking
Approach problems indirectly and creatively
Proof
Proving that the problem cannot be solved
Failure to prove allows solving the problem
Reduction
Find a solution of another problem to solve the original problem
Research
Apply existing ideas or solutions to solve problems


Heuristics and biases (e.g., overconfidence, belief perseverance)
Heuristics- using old/ established ideas and experiences to reach
immediate goals. May not be ideal or perfect, but is sufficient
biases- inferences about other people/ situations may be drawn in an
illogical fashion.
overconfidence- a person's subjective confidence in his or her
judgments is reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those
judgments (believe got 80% on a test, really got 60%)
 belief perseverance- tendency to reject convincing proof when
ones beliefs are attacked
Intellectual functioning
Theories of intelligence
Howard Gardner's- theory of multiple intelligence
Bodily, interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic, logical/
mathematical, musical, naturalistic, spatial intelligence
Robert Sternberg
Practical intelligence--the ability to do well in informal and formal
educational settings; adapting to and shaping one's environment;
street smarts.
Experiential intelligence--the ability to deal with novel situations;
the ability to effectively automate ways of dealing with novel
situations so they are easily handled in the future; the ability to
think in novel ways.
Componential intelligence--the ability to process information
effectively. This includes metacognitive, executive, performance,
and knowledge-acquisition components that help to steer
cognitive processes.
David Perkins
Neural intelligence. This refers to the efficiency and precision of
one's neurological system.
Experiential intelligence. This refers to one's accumulated
knowledge and experience in different areas. It can be thought of
as the accumulation of all of one's expertises.
Reflective intelligence. This refers to one's broad-based strategies
for solving problems, for learning, and for approaching
intellectually challenging tasks.
Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence
Heredity:
Traits are passed down the generation with variation
Heritability of IQ
Environment:
Biological influences include nutrition and stress
Malnutrition disrupts intellectual development
Stress pressure on development, affecting intelligence
Sociocultural influences
Family setting
Access to education and learning resources

Variations in intellectual ability
Mental retardation
A person with below average intellectual functioning
Limit in two or more of the adaptive skill areas
 Mild retardation
IQ = 55-69
Academic skills to about 6th grade level
Moderate retardation
IQ = 40-54
Difficult to achieve academic skills of past 2nd grade
Profound retardation
IQ = below 25
Little or no speech skills
Require constant supervision and care
Biological and familial retardation can cause mental retardation
e. Down syndrome
Integration of individuals with mental retardation into regular
academic classes is one of the treatment method
The intellectually gifted
Ones with IQ greater than 130
About 2-4% of the population

Consciousness (PSY)
States of consciousness
Alertness (PSY, BIO)
State of active attention
Ready to respond to stimuli
Lack of alertness can lead to several conditions:
Narcolepsy
Sleep deprivation
Depression
Chronic fatigue syndrome
Sleep
Stages of sleep
Stage 1 sleep is when sleep has just begun
The EEG is dominated by irregular, jagged, and low
voltage waves
Brain activity begins to decline
Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the presence of:
Sleep Spindles- 12 to 14 Hz waves during a burst that lasts
at least half a second
K-Complex- a sharp high-amplitude negative wave
followed by a smaller, slower positive wave
Stage 3 and 4 together constitute slow wave sleep (SWS) and is
characterized by:
 EEG recording of slow, large amplitude waves
Slowing of heart rate, breathing rate, and brain activity
Highly synchronized neuronal activity
Paradoxical or REM Sleep:
Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (REM)- periods characterized
by rapid eye movements during sleep
Also known as paradoxical sleep- deep sleep in some
ways, but light sleep in other ways
EEG waves are irregular, low-voltage, and fast
Postural muscles of the body are more relaxed than other
stages
Stages other than REM are referred to as non-REM sleep
(NREM)
When one falls asleep, they progress through stages 1, 2,
3, and 4 in sequential order
After about an hour, the person begins to cycle back
through the stages from stage 4 to stages 3 and 2 and
then REM
The sequence repeats with each cycle lasting
approximately 90 minutes
Sleep cycles and changes to sleep cycles
Non-REM sleep, and REM
Sleep and circadian rhythms (PSY, BIO)
Sleep
Functions of sleep include:
Energy conservation
Restoration of the brain and body
Memory consolidation
Sleep helps us maintain cognitive/psychological function
The original function of sleep was to probably conserve
energy
Decrease temp
decrease muscle activity
The brain strengthens some synapses and weakens others
during sleep
Increased brain activity occurs in the areas of the brain
activated by a newly learned task while one is asleep
Circadian rhythm- internal mechanism that operate in an
approximate 24 hour cycle
Also regulates the frequency of eating and drinking, body
temperature, secretion of hormones, and sensitivity to
drugs
Mechanism of that maintain circadian rhythm
The suprachiasmatic nucleus
 Genes that produce certain proteins
Melatonin levels
Dreaming
Biological theories of dreaming include activation-synthesis
hypothesis
The activation-synthesis hypothesis suggests dreams
begin with spontaneous activity in the pons, which
activates many parts of the cortex
The cortex synthesizes a story from the pattern of
activation
Normal sensory information is sometimes
integrated, but usually is not
When dreaming, you really cant move, and this is
also a common dream
freud's theory of dreams- dreams are unconscious wishes/ urges/
wants/etc
dreams gave manifest (what actually happens) and latent
content (hidden meaning)
Sleepwake disorders
Hypersomnia- sleep too much
Sleep Apnea- sleep disorder characterized by the inability to
breathe while sleeping for a prolonged period of time
Narcolepsy- sleep disorder characterized by frequent periods of
sleepiness
REM Behavior Disorder- associated with vigorous movement
during REM sleep
Hypnosis and meditation
Hypnosis is a state of human consciousness involving focused attention
and reduced peripheral awareness characterized by an enhanced
capacity for response to suggestion
meditation- practice in which an individual trains the mind or induces a
mode of consciousness, either to realize some benefit or for the mind to
simply acknowledge its content without becoming identified with that
content, or as an end in itself
Consciousness-altering drugs
Types of consciousness-altering drugs and their effects on the nervous system
and behavior
Psychoactive drugs alter the state of consciousness
Chemical substances change awareness, attitude, consciousness,
and behavior

Mechanism Symptoms Drugs
 Hallucinogens: Alters consciousness Marijuana: Enhanced
mimic serotonin and and cause perception,
epinephrine hallucination intoxication (mild)
LSD, PCP, mescaline:
Hallucinations,
enhanced perception

opioids: natural pain alter consciousness Morphine- Headache,

reducer restlessness,
irritability

Heroin- More
addictive than
morphine with same
side effects

depressants: increase slows heart rate and Alcohol- Loss of

production of GABA respiration, relieve coordination,
and decrease pain, sleep dizziness, nausea,
production of loss of
acetylcholine consciousness,
impaired judgment

stimulant: dopamine, Mood enhancement Nicotine- Negative

norepinephrine, and and increased energy health effects and
serotonin uptake is dependence may
blocked occur
Caffeine-
Dependence may
occur

Drug addiction and the reward pathway in the brain (also called mesolimbic
pathway)

Various factors contribute to continued substance abuse:
Tolerance develops, withdrawal when access is limited
Cravings in response to cues, loss of control
Brain reorganization (nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortexs

Memory (PSY)
Encoding
Process of encoding information
The perceived sensations are decoded in the various sensory areas of
the cortex, and then combined in the brains hippocampus into one single
experience. The hippocampus is then responsible for analyzing these
inputs and ultimately deciding if they will be committed to long-term
memory.
Processes that aid in encoding memories
More memorable
emotional element to event.
associate words with images (memory palace/ method of loci)
Storage
Types of memory storage (e.g., sensory, working, long-term)
long term memory- memory of events from times further back. Can be
retrieved through stimulation by cues
working- emphasis on temporary storage of information to actively attend
to it and work on it for a period of time
sensory- shortest type of memory. Ability retain impressions of sensory
info after original stimulus has ended.
iconic memory- is the visual sensory memory (SM) register pertaining to
the visual domain and a fast-decaying store of visual information. It is a
component of the visual memory system which also includes visual short-
term memory (VSTM) and long-term memory (LTM).
Semantic networks and spreading activation
 Semantic network
Semantic memory involves memory of meanings
Concepts, words, or perceptual features are linked in different
length indicating the relationship between the links and how strong
they are related to each other

Spreading activation
Process of searching for networks including semantic, neural, or
associative networks
Propagating the nodes (concepts, words, etc.) to other nodes
linking to the source

Retrieval
Recall, recognition, and relearning
Recall
Refers to the retrieval of information from the past which have
been encoded and stored in the brain previously
Remembering a fact, event, or object
Brain carry out the same pattern of neural activity as the original
response when brain first perceived the information
Recognition
Process of comparing information with memory
Associated with previous experience or information learned
Mostly unconscious process
Relearning
officially- The number of successive trials a subject takes to reach
a specified level of proficiency may be compared with the number
of trials he later needs to attain the same level.
or- learning something that has already been learned in the past
Retrieval cues
Facilitate recall
Help recover memories that was forgotten
Can be visual, auditory, olfactory cues
The role of emotion in retrieving memories
Neutral words give less impact than positive or negative words
Emotional words or sounds are more memorable than neutral sounds
Louder, enthusiastic, unusual speaker = memorable phrases and
speech
Processes that aid retrieval
information that is properly encoded and stored
Most of what we remember is by direct retrieval, where items of
information are linked directly a question or cue
 Other memories are retrieved quickly and efficiently by hierarchical
inference, where a specific question is linked to a class or subset of
information about which certain facts are known.
Forgetting
Aging and memory
Different ideas about age and memory
Some says memory fades in old age, while some says age does not lead
to memory loss
In scientific studies, memory range of 70-year old individuals is larger
than 20-year old individuals
Elders can still recall memories very well and can easily learn
Time-based prospective memory (performing tasks) declines with age

Fluid intelligence is able to think and reason abstractly and solve
problems
crystallized intelligence- knowledge that comes from prior learning
and past experiences
Memory dysfunctions (e.g., Alzheimers disease, Korsakoffs syndrome)
alzheimers disease associated with gradual progressive loss of memory
(especially declarative memory) often occurring with old age
amyloid beta protein- produces widespread atrophy of the cerebral
cortex, hippocampus, ect.
Abnormal form of tau protein, part of intracellular support system
of neurons (patterns proteins vary)
accumulation amyloid beta and tau proteins result in:
plaques: structures formed from degenerating neurons
tangles: structures formed from degenerating structures
within a neuronal body

 Chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency in vitamin B
(korsakoffs syndrome)
Thiamine (Vitamin B) helps brain cells produce energy from sugar.
Not enough vitamin B means that the cells cannot create enough
energy to function properly
causes problems learning new information, inability to remember
recent events, and long term memory gaps
Decay
Memory fades in time
Later the retrieval, less information stored in the memory
Over time, neurochemical path of new memory is degenerated
Affects mostly on the short-term memory than the long-term memory
Long-term memory is more resistant from being forgotten
Interference
Interference between learning new things and older memories
Retroactive inhibition
Learning new things interfere with retaining old memories
Proactive inhibition
Retaining old memories interferes with learning new things
Memory construction and source monitoring
Memory construction
Research has shown that recall of an event is often influenced by
our experiences and assumptions.
source monitoring error
type of memory error where a specific recollected experience is
incorrectly determined to be the source of a memory
False memory
A phenomenon of filling in gaps in our memories that did not
actually happen
Misinformation effect
The most recent information received causes recall of episodic
memories to become less accurate
New information distorts the original event
Increased attention to recent information causes alteration of
original memory
Source amnesia
Confusion between semantic and episodic memory
Semantic memory- facts, meanings, concepts and
knowledge about the external world that we have acquired
episodic memory- memory of experiences and specific
events in time in a serial form, from which we can
reconstruct the actual events that took place at any given
point in our lives. It is the memory of autobiographical
events
 Can remember factual knowledge but cant remember the context
of how, when, where the knowledge was acquired

Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning (PSY, BIO)
Neural plasticity
Formation of neural connections
Allow neurons to repair, regrow, and adapt after injuries or disease
Vary by age
Rapid formation of neural connections in children
Ongoing throughout life
Affected by heredity and environment at some kind of levels
Memory and learning
Closely related to each other
Learning: acquiring knowledge or skill
Memory: acquired information
Memory depends on learning
Learning depends on memory
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Signal transmission that strengthens the response at the post-synaptic
nerve cells by forming additional synapses
Essential phenomenon for neural plasticity
Early phase
Occurs in the first hour or so
Activation of CaMKII and PKC
Independent of protein synthesis
Late phase
Require gene transcription in the postsynaptic cell
New gene transcription and mRNA translation
Increases # of AMPA receptors = increase in the size of
the synaptic connection
Depends on protein synthesis
Process of LTP:
Rapid stimulation of CA1 neurons in the hippocampus
Glu and D-serine binds to NMDA receptors
Ca2+ flow into the cell
Ca2+ binds to calmodulin
CaMKII is activated, which phosphorylates AMPA receptors
Permeability of Na+ ions increase which increases cells sensitivity
to depolarize
Gene expression and protein synthesis increases
Synaptic connection strengthens

Language (PSY)
Theories of language development (e.g., learning, Nativist, Interactionist)
Learning
Emphasis on role of the environment
Apply learning principles to account for how to learn language
classical conditioning- word learning based on association
operant conditioning- learning through reinforcement, particularly
grammatical development
imitation
Nativist theory
Humans are biologically wired to learn language at a certain time in a
certain way
Interactionist
language develops from the interaction of biological, cognitive, and
environmental influences.
infant directed speech facilitates language learning
Bootstrapping- use one aspect of language knowledge to facilitate
another aspect of language knowledge
early age infants are sensitive to social stimuli.
Influence of language on cognition
Language affects the cognitive processes in an individual
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Also known as Whorfianism
States that the language determines ones thought
The linguistic categories and usage on ones cognition is influenced non-
linguistically
Patterns of language that one speaks influences the way that person
thinks and perceive the world
Different express differently different interpretation of the world
For example:
In Hopi: I will stay until the tenth day
In English: I will be there in ten days
Different concept of time and objects

Brain areas that control language and speech (PSY, BIO)
Brocas area- located in left hemisphere, associated with speech production and
articulation
Wernickes area- language area in the posterior superior temporal lobe. Primarily
involved in comprehension
Angular gyrus- allows us to associated multiple types of language related
information

Content Category 6C: Responding to the world

We experience a barrage of environmental stimuli throughout the course of our lives. In many
cases, environmental stimuli trigger physiological responses, such as an elevated heart rate,
increased perspiration, or heightened feelings of anxiety. How we perceive and interpret these
physiological responses is complex and influenced by psychological, sociocultural, and
biological factors. Emotional responses, such as feelings of happiness, sadness, anger, or
stress are often born out of our interpretation of this interplay of physiological responses. Our
experience with emotions and stress not only affects our behavior, but also shapes our
interactions with others. The content in this category covers the basic components and theories
of emotion and their underlying psychological, sociocultural, and biological factors. It also
addresses stress, stress outcomes, and stress management. The topics and subtopics in this
category are the following:

Emotion (PSY)
Three components of emotion (i.e., cognitive, physiological, behavioral)
The physical component is the physiological arousal that accompanies the
emotion
The cognitive component determines the specific emotion we feel
The behavioral component of emotions is the outward expression of the
emotions
Universal emotions (i.e., fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, and sadness)
Basic emotions include:
Fear
Brows are raised
Eyes are opened
Mouth is slightly opened
Uses 5 linear muscles and 1 sphincter for the mouth
Anger
Brows are lowered
Lips are pressed
Eyes are bulging out
Uses 4 linear muscles and 1 sphincter for the mouth
Happiness
Corners of the mouth is raised
Uses 6 linear muscles
Surprise
Brows are arched
Eyes are open
Jaws are dropped
Uses 3 linear muscles
Disgust
Upper lip is raised
Cheeks are raised
Nose bridge is wrinkled
Uses 6 linear muscles
 Sadness
Mouth corners are lowered
Uses 6 linear muscles
Complex modification of basic emotions create complex emotions

Adaptive role of emotion
Charles Darwin
Proposed that emotions are evolved and adapted over time
Studied and compared facial expressions of animals and humans
Expression of certain emotions characterized species
He observed that a blind individual still adapted similar body and
facial expression as others
Three principles:
Principle of serviceable habits
Furrowing the eyebrow prevents light from entering the
light decreases the field of vision different expression
of emotions like anger
Antithesis
Passive expression of shrugging the shoulder that is
opposite to aggressive expression
Expressive habits
Habits that come into play to express nervousness or
excitement such as shaking your foot
Theories of emotion

JamesLange theory
James lange theory of emotion suggests that autonomic arousal
(sometimes muscle movement) occurs first in an emotion before
subjective feeling
CannonBard theory
The theory that an emotion-provoking stimulus is transmitted
simultaneously to the cortex, providing the feeling of emotion, and to the
sympathetic nervous system, causing the physiological arousal
Subject spots oncoming vehicle Subject feels fear and subject heart
rate rises
SchachterSinger theory
A two-stage theory stating that for an emotion to occur, there must be (1)
physiological arousal and (2) an explanation for the arousal
The role of biological processes in perceiving emotion (PSY, BIO)
Brain regions involved in the generation and experience of emotions
Ancient Greece and the Middle Ages
Believed that excess emotion can damage vital organs
Aristotle believed all emotions were correspondent to appetite
Evolutionary theories
 During 19th century, Darwin stated that emotions are evolved and
adapted over time
Somatic theories
Include James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, Schachter-
Singer theory and etc. (refer to the past lessons to learn more in
details)
Cognitive theories
Arguments about relationship between emotion and judgment,
evaluations, and thoughts
Richard Lazaruss theory is divided into three categories:
Cognitive appraisal
A stimulus is cognitively assessed cueing the
emotions
Physiological changes
Biological changes occur
Action
Emotions are felt
Situated perspective on emotion
The role of external factors in developing emotion is established
by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino
Social relationship and emotion has close relationship
Emotional signal mediates the behavior of an organism =
action-oriented engagement
Phobias of certain things can be studied by understanding
the perspective of how emotions are formed n a person

The role of the limbic system in emotion

Amygdala gives rise to fear and anxiety
Hypothalamus- regulates things such as temperature and hunger, but
also feelings of pleasure and rage
Emotion and the autonomic nervous system
Physiological markers of emotion (signatures of emotion)

Stress (PSY)
The nature of stress
Appraisal
Two stages developed by Richard Lazarus
Stage 1- Primary appraisals. The initial evaluation of the situation
comprises an assessment of the threat in the present situation.
Determine if the threat is irrelevant, benign, or stressful
Stage 2- Evaluation of the individual's ability to cope with a
situation, and of whether or not the individual has the materials to
deal with the stimulus causing the stress. Secondary appraisal
 interacts with the primary appraisal to determine the emotional
reaction to event.
Harm: The assessment of the damage that the event has
already caused.
Threat: Possible future damage that the event may cause.
Challenge: The potential to overcome and even profit from
the event.
Different types of stressors (e.g., cataclysmic events, personal)
Cataclysmic events are strong stressors that occur suddenly and typically
affect many people at the same time. For example plane crashes or
tornadoes.
Personal stressors include life events such as personal failure, the death
of a parent or the loss of one's job.
Background stressors, or daily hassles, could be activity such as standing
in a long line at a bank or a shop, getting stuck in traffic jam, even
suddenly started rain when person don't have an umbrella could be found
as background stressor.
Effects of stress on psychological functions

Stress outcomes/response to stressors
Physiological (PSY, BIO)
Activates
Sympathetic Nervous System: fight or flight response that
prepares the body for brief emergency responses
HPA Axis: the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex
Sympathetic nervous system activates hypothalamus CRF releasing
factor anterior pituitary gland activated ACTH released through blood
adrenal cortex activated cortisol released (elevates blood sugar and
increases metabolism, decreases immune system activity)
Emotional
 Behavioral
Managing stress (e.g., exercise, relaxation, spirituality)
Physical activity helps to bump up the production of your brain's endorphins
exercise lowers symptoms associated with mild depression and anxiety
Psychological changes
Relaxation techniques (meditate)
Close your eyes and focus on your breathing
Clear mind off of the stressors
Think of calming pictures, happy places, etc.
Develop self-compassion, patience, generosity, forgiveness, and
etc.

Content Category 7A: Individual influences on behavior

A complex interplay of psychological and biological factors shapes behavior. Biological
structures and processes serve as the pathways by which bodies carry out activities. They also
affect predispositions to behave in certain ways, shape personalities, and influence the
likelihood of developing psychological disorders. Psychological factors also affect behavior, and
consequently, health and well-being. The content in this category covers biological bases of
behavior, including the effect of genetics and how the nervous and endocrine systems affect
behavior. It also addresses how personality, psychological disorders, motivation, and attitudes
affect behavior. Some of these topics are learned in the context of non-human animal species.
The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Biological Bases of Behavior (PSY, BIO)
The nervous system
Neurons (e.g., the reflex arc)
is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information
through electrical and chemical signals
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals across
a synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron
Structure and function of the peripheral nervous system
PNS = everything else besides brain and spinal cord (CNS)
Carries information to (sensory) and from (motor) CNS
Somatic nervous system: voluntary responses that controls skeletal
muscles/sensory organs (i.e. skin) except for reflex reactions which are external
stimuli
Sensory neurons (afferent) sends information to CNS from internal
organs or from external stimuli
Motor neurons (efferent) carries information from CNS to organs,
muscles, and glands
Autonomic nervous system: involuntary responses that controls smooth and
cardiac muscles
 Divided into sympathetic (fight or flight response) and parasympathetic
(rest or digest response) nervous system

Structure and function of the central nervous system
The brain
The brainstem
Includes medulla, pons, and midbrain
Extension of the spinal cord
Similar to spinal cord in terms of function and organization
Regulates blood pressure, berthing, balance, facial
muscles, hearing, sleep, etc. (reticular formation)
The cerebellum
Coordinate movements of eyes, limbs, and head
Contains lots of neurons
The diencephalon
Includes thalamus and hypothalamus
Involves with emotions, sorting information,
consciousness, and wakefulness
The cerebrum
Largest part of the human brains hemisphere
Includes cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala, and
hippocampus, and olfactory bulb
Control of voluntary movement in the cerebral cortex
Primary motor cortex allows voluntary
movements
Posterior parietal cortex guides voluntary
movements in space
Supplementary motor area & premotor cortex
voluntary movements
Information processing in the cerebral cortex
Cortical areas receives and processes
information through sensory inputs
Lateralization of cortical functions
Affects language, right-or-left handedness, etc.
Methods of studying the brain
Accidents
The affect of injury in the brain can
be studied
Lesions
Removing parts of the brain and
comparing the function/behavior after
EEG
Electroencephalogram
Measure brain waves (activity)
 CAT Scan
Computerized axial tomography
3D picture of the brain
MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging
Picture of the brain in detail
PET scan
Position emission tomography
Scans the brain activity
fMRI
applying similar method of PET scan
and the MRI

The spinal cord
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue
and support cells that extends from the medulla oblongata in the
brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column
transfers info between peripheral nervous system and the brain
Neuronal communication and its influence on behavior (PSY)
Neurons communicate in
All or nothing process
Through releasing different neurotransmitters
Structure includes:
Cell body (soma)
Dendrites
Axon
Action potential
Electrochemical signals are sent from one axon of a neuron to a dendrite
of another neuron to transmit information to carry out certain behavior
Dopaminergic neurons
Dopamine = neurotransmitter
Linked to mood and behavior
Problem with these neurons cause Parkinsons disease
Dysfunction of neurons can lead to:
Alzheimers disease
Progressive degeneration
Impairs movements, memory, etc.
Parkinsons disease
Impairs motor skills
Muscles become rigid and difficult to move
Myasthenia gravis
Weakened muscles
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease
Muscle tissues and touch senses are loss
 Influence of neurotransmitters on behavior (PSY)
Neurotransmitter (NT) help cells to communicate
Acetylcholine
Associated with voluntary movement, memory, learning, and sleep
Too much can cause depression
Too little can cause dementia
Serotonin
Regulates appetite, sex drive, moods (impulsive and
aggressiveness), and ability to sleep
Too little can cause depression and anxiety disorders (OCD)
Dopamine
Affects our ability to concentrate, pay attention, learn, and move
Too much can cause schizophrenia
Too little can cause Parkinsons disease
Norepinephrine
Involved with glucose metabolism and energy
Too little can cause depression
GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid)
Inhibitor neurotransmitter
Too little can cause anxiety disorders
Endorphins
Inhibitory neuropeptides
Released in painful/stressful and pleasurable moments
Reduce pain

The endocrine system
Components of the endocrine system
Direct release of NT/hormones into the circulatory system
Hypothalamus
Coordinator of the endocrine system
Regulate pituitary gland
Pituitary gland
Also called as hypophysis
Secrets hormones and neurotransmitters for growth, reproduction,
and mental development
Thyroid gland
Located in front of neck
Regulate metabolism and energy usage in the body
Parathyroid gland
Located behind the thyroid gland
Manage proper bone development
Adrenal gland
Releases adrenaline
Manage energy usage
 Pineal gland
Connection between the endocrine system and the nervous
system
Releases melatonin and other hormones
Reproductive gland (ovaries and testes)
Produces estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone
Effects of the endocrine system on behavior
Involved in reproductive behaviors
Sleeping patterns (wakefulness)
Emotions

Behavioral genetics
Genes, temperament, and heredity
Genes
Personality is influenced by genes
There are behaviors that are predetermined by genetics like when
children start to walk
Environmental influence is also significant in determining
when the event will occur
When gene is manipulated in a species, their behavior
characteristics also differ
Temperament
Observable characteristic of infants
Level of emotional excitability or intensity
Particular behavior
Indicate some aspects of personality of that baby
As the baby experience more in life, personality is shaped
Three types of temperament:
Difficult
Easily irritable
Unpredictable feeding schedules
Easy
Calm and happy
Predictable and flexible feeding schedules
Slow-to-warm-up
Cautious
New environment need some warm-up time to feel
comfortable
Heredity
Parents passing traits to their children
Personality and behavior characteristics overlap between twins,
indicating that such traits are heritable

Adaptive value of traits and behaviors
 Behaviors are:
Adaptive and adjustable
Change throughout development, culture, environment, etc.
Each individual with different social skills and competency show different
adaptive behaviors
Adaptive behaviors include working, making friends, cooking,
dressing, etc.
Different from genetically inherited behaviors (discussed in the previous
lesson)
Genetically inherited behaviors are:
Intrinsic
Stereotype
Inflexible
Consummate
Adapted behaviors are:
Non-inherited
Extrinsic
Permutable
Progressive

Interaction between heredity and environmental influences
inherited traits and learned characteristics interact with each other
Studies done with adopted twins showed that:
There were both shared family factors and non-shared family
factors that affect human behavior
More similarities between twins compared to random pair
of people
Similar behaviors between adopted children
Internalizing disorders
Temperament
Personality
Demonstrating that there are unique genetics that affect their traits
while different environmental setting that they were nurtured in
also made some difference in behaviors


Influence of genetic and environmental factors on the development of behaviors

Experiences in life influence one's behaviors
Regulatory genes and behavior
Central dogma associated with our behavior
DNA RNA protein affects behavior
Gene regulation
Affects ones behavioral traits
Epigenetics
Long-term changes in ones gene expression that is not
necessarily heritable not involved in changes in the
nucleotide sequence (DNA)
Simple genetics are overridden by ones behavior affect
different gene expression
Genetically based behavioral variation in natural populations
Genetically based behaviors vary within a population due to:
Social factors
Environment
Experiences

Human physiological development (PSY)
Prenatal development
Formation of an embryo development of a fetus birth
Development involves:
Pre-embryonic stage
First two weeks of development
Cell division and maturation occurs during this stage
 Fertilization cleavage of the zygote blastocyst
formation implantation
Embryonic period
Also known as period of organogenesis
3rd to 8th week of development
Cardiovascular system develops etc.
Fetal period
Tissues and organs are matured
Growth of body occurs quickly

Motor development
Around 4 months of age, can roll over
Around 6 months of age, one can sit without support
Around 12 months of age, can walk
Around 24 months of age, can jump in place
Around 36 months, able to copy circle, cut paper with scissors, use a
fork, etc.
Around 48 months, develop static tripod grasp (holding crayons using
thumb, index, and middle finger)
 Around 60 months, can write ones own name and draw pictures
Developmental changes in adolescence

Period of change
From childhood to adulthood
One develop abilities to:
Comprehend abstract ideas
Mature senses
Learn about their identity and question things in life
Grow independence
Physical development:
Both undergo puberty
Girls
Breast development (generally around age 12 to 18)
Menstrual period (around 2 years after early breast and
pubic hair development)
Boys
Testiness and scrotum growth which usually are at adult
size around age 17 to 18
Growth of pubic, armpit, leg, chest and facial hair
Vocal changes (deeper tone)

Personality (PSY)
Theories of personality
Psychoanalytic perspective
Focuses on the significance of the unconscious drives
Past experiences are saved in the unconscious mind and determines
ones behaviors
Mead
 Me- formed in interaction with others and with the general social
environment
I- spontaneous and autonomous part of the unified self
Sigmund Freud contributed to this perspective:
Studied three major entities: ID, ego, and superego
Id: basic information (instinct) to survive and reproduce
Seeks pleasure (pleasure principle)
Regulated by ego and superego
Ego: reality principle
Balance between pleasure and pain
Unconscious as well, but close relationship with
outside world
Superego: morality principle
Develops around age 4 or 5
Social morality controls different impulses
Considered conscious drive
Conducted five basic stages of psychosexual development:
Oral stage
Occurs from birth to 18 months of age
Infants find pleasure through oral stimulation such
as tasting infants put most of toys that they play
with in their mouth
if an individual becomes fixated at the oral stage,
he or she is likely to display a highly manipulative
personality, as well as being passive, gullible, or
otherwise immature
Anal stage
Occurs from 18 months to age 3
Pleasure is found in the bowels and bladder
parents try to potty train during this stage
Obsessive organization or neatness is a
consequence of becoming fixated at the anal
stage of psychosexual development
Phallic stage
Occurs from age 3 to end of age 6
Pleasure seeking from genitals boys find pride in
masculinity while girls become flirtatious
The Oedipal or Electra complex, wherein the child
falls in love with the opposite sex parent and sees
the same sex parent as a sexual rival, is a
consequence of becoming fixated at the phallic
stage of psychosexual development
Latency stage
Occurs from age 6 to age 11
 Begin to develop social skills communication
No more sexual feelings are focused
Genital stage
Occurs from age 11 through puberty till one
reaches adulthood at age 18
Interest grows towards opposite sex
Grow to have a well-balanced personality
Sexual impotence is a consequence of being
fixated at the genital stage of psychosexual
development

Humanistic perspective
Optimistic perspective of human nature
Humans think rationally and have the ability to control biological
urges
Psychologists that contributed to this perspective are:
Abraham Maslow
Studied Abraham Lincoln and Eleanor Roosevelt
Argued that humans need self-actualization and
recognizes ones own potential
Described that people share such characteristics:
Self-acceptance and awareness
Openness
Good sense of humor
Feel fulfillment from work
Close relationships with others
Emotional satisfaction
Carl Rogers
Argues about person-centered theory
Affects ones personality
Referred to incongruence and congruence
Incongruence: there is difference between the self-
concept and reality
Congruence: self-concept is pretty similar to reality
He suggested that parents attention and love for
their children decides incongruence and
congruence of childrens personality
Critics on this perspective:
Too optimistic and vague to provide insight of true human nature
Not enough empirical evidence
Biased perspective towards self values

Trait perspective
Trait theory
traits are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals (e.g.
some people are outgoing whereas others are shy), and influence
behavior. Traits are in contrast to states which are more transitory
dispositions.
Stable pattern of behavior, thought, and emotion
Self-assessed
Assessed by others
Conscious drive
Psychologists that contributed to this perspective:
Gordon Allport
Argued that conscious traits better represent personality
than unconscious drives
Proposed 3 types of traits:
Cardinal traits
Dominates and shapes ones characteristics
provide direction to life
Central traits
General traits found in everyone else
Drive daily interaction
Always wanting to control a situation
Secondary traits
Peripheral
Response to a specific situation
 Raymond Cattell
Proposed factor analysis: statistical technique that involves
simplifying long description of personality into 16 factors,
which includes:
Emotional vs. calm
Intelligent vs. unintelligent
Assertive vs. humble
Shy vs. venturesome
Self-assured vs. apprehensive
Group oriented vs. self-sufficient
Relaxed vs. driven
Reserved vs. friendly
Suspicious vs. trusting
Serious vs. easygoing
Conscientious vs. expedient
Practical vs. imaginative
Insightful vs. outspoken
Undisciplined vs. self-disciplined
Tender-minded vs. tough-minded

Social cognitive perspective
Ones behavior is influenced by environmental and social factors
They influence one another as you can see in the diagram below
Replicating and observing others behaviors influence our own
 Psychologist contributed to this perspective:
Albert Bandura
Bobo doll behavior experiment
Children were exposed to three different models:
aggressive, non-aggressive, and control model
The result of this experiment was that:
Children exposed to aggressive model
performed aggressive behavior toward the
Bobo doll
Boys were more likely to do so than
girls
Children exposed to non-aggressive model
did not perform aggressive behaviors

Biological perspective
Genetic influences on personality
Related to motivation, reward, and punishment
Studied the level of neurotransmitter and the pathways
e.g. dopamine
Psychologist that contributed to this perspective:
Hans Eysenck
His theory suggested that primary determination of
personality comes from genetics
Personality traits are hierarchical
He also believed that conditioning contributed to
shaping personality
Three-factor model of personality
Based on reticular formation and limbic system
activation
Extraversion
Outgoing and interactive with others
Neuroticism
Emotional instability
 Psychoticism
Aggression and interpersonal skills
Different types of studies were conducted
Temperament studies = innate personality traits
Heritability studies = trait variation in a population

Behaviorist perspective
Observed only behaviors through learning
Psychologists that contributed to this perspective:
B.F. Skinner
Behavior is determined by the environment
Studied operant conditioning
Learning through punishment and rewards
skinner box had a lever that when pressed would
dispense a certain type of reinforcement (example
of use would be to utilize the box to determine
which schedule of reinforcement led to highest rate
of response
He argued that there is response tendencies in people that
result in certain behavior patterns
 Did not believe that childhood shapes ones personality
Believed that personality develops over life time
Encountering new experiences leads to developing
different behaviors
Ivan Pavlov
Did not really agree with behaviorists
Pavlov dogs classical conditioning bell test
However, his work in classical conditioning contributed a
lot
Argued that neutral stimulus is paired with certain
behavior responses

Humanistic approach
Humanism is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of
the whole person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not
only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person
doing the behaving.
psychodynamic
The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that
see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces
within the person, particularly unconscious, and between the different
structures of the personality.
Situational approach to explaining behavior
Fritz Heider studied that people have a tendency to understand and explain human
behavior
Proposed the attribution theory (AT)
This theory states people understand the relationships in the world
through attribution, which leads people to make inferences about why
people perform certain behaviors may affect how you behave
Look for consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
 Explanatory attribution
People analyze the cause of a certain event allowing them
to make judgments
Interpersonal attribution
With interpersonal attribution, people can explain the
reason behind their action in the events involving two or
more individuals

Psychological Disorders (PSY)
Understanding psychological disorders
About 450 million people suffer from psychological disorder (WHO, 2004)
1/5 young people suffer from psychological disorder, however only 4% of
the total health care budget is spent on mental health
There are many types and forms of psychological disorders
Various causes
Psychological disorders are often misinterpreted and misunderstood by many
people
Some define psychological disorders as people with persistent thoughts,
feelings, and actions that are negative
People from various culture comprehend happiness, social relationships,
and other values differently thus interpretation of psychological
disorders are different
Psychiatrists and psychologist label ones behavior as disordered when it
is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional
Psychological disorders are not a choice nor moral failing
Most disorders are treatable
Biomedical vs. biopsychosocial approaches

 biomedical approaches biopsychosocial approaches

believe all illness due to abnormal Believe illnesses are deviation

somatic bodily processes from steady state

Psychological and social Believe biological, psychological,

processes are irrelevant to the and social factors are all important
disease process

Single-factor cause biological Multiple-factor cause cause

malfunction multiple effects

Consider mind and body are Consider mind and body are
separate entities inseparable

Classifying psychological disorders
Two systems of classification
International Classification of Disease (ICD-10)
Produced by the World Health Organization (WHO)
10 main groups have subcategories:
F0: Organic mental disorders, includes
symptomatic
F1: Use of psychoactive substances causes mental
and behavioral disorders
F2: Schizophrenia/delusional disorders
F3: Mood disorders
F4: Neurotic somatoform disorders
F5: Behavioral syndromes related to physiological
disturbances and physical factors
F6: Personality disorders
F7: Mental retardation
F8: Psychological development disorders
F9: Behavior and emotional disorders
Unspecific mental disorders
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
Produced by American Psychiatric Association (APA)
Five assessment categories:
Axis I: Clinical disorders except personality
disorders and mental retardation
Axis II: Personality disorders and mental retardation
 Axis III: General medical conditions related to
mental disorder
Axis IV: Psychosocial and environmental problems
Axis V: Global assessment of functioning

Rates of psychological disorders
According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
In 2004, it was estimated that 25% of adults in the U.S. suffer from
psychological disorders
Lifetime prevalence rate was around 50% = indicating that
one out of four people is likely to suffer from psychological
disorders
Prevalence increased with age
Age between 65-74: 7%
Age 85 and older: 5%
Most common disorder was dementia and
Alzheimer disease
Lifetime prevalence rate of depression was 6.8% 8.7%
Lifetime prevalence rate of anxiety disorders was 11.3% in
2006 and 12.3% in 2008
In 2007, 1.7% people were diagnosed with bipolar disorder
and 0.6% of people were diagnosed with schizophrenia
32,439 people died by suicide in U.S in 2004
90% of people were diagnosed with psychological
disorders
Highest rate found in white men over age 85

Types of psychological disorders

Types of psychological sign/cause common disorders
disorders

anxiety disorders fear of certain objects/ phobias, panic disorder,

situations cause social anxiety disorder
increase in heartbeat
and sweating

dissociative disorders extreme stress causes Dissociative identity

disturbance in memory, disorder
consciousness, identity,
ect

Mood disorders Inconsistent mood Depression, bipolar

changes (mood swing) disorder
 that persist over time
from extreme happiness
to extreme sadness

Eating disorders Extreme sensitivity from Anorexia, bulimia

weight and food nervosa, binge eating
emotionally, physically, disorder
and mentally

Impulse control and Difficult resisting Pyromania (start fires),

addiction disorders desires/urges, causing kleptomania (steal),
harm to themselves and compulsive gambling,
to others alcohol/drug addiction

Obsessive-compulsive Urges and thoughts to Needing to wash hands

disorder (OCD) follow certain routines every time a person
due to obsession touches other things

Personality disorders Extreme personality that Antisocial personality

interfere with normal life disorder
(socializing, working,
etc.). Persists across
situations and over ones
lifetime

Post-traumatic stress Result of traumatic event Traumatic event is

disorder (PTSD) (sexual assault, death in difficult to forget causing
the family, natural emotional and mental
disaster) terror

Psychotic disorders Hallucination and Schizophrenia

delusional thinking

Somatic symptoms Experiencing physical Illness anxiety disorder,

disorders symptoms or pain that is body dysmorphic
no medical cause can disorder
prove

Tic disorders One makes sudden, Tourettes syndrome

uncontrollable and
repeated movement or
sound
 Anxiety disorders
Fear of certain objects/situation causing increase in heartbeat and
sweating that lead to interfere with ones normal life
Extreme worry and fear
One can also experience sleep problems, muscle tension, indigestion,
and self-doubt
Different types of anxiety disorders:
Panic disorder
Sudden feeling of terror
Symptoms include sweating, palpitation, feeling of choking,
and increase in heart rate
Phobias
Intense fear of certain objects/situations
Social anxiety disorder
Being overwhelmingly self-conscious in everyday social
situations

Obsessivecompulsive disorder
Trauma- and stressor-related disorders
Somatic symptom and related disorders
Psychological stress causing physical problems
Causes:
Stressful/traumatic events
Emotional struggles
Mental health disorders
Exact cause is not known
Symptoms:
Loss of balance
Seizures
Weakness
Abnormal movements
Paralysis
Problems with sensation
Speaking, visualizing, hearing, touch etc.
Treatments
Depends on severity and the individual
Some gets better without specific treatment
Counseling
Physical therapy
Preventions
Meditation and exercising to relieve stress

Bipolar and related disorders (moods)
Disturbance in ones mood
 Classification:
Depressive disorder
Major depressive disorder: if one or more depressive
episodes occur
Increased risk of suicide: seeking help can decrease the
risk
Bipolar disorder
Emotional instability: abnormal changes of emotions from
happy to sad occur frequently
cyclothymic disorder is milder form of disorder and
characterized by alternating pattern of mood swings
Substance-induced mood disorders
Due to substance intoxication or withdrawal
Alcohol, drugs, tobacco, etc.
Due to medical conditions
Physical illness such as cancer, diabetes, heart
diseases, etc. can cause mood disorders like
depression
Treatment
Therapy
Cognitive behavior
Medication
Antidepressants

Depressive disorders
Schizophrenia
Abnormal interpretation of reality due to severe brain disorder
Usually diagnosed in early to mid 20s
Rare to find children and people over 45 developing this disorder
Cause:
Not really known
Some researchers say a combination of genetics (brain
development disruption) and environment contributes to
developing this disorder
Symptoms (seen in adults):
Delusions
Having false beliefs
Abnormal motor behavior
Hallucination
Experiencing things that do not exist, so senses are
affected
Seeing and hearing
 Teenagers are more likely to experience visual
hallucination than delusions
Unorganized thinking/speech
Treatments:
Medications
Serious side effects may show
Choosing the right medication is crucial
Psychological and social interventions
Learn to cope with different situations
Improve social and communication skills
Family therapy
Rehabilitation
Preventions:
No preventions
Receiving treatments early as possible can help to control
symptoms

Dissociative disorders
Involves disturbances of memory, consciousness, actions, identity, and
perception to breakout from reality
Cause
Trauma
Life events such as sexual, physical, and emotional abuse
Symptoms
Memory loss
Depression and anxiety
Suicidal thoughts/attempts
Perceiving the world as distorted
Unclear identity
Treatments
Therapy (counseling)
No specific medication for DD
But may be prescribed with medications to help mental
health problems
Prevention
Speak with someone you can trust (friends, doctors, church, etc)
to get support and help early on

Personality disorders
Mental disorder involved in unhealthy and inflexible thoughts and
behaviors that persist in a long period of time
Causes
Varies depends on the individual and the circumstances
Genetically affected
 Life experiences
Traumatic events (e.g.: child abuse and neglect)
Symptoms
Difficulty coping with work and school
Some may have increased competitiveness that can work
well to produce better results in work and school, however
too much competitive drive can cause negative
consequences with others around you
Interference with others (relationships)
Treatments
Psychotherapy
Family and group therapy
Education programs
Medication

Biological bases of nervous system disorders (PSY, BIO)
Schizophrenia
Depression
Mood disorder
Causes are not exactly known, however there are some factors that may
be involved:
Change in hormones/ neurotransmitters
From menopause, thyroid problems, etc.
Inheritance
Genes may be contribute to causing depression in the
family
External effect such as traumatic event, death of loved ones,
extreme stress, serious diseases, financial difficulties, etc.
Medications
That may cause depressed mood
Dysthymic- less severe, characterized by sad mood, lack of interest, loss
of pleasure. symptoms mild but long lasting. duration must be at least 2
years as adult, one year as child
Symptoms
Negative feelings that persist over time that eventually leads to
ones physical and psychological problems
Sadness, emptiness, hopelessness, frustration, anxiety,
agitation, etc.
Unexplainable physical problems such as headaches,
backache, etc.
Memory loss, personality changes, and increased urge to
commit suicide
 Loss of interest in daily activities
Insomnia or sleeping too much
Fatigue
Change in appetite
Treatments
Antidepressants medication
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
Norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs)
Psychotherapy
Counseling with psychologist about any issues that one is
having
Hospitalization/ residential treatment programs
To prevent any danger of impulsive act of suicides, one
can stay with medical supports to consistently keep
symptoms under control
Try to change daily lifestyles
Exercise
Avoid alcohol, drugs, etc.
Get supporters

Alzheimers disease
Formation of plaques and tangles
Plaques
The brain-cell death is still unknown, however abnormal
formation of plaques outside the brain cells is considered
the chief cause
Beta-amyloid protein clumps damage and destroy brain
cells
Tangles
Strands of protein tau tangle inside the brain cells
interfering with the transport system in the brain, which is
crucial for receiving/providing necessary nutrients

Neurodegenerative disorder
Form of dementia
Progressive disease that lead to death
Cause of AD is still unknown
Usually people over age 65 are diagnosed with AD
However, AD is found in younger people as well
About 26.6 million people are affected by AD globally in 2006 and it is
projected to affect 1 in 85 people by 2050 worldwide
Symptoms:
Loss of short term memory
Mood swings
 Aggressiveness, irritation, and confusion
Loss of long term memory
Loss of body functions
Life expectancy following diagnosis is about 7 years
There are variations between individuals
There is no cure for AD
Some treatments can delay symptoms, however it cannot stop the
disease from progressing
Lots of pressure on ones family and friends because AD requires
lots of care and attention

Parkinsons disease
Motor abnormality and mental dysfunction
Substantia nigra (nerve cells in the brain) deteriorates
They normally produce dopamine, allowing substantia nigra and
corpus striatum to communicate with each other chemically
Coordination and balance of smooth muscle movements are thus
through the release of dopamine
However, lack of dopamine results in PD
The cause behind how and why the substantia nigra
deteriorates is still not known
Degenerative disorder
Central nervous system deteriorates progressively
Cell death of those that produce dopamine in the substantia nigra
in the midbrain
PD has been studied as non-genetic disorder, however recent studies
have shown that PD is transmitted in autosomal-dominant or recessive
genes from one generation to the next (5%-15% of the cases were
affected)
Still many studies are being done
Often defined as idiopathic (no known cause for this disease)
Genes that are mutated include:
SNCA (alpha-synuclein)
Duplication of this gene causes postural tremor
Triplication of this gene causes aggressive PD with
dementia
UCHL1
Mutation of this gene shows late onset of Parkinsons
Parkin
Mutation of this gene shows early onset of Parkinsons
PINK1
Point mutation and deletions occur at this gene
DJ-1
Shows early onset
 LRRK2
Some studies have also shown there are some environmental factors that
associated in the development of Parkinsons disease
Those factors include:
Toxins, metals, organochlorine pesticides
Signs of PD
Rigid movements
Slowed movements
Tremor
Disturbed speech
Postural instability
Impaired proprioception
Loss of senses
Olfactory, visual, etc.
Due to such symptoms of PD, people often become depressed,
anxious, and develop psychological disorders as well
Treatment
Drugs
Early motor symptoms can be helped by taking levodopa
and dopamine agonist, however, over time these drugs will
no longer be effective
MAO-B inhibitor
Increases dopamine level
Inhibits dopamine metabolism
Changing diet can also be effective
Rehabilitation
Surgeries
Deep brain stimulation

Stem cell-based therapy to regenerate neurons in the central nervous system
(BIO)
Stem cells are capable of self-renewal
Stem cell transplants within the brain can be useful tool to treat
neurodegenerative diseases
Studies done on animals have shown that this is possible
Parkinsons disease
Dopaminergic neurons deteriorates in this disease
Applying stem cell therapy can generate large numbers of
dopaminergic neurons, a partial success because it is
difficult to find specific surface antigens
 Neural stem cells are found within the sub ventricular part of the lateral
ventricle wall and the sub granular part of the hippocampal dentate gyrus
to carry neurogenesis (generation of neurons)
Difficult to get an access to and locate to treat neurodegenerative
diseases

Motivation (PSY)
Factors that influence motivation
The four factors that influence motivation are all interrelated
Instinct
Innate behavior from biological influences
Occurs in the absence of learning
Arousal
Awake state
Reticular activating system is stimulated
Drives
Internal state that activates behavior
Negative feedback systems
Need is satisfied drive is reduced
Needs
Give purpose and direction to behavior toward a certain goal
Innate and learned needs
Society and culture influence these needs
Innate needs are limited such as food, water, etc.
Learned needs are greater achievements, power, etc.

Theories that explain how motivation affects human behavior
Drive reduction theory
States that people behave certain ways to decrease their needs and
maintain physiological equilibrium
Several aspects of motivation are yet not explained through this theory:
People can still be motivated after their needs are met
There are external needs that motivate people
People are not motivated by internal needs
Incentive theory
People behave certain ways due to environmental stimulus
Tangible or intangible reward is the most common incentive
Giving rewards immediately after a stimulus provide better
outcomes
Other: cognitive and need-based theories
Maslows hierarchy of needs
Abram Maslow proposed that hierarchy of needs motivate people
Most basic level = physiological needs
 Second level = social interaction
Third level = respect from self/others
Fourth level = self-actualization
Argued that when lower needs are fulfilled, people care about
higher needs

Biological and sociocultural motivators that regulate behavior (e.g., hunger, sex drive,
substance, addiction)
Biological factors in regulation of these motivational processes
Eating
The brain, the digestive system, and hormones are all involved in
regulating hunger motivation
The lateral and paraventricular nucleus of the
hypothalamus in involved in signaling hunger
The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus regulates
satiety or fullness
Hormonal regulation by leptin and insulin also involves in
digestion/food absorption
Sex
Hormonal regulation of sexual motivation includes
dihydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), testosterone, estrogen,
progesterone, oxytocin, and vasopressin
Different senses (visual, olfactory, hearing, etc.) and other
chemical secretions (such as pheromone) regulate sexual
motivation as well
Drug and alcohol use
Influenced by genetics, withdrawals, and biochemical reactions
such as dopamine in the limbic system
Sociocultural factors in regulation of these motivational processes
Eating
Regulated by time, desire, appeal, occasions, and availability
Sexual
Regulated by age, culture, desires, emotions, and etc.
Drug and alcohol use
Influenced by curiosity, emotions control, stress, level of self-
esteem

Attitudes (PSY)
Components of attitudes (i.e., cognitive, affective, and behavioral)
ABC Components of attitude
Attitude is a way of evaluating others, issues, events, objects, and many
more
 Affective component
Feeling towards certain object, issue, person, etc.
For example, one is scared (feeling) ofspiders (insects)
Behavioral component
Ones behavior is influenced by attitude
For example, one is running away (behavior) from the
spiders (attitude)
Cognitive component
Ones thoughts, theories, and beliefs about certain subject
For example, one believes (belief, thoughts) that the
spiders are dangerous

The link between attitudes and behavior
Processes by which behavior influences attitudes (e.g., foot-in-the door
phenomenon, role-playing effects)
Foot-in-the door phenomenon
Compliance technique
When one first agrees with an easy request, then one has a
tendency to easily agree with a difficult request next
For example, a persons friends agreed to help shopping for a
charity, then those friends is likely to donate food and clothing for
that charity when asked the next day
Small agreement forms some kind of a bond between the person
that asked for a request and the person that is being asked, thus
when asked for another request, the person feels obliged to act
consistently with their previous decision

Role-playing effects
Philip Zimbardos prison study
Has shown how people internalize roles by altering their
attitudes and become the suitable roles
Study was done with two groups
One group had a role of prisoners
People became rebellious or accepting
The other group had a role of prison guards
People became tough and forceful
This study only lasted 6 days because people were
internalized

Processes by which attitudes influence behavior
Attitudes influence behavior when one:
Is affected by personal experience
Has a lot of knowledge about a certain subject
Expects a positive outcome
 Icek Ajzens theory of planned behavior suggests:
Behavioral evaluation/beliefs influence ones attitudes
which affects ones behavior
Normative beliefs influence ones subjective norms
which affects ones behavior
Attitude to behavior process model suggests:
Event triggers ones attitude which affects:
Perception of the event then behavior
Social norms then behavior
Prototype willingness model suggests:
Previous behavior influences:
Attitudes/norms which affects behavioral
intentions behavior
Prototype which affects behavioral willingness
behavior

Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion suggests:
A dual process theory of how a formation and change of
attitude occurs
Involves central and peripheral route

Cognitive dissonance theory
discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more
contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time, or is confronted
by new information that conflicts with existing beliefs, ideas, or values

Content Category 7B: Social processes that influence human behavior

Many social processes influence human behavior; in fact, the mere presence of other
individuals can influence our behavior. Groups and social norms also exert influence over our
behavior. Oftentimes, social processes influence our behavior through unwritten rules that
define acceptable and unacceptable behavior in society. Our understanding of groups and
social norms is learned through the process of socialization. What we learn about the groups
and society to which we belong affects our behavior and influences our perceptions and
interactions with others. The content in this category covers how the presence of others, group
decision-making processes, social norms, and socialization shape our behavior. The topics and
subtopics in this category are the following:

How the Presence of Others Affects Individual Behavior (PSY)

Social facilitation
tendency for people to do better at simple tasks when in presence of others
Deindividuation
absence of self-awareness in groups
Bystander effect
no one offers any means of helping a victim because believe that others will
Darley and Latane studied after the murder of Kitty Genovese
Social loafing
people exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than
when they work alone
Social control (SOC)
regulation of individual and group behavior in an attempt to gain conformity and
compliance to the rules of a given society, state, or social group
Informal means of control- Internalisation of norms and values by a
process known as socialization, which is defined as "the process by which
an individual, born with behavioral potentialities of enormously wide
range, is led to develop actual behavior which is confined to the narrower
range of what is acceptable for him by the group standards
Formal means of social control - External sanctions enforced by
government to prevent the establishment of chaos or anomie in society.
Some theorists, such as mile Durkheim, refer to this form of control as
regulation.
Peer pressure (PSY, SOC)
influence on a peer group, observers or individual exerts that encourages others
to change their attitudes, values, or behaviors to conform to groups
Conformity (PSY, SOC)
is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms
Obedience (PSY, SOC)
social influence in which a person yields to explicit instructions or orders from an
authority figure"

Group Decision-making Processes (PSY, SOC)

Group polarization (PSY)
tendency of groups to make decisions that make more extreme than the initial
inclination of its members
Groupthink
desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or
dysfunctional decision-making outcome
Normative and Non-normative Behavior (SOC)
Social norms (PSY, SOC)
Sanctions (SOC)
A sanction is a reward or punishment that a norm associates with a
behavior or appearance.
Folkways, mores, and taboos (SOC)
Folkways:customs/ form of desirable behavior, but is not strictly enforced.
Breaking folkways is wrong, but not immoral/ illegal.
Mores- norms with moral significance, such as being honest. Violating will
be seen as immoral, and maybe even illegal. Example is taboo.
Taboo- type of moores, the prohibition of an action based on the belief
that such behaviour is either too sacred and consecrated or too
dangerous and accursed for ordinary individuals to undertake
laws- norms that have extreme consequences if broken
Anomie (SOC)
rules for behavior breaks down. more likely to find deviant behavior
rapid social change- war, rapid technological change, revolution- times
when norms are ambivalent
breakdown between individuals and the community
Deviance
Perspectives on deviance (e.g., differential association, labeling theory, strain
theory)
differential association- theory developed by Edwin Sutherland proposing
that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes,
techniques, and motives for criminal behavior
Labeling theory (symbolic interactionism)- When earn label of deviant,
these labels are symbols with meaning attached to them. Once label
attached to a person they tend to stick. affects how others treat, and can
affect self concept.
strain theory (functionalism
deviance- can understand norm by looking at abnormal
strain theory (Merton)- mismatch between means and goals of
society and the opportunities of a society.
if people are told that a certain goal is desirable, but they
dont have means to achieve the goal, then this will have
psychological consequences, and deviance might be only
way to achieve goal

goals

accept reject replace

 accept conformity ritualism

means reject innovate retreatism

replace rebellion

underline is deviant

Aspects of collective behavior (e.g., fads, mass hysteria, riots)
non emergent norm theory of collective behavior
people in crowds act different than individual
increase size, increase anonymity
in ambiguous situation, new norms can emerge (allow behavior that might
not otherwise take place)
mostly spontaneous action, social processes that dont reflect old
bahavior

Socialization (PSY, SOC)

Agents of socialization (e.g., the family, mass media, peers, workplace)
through agents of socialization that individuals learn and incorporate the values
and norms of their culture as well as their various positions in the social structure
in such terms as class, race and gender.

Content Category 7C: Attitude and behavior change

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience. There are
a number of different types of learning, which include habituation as well as associative,
observational, and social learning. Although people can learn new behaviors and change their
attitudes, psychological, environmental, and biological factors influence whether those changes
will be short-term or long-term. Understanding how people learn new behaviors, change their
attitudes, and the conditions that affect learning helps us understand behavior and our
interactions with others. The content in this category covers learning and theories of attitude and
behavior change. This includes the elaboration likelihood model and social cognitive theory. The
topics and subtopics in this category are the following:

Habituation and Dishabituation (PSY)

Habituation- learning in which an organism decreases or ceases to respond to a
stimulus after repeated presentations
Dishabituation is way of responding to old stimuli as it if were new.[1] There are two
schools of thought on dishabituation: (1) that it is a process of habituation in reverse and
(2) that it is sensitization of a previously habituated response to a stimulus.

Associative Learning (PSY)

 Classical conditioning (PSY, BIO)
Discovered by Ivan Pavlov
Also known as Pavlovian conditioning
Process of learning
Involves associating an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring
stimulus
Process involves: (refer to the diagram below)
Neutral stimuli (NS)
Stimulus that triggers no response
For example, ringing a bell a dog does not respond
Conditioned stimuli (CS)
Stimulus that is initially neutral stimulus, but once conditioned it
produces conditioned response (CR)
For example, ringing a bell no response initially, however once
conditioned triggers a response in a dog to drool (CR)
Unconditioned stimuli (UCS)
Stimulus that is not affected by conditioning
For example, the dog food triggers a dog to drool no matter
what (UCR, unconditioned response)
Processes: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization,
discrimination
Acquisition
Process of pairing conditioned stimuli (US) and unconditioned
stimuli (UCS) together
Extinction
Process of presenting only the conditioned stimuli repeatedly (in
absence of unconditioned stimuli) to terminate the pairing of CS
and UCS
Spontaneous recovery
Describes the reappearance of the conditioned response (CR)
after a certain time
Generalization
Describes that when a particular CS is associated with a CR then
different stimulus can cause the same CR as well
Discrimination
Describes that when stimulus (A) is associated with CR (A) then
stimulus (B) will either associate with another CR (B) or none at all

Operant conditioning (PSY, BIO)
A process of behavior learning
Also known as instrumental conditioning
Different from classical conditioning
A method of modifying behavior (an operant) by its consequences
To get rewards
To avoid punishments
Processes of shaping and extinction
Shaping
Process of reinforcing behavior gradually to target specific
behaviors
For example, to train a dog to do a trick of turn in circle, one
rewards the dog when he/she turns half way then reward when
the dog turns a little bit more, and so on
Extinction
Due to lack of consequences following a behavior, a conditioned
response is no longer present
Pairing of conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
becomes weakened and eventually disappears
Aversive conditioning- noxious stimuli associated with undesirable/ unwanted
behavior that is to be modified/ abolished (nausea drugs for alcoholics)
Types of reinforcement: positive, negative, primary, conditional
Reinforcement
Process of increasing the chance of an individual to perform a
certain behavior
Types of reinforcement include:
Positive
Addition of a positive consequences or incentive
increases a behavior as a result
For example, money works as a positive
reinforcement for workers to work hard in the
company
 Negative
Removal of unlikable consequences increases a
behavior as a result
For example, people put on sunscreen at the beach
to avoid getting sunburned
Different from punishment
Primary
Natural reinforcer that increases the chance of an
individual to perform a behavior
For example, dog food is a primary reinforcer for
the dog to respond
Conditional
Also known as secondary reinforce
Certain object or method that is conditioned to
increase a behavior
For example, associating whistling with providing
food to a dog works as a conditioned reinforcer

Reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-
interval
Two factors affecting reinforcement schedules: a ratio or an interval
Variable ratio (VR)
Average number of performances
Varying number of behavior performed/rewards
given
Fastest response rate
Fixed ratio (FR)
Specific number of behavior performed
Continuous reinforcement is FR schedule reward is given
every time behavior is performed
Variable interval (VI)
Reinforce in a varying interval of time reward given at
different times
Fixed interval (FI)
Reinforce in a given period of time reward given at the
first instance of a behavior
There is no response when no reward is given

Punishment
any change in a human or animal's surroundings that occurs after a given
behavior or response which reduces the likelihood of that behavior
occurring again in the future
Escape and avoidance learning
Escape learning
The behavior is performed to decrease the unpleasantness of
something that already exists (or has happened)
An example of escape learning:
You suddenly get a headache. In order to escape the
pain and unpleasantness that the headache is causing,
you take some Advil
Avoidance learning
The behavior is performed to prevent the unpleasantness of
something that has yet to happen
An example of avoidance learning:
You are studying hard for a midterm in order to avoid the
consequences of failing and receiving a bad grade
(unpleasant feelings)

The role of cognitive processes in associative learning
Associative learning
A process of learning by associating or creating a pair between two
stimuli or behavior and a response
Classical and operant conditioning is two kinds of associative learning
Cognitive process that affect associative learning includes:
Latent learning
Spontaneous learning without any reward
Problem-solving
Process of learning by first observing the situation then deciding
what kind of suitable action to take
Instincts
Genetically programmed cognitive process
 Learning that coincide with natural behavior produce better result
than working against ones natural instincts

Biological processes that affect associative learning (e.g., biological predispositions,
instinctive drift) (PSY, BIO)
Innate behaviors are developmentally fixed
Innate behaviors
Fixed developmentally by the nervous system
Can be divided into simple and complex behaviors
Simple includes reflexes, taxis, and kinesis
A given stimulus triggers a given response
When you touch a hot pot you pull your
hand away
Complex includes fixed action patterns, migration,
and circadian rhythm
Fixed action patterns unchangeable
behavior
Learned behaviors are modified based on experiences
Experiences in life modify learned behaviors
Practice can improve certain behaviors
Development of learned behaviors
Weve just learned about habituation, classical conditioning, and operant
conditioning, which are all learned behaviors (refer back to previous
lessons if you want to refresh your mind)

Observational Learning (PSY)

General Info
Observational learning
A process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by observing
others
Albert Banduras Bobo doll experiment illustrated observational learning
Process of observation learning goes:
Attention
First, one pays attention to what is going on around them
For example, children (observers) watch an adult being
acting violently to Bobo doll
The characteristic of observers behavior depends on the
situation
Retention/memory
The information about what one has observed is
recognized and remembered during this process
Initiation/motor
 From the previous steps, one can physically and/or
intellectually reproduce the same behavior that theyve
seen and remember
For example, when children is put in the same environment
with Bobo dolls, they reproduce the same violent behavior
towards the dolls as they remember what theyve observed
previously
Motivation
Some behaviors/learning process does not occur without
motivation (external reinforcement)

Modeling
Modeling is a crucial factor because observation learning can positively or
negatively influence people depending on what observers perceive around them
Children watching others stealing toys and hitting friends may reproduce
the same act
Children watching others being respectful and sharing their toys may also
share toys with others

Biological processes that affect observational learning
Mirror neurons
Found in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex
Fires when:
One is performing an action & one is observing someone else
performing a certain action
One is experiencing an emotion & one is observing others
experiencing the same emotion
Involved in empathy
When you see someone crying, you feel similar sadness
(one may cry as well)
Significantly involved in motor processes
Imitative learning
Monkey in the picture below imitates humans
actions

Role of the brain in experiencing vicarious emotions
Applications of observational learning to explain individual behavior
Prosocial effects
Positive consequences
Affected by the family, neighborhood, TV, and other media
TV shows containing educational content such as how HIV/AIDS can be
prevented, family planning works, and how to be environment friendly can
inspire positive behaviors in people
 Also observing how ones parents volunteer at the hospital and help
others in need can affect the children to reproduce such behavior as they
grow up
Antisocial effects
Negative consequences
Affected by the family, neighborhood, TV, and other media
Psychologist Craig Anderson and Karen Dills studies showed that:
Playing violent video games increases more aggressive thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors than those who dont play those games
Psychologist Rebecca Collins and her colleagues studies on teens
watching TV containing lots of sexual content showed that:
There is twice as much chance for those teens to start having sex
within the next year than those who not watch TV with sexual
contents
Opposite is implicit learning (learning of complex behavior without awareness that one is
actually leaning something

Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change (PSY)

Elaboration likelihood model
Describes how attitudes are shaped, formed, and changed through persuasion
Information processing routes to persuasion (e.g., central and peripheral route
processing)

central route processing peripheral route
processing

Elaboration high level low level

information processing contents of message are other factors are

carefully examined examined not as careful

attitude will change based on the might change or be

strength of argument reinforced based on the
and relevance presence of persuasive
cues

strength of attitude more enduring and less less enduring and

formed/ reinforced subject to subject to change
counterarguments through other persuasive
signs

Social cognitive theory
A model proposed by Albert Bandura
 Emphasizes on how social influences, personal factors, and behaviors interact
with each other
Reciprocal determinism consists of:
Environmental factors (social)
Role models
Instruction
Reinforcement
Feedback
Personal factors (cognitive)
Goals
Sense of efficacy/outcome expectations
Attribution
Process of self regulation
Behaviors
Goal progress
Motivation
Attention
Retention
Learning

Factors that affect attitude change (e.g., changing behavior, characteristics of the
message and target, social factors)
Behavioral change
Compliance
Changing behavior due to consequences
For example, one decides to study during holidays to do well on
the MCAT (to avoid failing and for better social outcomes)
Characteristics of the message and target
Credibility of the source
Expertise
Trustworthiness
Attractiveness
Informational content
Internalization
Beliefs
Reasoning

deductive reasoning- begins with a broad conclusion, which is
proved or disproved through observations (from big to small)
inductive reasoning- general conclusions are drawn based on
specific observations (from small to big)
Past experiences
Emotions
Social factors
Demographics
Personality traits
Preferences
Role models
Admiration (motivation) can change ones
attitude/beliefs/behaviors

Content Category 8A: Self-identity

The self refers to the thoughts and beliefs we have about ourselves. Our notion of self is
complex and multifaceted. It includes gender, racial, and ethnic identities, as well as beliefs
about our ability to accomplish tasks and exert control over different situations. Our notion of
self develops over time and is shaped by a variety of factors, including society, culture,
individuals and groups, and our unique experiences. How we view ourselves influences our
perceptions of others, and by extension, our interactions with them. The content in this category
covers the notions of self-concept and identity, along with the role of self-esteem, self-efficacy,
and locus of control in the development of self-concept. Identity formation, including
developmental stages and the social factors that affect identity formation, is also covered here.
Theories are included to provide historical context for the field of identity formation. The topics
and subtopics in this category are the following:

Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC)

The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-
identity (PSY)
Self-esteem
The level of acceptance and value that a person has of themselves
A degree of evaluation can range from positive to negative
High self-esteem
People with high self-esteem have a positive value of
themselves. They feel confident, optimistic, and accept
themselves as who they are without worrying about what
others think about them
Low self-esteem
People with low self-esteem have a negative value of
themselves. They have low self-confidence. They are also
very self-conscious and pessimistic
Self-efficacy
Ones belief in their ability to achieve goals in life
A degree of competence that one feels for themselves, which varies
depending on the tasks and situations
High self-efficacy
People with high self-efficacy have accurate self-
evaluation, great sense of accomplishment, and have no
fear to take the risks
Low self-efficacy
People with low self-efficacy have fear of uncertainty,
failure, and risks
Locus of control in self-concept and self-identity
Two types:
Internal locus of control
 People with internal locus of control believe that they have
the control over what happens around them
People are more likely to:
Take responsibility for their actions
Be less influenced what others think
Work hard
More independent
Willing to face challenges
External locus of control
People with external locus of control believe that they have
no control over what happens around them
People are more likely to:
Blame external sources
Credit any successes as luck
Feel hopeless in difficult situations


Different types of identities (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, class)
Race/ethnicity
Race refers to distinction drawn from physical appearance
Including skin and eye color, and so on
Ethnicity is referring to distinctions based on national origin, religion,
language, food and other cultural indicators
Gender
Refers to ones psychological sense of being a male or female
Age
Represents a persons changes over time
Sexual orientation
Refers to a pattern of sexual attraction
Class
Refers to a social hierarchical categories
Includes upper, middle, and lower classes
subsection
schema- what constitutes as part of the specific identity
script- organized information regarding order of actions appropriate to a
familiar situation

Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC)

Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)
Lev Vygotskys zone of proximal development
According to Vygotsky, until children learn to use mental tools, their
learning is largely controlled by the environment; they attend only to the
things that are brightest or loudest, and they can remember something
only if has been repeated many times.
At the core of Vygotskys theory (also known as Cultural-Historical theory)
is the idea that child development is the result of interactions between
children and their social environment.

Lawrence Kohlbergs theory of moral development
Six stages of determining right and wrong:
Pre-conventional
Stage 1: (Obedience and punishment orientation)
(How can I avoid punishment?)
Stage 2: Self-interest orientation
(What's in it for me?)
Conventional
Stage 3: Interpersonal accord and conformity
Social norms
Stage 4: Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
Rules set by society
Post Conventional
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
Personality importance and society
Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
Rules based on abstract ethical principles

Ages Erik Eriksons stage of

Sigmund Freuds stages psychosocial
of psychosexual development theory
development
Birth to 1 year Oral stage: Trust vs. Mistrust:Infants
Infants find pleasure learn to trust or mistrust
through oral stimulation their caregivers
such as tasting
When infants needs are
met, they feel secured
(trust). If not, mistrust

1-3 years old Anal stage: Autonomy vs. Shame

Pleasure is found in the and doubt:Develop self-
bowels and bladder sufficiency

Ability to control different

activities such as eating,
potty training, etc.

3-6 years old Phallic stage: Initiative vs. Guilt:Control

Pleasure seeking from over their impulses and
genitals actions

Grow self-confidence or
sense of guilt

7-11 years old Latent period: Industry vs. Inferiority:

Social skills are
developing Sense of competence is
developed to prepare to
become adults

Adolescence Genital stage: Identity vs. Role

confusion:
Interest grows towards
opposite sex and well Determine personal
balanced personality identity and path in life
forms

Adulthood Genital stage: Intimacy vs. Isolation:

lasts through life
Seek for love and
companionships

Generativist vs. Self-

 absorption:

Contribute to society and

nurture others

Integrity vs. Despair:

Life reflection

basis for Eriksons developmental theory is generativity (characterized by activities that are
productive or that transcend ones own mortality)

Influence of social factors on identity formation
Imitation
Reproducing observed behaviors
Involves mirror neurons (refer to previous lessons for more
detailed information)
For example, a baby girl observes her mom wearing high heels
before going out to work. The next time the girl sees her moms
high heels on the floor, she puts on the high heels.
Role-taking
Social perception that involves understanding of others roles and
the situation
Learn to aware other peoples identity and perspective that differs
from their own
Influence of group
Reference group
A group that is socially compared to other another group
Allow determination and evaluation of a given group
Difference in characteristics, identity, behaviors, attitudes,
and so on
Helps to guide ones identity

Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation
Culture
The way a group of people live, value, and behave in a particular group
Ones identity is influenced by different nationality, language, sexuality,
ethnicity, social class, generation, and even religion
It is specific and unique for each individual
 Some cultures are accepted or not accepted by different groups in the
society/country
Socialization
Social experience that lasts a life time
Different skills, behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and so many more constantly
forms and changes as one lives in the society
A person observes, determines, and evaluates other peoples identity and
values.
Comparing oneself to others help forming and shaping identity

Content Category 8B: Social thinking

Social thinking refers to the ways in which we view others and our environment, as well as how
we interpret others behaviors. A variety of factorspersonality, environment, and
culturefactor into the beliefs and attitudes we develop. Our beliefs and attitudes about others
and the environment also shape the way we interact with each other. To interact with others, we
need to interpret different aspects of a situation, including our perception of ourselves, the
behavior of others, and the environment. The content in this category covers our attitudes about
others and how those attitudes develop, including how perceptions of culture and environment
affect attributions of behavior. It also covers how our attitudes about different groupsprejudice,
stereotypes, stigma, and ethnocentrism may influence our interactions with group members.
The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:

Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations (PSY)

Attributional processes (e.g., fundamental attribution error, role of culture in attributions)
Fundamental attribution error- place undue emphasis on internal characteristics
to explain a given situation rather than considering external factors
Culture influences how we look at the world. Individualistic cultures tend to place
more emphasis on the person.
How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others
he way we see our self
Our beliefs, past experiences, gender, age, culture and etc. affect our
perception of self
Self-perception theory says that people develop their own perception by
observing themselves, interacting with others, and behaving in different
circumstances
The way we perceive ourselves affect how we perceive others
Our own self-perceptions work as a foundation to form impression of
others
Depending on how you perceive your own roles, social norms,
physical cues, and class, you perceive others differently
 Let say one perceives oneself to be not very successful because
of poor pay at work. Thus this person may perceive others who
have a better pay at work more successful.

How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others
Involves more complex, large-scale scenes
Perception of the environment includes:
Social situation
Work
Time
Settings
These influence how one perceives others
The time one observes a situation can change ones attention
For example, a guy sees a bunch of girls dressed in gold dresses as
beautiful and sexy on Saturday night at a club. However, when the same
guy sees a bunch of girls dressed in gold dresses at his work, he would
perceive them differently.

Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC)

Processes that contribute to prejudice
Power, prestige, and class (SOC)
3 components of webers idea of stratification
Property: property such as buildings, lands, farms, houses,
factories and as well as other assets - Economic Situation
 Prestige: the respect with which a person or status position is
regarded by others - Status Situation
Power: the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals
despite opposition from others / the person with the least interest
The role of emotion in prejudice (PSY)
Aroused by expression or thoughts
The role of cognition in prejudice (PSY)
What people believe is true
Faulty memory processes

Stereotypes
widely held and fixed oversimplified image or idea of a person/ thing
stereotype threat- anxiety about confirming neg stereotype that may
actually reduce performance
stereotype boost- perform better than otherwise would because of
exposure about positive stereotypes about social group
Stigma (SOC)
Goffman- people have a spoiled identity, spoiled in some way or another. People
that are socially stigmatized are not seen as people
Ethnocentrism (SOC)
Ethnocentrism vs. cultural relativism
Ethnocentrism- tendency to view ones culture as dominant and proper.
Superior to other cultures
Cultural relativism- want to understand a culture in that they occur. Try to
understand it in its own terms, objectivity, and scientifically.

Processes Related to Stereotypes (PSY)

Self-fulfilling prophecy
prediction that directly/ indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms
of the prophecy due to positive feedback between belief and behavior
Pygmalion effect. Teachers teach gifted kids in a way that they succeed
Stereotype threat
stereotype threat- anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype may actually
reduce performance on an exam (self perpetuating cycle)

Content Category 8C: Social interactions

Humans are social beings by nature. Though the sentiment is simple, the actions and processes
underlying and shaping our social interactions are not. The changing nature of social interaction
is important for understanding the mechanisms and processes through which people interact
with each other, both individually and within groups. A variety of factorsenvironment, culture,
and biologyaffect how we present ourselves to others and how we treat them. For example,
perceptions of prejudice and stereotypes can lead to acts of discrimination, whereas positive
attitudes about others can lead to the provision of help and social support. The content in this
category covers the mechanisms of self-presentation and social interaction including expressing
and detecting emotion, impression management, communication, the biological underpinning of
social behavior, and discrimination. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:

Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC)

Status (SOC)
Types of status (e.g., achieved, ascribed)
achieved status- social status that is chosen or earned by decisions one
makes and sometimes by personal ability
ascribed status- social status that are often assigned at birth and that do
not change during an individuals lifetime, gender, race, or ethnic status
group
Role
Role conflict and role strain (SOC)
role conflict- conflict between roles of two or more social statuses
role strain- tension between roles within one of the social status (150)
Role exit (SOC)
role exit-a role becomes too much and we leave it behind/ or status stays
the same but we lose a role (empty nest syndrome)
Groups
Primary and secondary groups (SOC)
primary group is close intimate, long term ties, marked by mutual
concerns, same activities, spend time together
secondary groups more businesses like, goal oriented, more often
temperamental rather than enduring
In-group vs. out-group
Us vs them mentality
Group size (e.g., dyads, triads) (SOC)
dyads- simplest type of interaction
triad- three people
bridges made by week connections
forbidden triad (two strong connections)
Networks (SOC)
Network analysis characterized by four things
structural intuition
systematic empirical data
rely heavily on mathematical models
graphic imagery
Organizations (SOC)
Formal organization
Formal organization is a fixed set of rules of intra-organization
procedures and structures. As such, it is usually set out in writing, with a
language of rules that ostensibly leave little discretion for interpretation.
Bureaucracy
 Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy
ideal bureaucracy (weber)
division of labor based on technical competence
administrative hierarchy
formal rules and regulations
interpersonal relationships
emphasis on rationality and efficiency to reach goals
provision of lifelong careers
Dysfunctions of bureaucracy
notoriously difficult to get rid of
they are experts, getting rid of them would lead to chaos
can tailor to fit event, so its easier to swap out people to fit
the task. Flexible, so hard to get rid of it
can lead to inequality
Parkinson's law- work expands to fill available time,
bureaucracy tend to grow, find more tasks, and fill up more
time.
Perspectives on bureaucracy (e.g., iron law of oligarchy,
McDonaldization)
McDonalization
Efficiency- min time through standardization
predictability- McDonald all the same all over the world
calculated- ensure that everything fits a standard
control- increased over employees and customers so there
are fewer variables- include substitution of tech for human
labor to ensure predictability and efficiency
Iron Law of Oligarchy
bureaucracy leads to a centralization which leads to power
being concentrated in a handful of people. All forms of
organizations become oligarchy

Self-presentation and Interacting with Others (PSY, SOC)

Expressing and detecting emotion
Self-presentation
The way people try to control or influence the perceptions of other people
including yourself, material possession, or an event
Goal-directed
Conscious or unconscious process
Gender shapes expression
Masculinity
More aggressive and tough expressions
Femininity
More ladylike expressions
More emotional
 Culture shapes expression
Language
The way one verbally expresses is influenced by culture
Emotions/ non-verbal expressions / facial expression
Some culture consider a certain emotion as a fundamental
emotion to express, while some cultures do not
Kiss on the cheeks as a form of greeting works in particular
cultures
In some cultures, girls are not to show their emotions or facial
expressions to other men

Presentation of self
Impression management
In sociology and social psychology, impression management is a goal-
directed conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to
influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event;
they do so by regulating and controlling information in social interaction
Front stage vs. back stage self (Dramaturgical approach) (SOC)
Goffman- life is like a stage
Front stage is behavior ment for other people. Like acting, it is what the
audience is meant to see. Emotion is an example. It must be shown and
worked on.
Back stage- Back stage is where performers are present but audience is
not, and the performers can step out of character without fear of
disrupting the performance. It is where facts suppressed in the front stage
or various kinds of informal actions may appear.
Verbal and nonverbal communication
Verbal communication
Any communication that involves words, spoken, or written
Clarification is very crucial
If not communicated clearly, it can lead to misunderstanding the
information and eventually spread misleading information
Includes:
Face-to-face
Telephone
Radio or television
Nonverbal communication
Subtle way of sending/receiving messages to/from others nonverbally
Wordless signals
Includes:
Eye contact
Facial expression
Gesture
Body language
 Posture

Animal signals and communication (PSY, BIO)
Animal signals
Visual
Shape
Movement
Color
Facial expression
Light
For example, bees perform round and waggle dance to visually
signal others about information about a food source
Another example is easily seen around us. A dog wagging its tail
signals that it is happy and playful.
Auditory
Sound
For example, male birds sing during breeding season
Chemical
Pheromones
Odor
For example, dogs urine to mark their territories
Tactile
Touch
For example, female primates cuddle their babies
Animal communication
Intraspecific communication
Within a particular species
Interspecific communication
Between prey and predator
Warning signs
Deceiving tactics
Between animals and humans

Social Behavior (PSY)

Attraction
A positive feeling toward another person
Can establish relationships and even love
Factors that influence attraction:
Physical proximity
Mere exposure effect, the more interaction there is in between
people, the more likely a relationship can form
A relationship is less likely to form in long distance
Familiarity
 Similarities
Similar backgrounds, age, culture, etc.
Physical attractiveness
Psychologist Robert Sternbergs triangular theory of love:
He suggested that when there is passion, intimacy, and commitment
between people, they are in a state of consummate love

Aggression
Behavior that intend to hurts others physically or psychologically
Types of aggression:
Indirect aggression
Without face-to-face conflict
Attempt to hurt another
Direct aggression
Attempt to hurt another with face-to-face conflict
Emotional aggression
Due to anger
Instrumental aggression
To accomplish non-aggressive goal
Purposes of aggression include:
Simple expression of anger
Reaction to pain/fear
Assertion of dominance
Intimidation

Attachment
Emotional bond between people
Psychologist John Bowlbys attachment theory:
Observed that when children is separated from their mothers, they
experience extreme distress
Children had strong attachment to their caregiver, caregivers
provide children the feeling of security (secure attachment) during
stressful event, children want to be as close as possible to their
caregivers
Psychologist Harry Harlows studies on monkeys:
Studied the bond between mothers and newborn rhesus monkeys
Infant monkeys were raised in isolation, some died, some were frightened
and behaved abnormally, and some could not interact with other monkeys
when old
Infant monkeys were raised with surrogate mothers, one mother is made
of wire and one mother is covered in soft cloth. Monkeys spent more time
with the cloth mother even when that mother did not have milk
Attachment improves the infants chance of survival

 Altruism
Describes ones unselfishness (selflessness) towards other people
Ones behavior comes from simple desire to help others, not because of certain
obligations, loyalty, or religious reasons
Early developmental trajectory
Reasons for altruism:
Kin selection
Biological related people are more likely to be altruistic toward
each other
Reciprocal altruism
People who received help (generosity) have tendency to help
others
Empathy-altruism hypothesis
States that altruism exists due to empathic desire that one has to help
others that are suffering

Social support (PSY, SOC)
Social support is the perception and actuality that one is cared for, has
assistance available from other people, and that one is part of a supportive social
network.
Biological explanations of social behavior in animals (PSY, BIO)
Foraging behavior (BIO)
searching for food
Fundamental behavior for animals to survive and reproduce
Various types of behaviors depending on the animal and the food they eat
Animals apply tactics to use least amount of energy to gain the most
nutrients
Types of foraging:
Solitary foraging
Animals individually find and consume food
Group of foraging
Animals find and consume food tighter in a group
Factors that influence foraging behavior:
Learning
Animals experiencing and adapting to changing
environment maximizes their fitness and survival
Genetics
Genes are associated with foraging behavior
Predation
The presence of predator
Parasitism
Animals can either avoid or find other ways to find either
increase or decrease the risk of being parasitized
 Mating behavior and mate choice
Mating tends to be homogenous (two people tend to be similar in many
different aspects
endogamy- marry someone in own group
homogamy- marry someone similar in status
exogamy- marry outside ones group
Race is by far most defining aspect when choosing an SO
People tend to marry those in own religious group, but that is
being displaced by education
Causes
preferences
opportunity- cant marry someone until meet (opportunity
constraints preferences)- similar people tend to occupy similar
places more likely lead to homogeneity
Third party interferences- tend to lead to homogeneity
(matchmaking/ arrange are direct interference, norms are indirect
interference
Applying game theory (BIO)
Rational choice theory- individuals make choices that maximize their
benefits and minimize costs (non cooperative game theory)
Prisoners dilemma- the best outcome might not be the best for the
individual (cooperative game theory)
Altruism
the belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well-
being of others
Inclusive fitness (BIO)
From the gene's point of view, evolutionary success ultimately depends
on leaving behind the maximum number of copies of itself in the
population.
W. D. Hamilton showed that, because other members of a population
may share identical genes, a gene can also increase its evolutionary
success by indirectly promoting the reproduction and survival of such
individuals. The most obvious category of such individuals is close
genetic relatives,
The ground squirrel gives an alarm call to warn its local group of the
presence of a predator. By emitting the alarm, it gives its own location
away, putting itself in more danger. In the process, however, the squirrel
may protect its relatives within the local group (along with the rest of the
group)
Discrimination (PSY, SOC)
Individual vs. institutional discrimination (SOC)
Discrimination- prejudice in action (actual behaviors that differentially treats
people with different backgrounds)
Individual discrimination- action by an individual
 institutional discrimination- part of organization discriminates, structured in such a
way such that specific group is discriminated against
The relationship between prejudice and discrimination
Discrimination is prejudice in action
How power, prestige, and class facilitate discrimination (SOC)
These lead to stratification of society. The people at the top look down at people
lower then them

Content Category 9A: Understanding social structure

Social structure organizes all human societies. Elements of social structure include social
institutions and culture. These elements are linked in a variety of ways and shape our
experiences and interactions with othersa process that is reciprocal. The content in this
category provides a foundation for understanding social structure and the various forms of
interactions within and among societies. It includes theoretical approaches to studying society
and social groups, specific social institutions relevant to student preparation for medical school,
and the construct of culture. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:

Theoretical Approaches (SOC)

Microsociology vs. macrosociology
Micro- impacting immediate people (friends, families, local chapters of
organizations
macrosociology- global scale interactions
Functionalism
psychological philosophy that considers mental life and behaviour in terms of
active adaptation to the person's environment.
Conflict theory
conflict underlies all relationships, people in groups are self interested
Symbolic interactionism
people act toward things based on the meaning those things have for them; and
these meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through
interpretation
Inter-subjective negotiation of symbols and meanings (such as how to interpret
emotions)
Social constructionism
3 dialectical moments in social reality
externalization
habits make life more predictable, expanding social order is heart
of society
heart of symbolic interactions- meaning created through
interaction
objectivation (canopy of legitimization)
society we develop starts to take on path of object reality
 overtime objectivity of social world hardens, leading to the
legitimation of social facts
internalization
process we learn the social facts
external objective institutions become internalized
humans are social products
bridges the micro and macro levels and places emphasis on how the concepts
emerge, as opposed to understanding social interactions
Exchange-rational choice
looks at social behavior as economy
built on basis that people are self interested, rational, calculated
goal is maximize utility relative to cost
exchange theory applies rational choice theory to social interactions
Feminist theory
critiques the hierarchical power structures, which feminists argue treat women
and other minorities equally

Social Institutions (SOC)

Education
Hidden curriculum
what you learn in education, but is not explicitly taught
contains expectations and norms. sometimes as as important as formal
material in order to get ahead.
Teacher expectancy
pygmalion effect- the greater the expectations placed upon people, the
better they perform
Gifted kids tend to improve when separated from other kids while
separation does nothing for the other kids
Educational segregation and stratification
Kids separated by skill. Kids seen as elite tend to have a perform better
than the kids that do not put in the gifted programs (self fulfilling prophecy
by teachers)
Gladwell- going to elite education makes you better connected and more
likely to become a part of the power elite
Schools budget come predominantly from local property tax. The richer
the neighborhood- better facilities, better teachers, better results
Coleman report- school facilities only weakly correlate with achivement
students backgrounds and socioeconomic status much more correlational
to academic outcome
School is believed be correlated with inequality, but it is actually very hard
to separate effect of school from students personal situation.
high socioeconomic students and lower actually learn skills at about the
same rate during the school year. The gaps that developed happen
largely over summer
 lower socioecon class students generally did not have the same
resources over the summer
School is possible equalizing force, because it is the outside school
aspects that increase the inequality
Family (PSY, SOC)
Forms of kinship (SOC)
is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of
most humans in most societies
Diversity in family forms
Domestic group of people linked by common descent, marriage, adoption,
or some other force
Nuclear family- husband, wife, kids
Monogamous- 1 partner at a time
Polygamous- multiple partners
Polygyny- multiple wives, polyandry- multiple husbands
Polyamory- more than one intimate relationship at a time
Marriage and divorce
2012 64% children in 2 parent household
Marry later, % of no kids increasing
Rise of cohabitation. Today more than of all couples start off
cohabitation
Near 50% divorce, highest tend to be young couple
Men less likely have support when divorce, benefit from marriage,
emotionally affected by marriage
women after divorce have a hard time financially
Rise in prevalence of single parent households
Increase same sex marriage
Culture of growing up, getting a career, and live life how you want to
2009 61% same sex met online, 22% hetero (3rd most common for
hetero)
Violence in the family (e.g., child abuse, elder abuse, spousal abuse) (SOC)
1 in 4 women will experience domestic violence during her lifetime.
In a 1995-1996 study conducted in the 50 States and the District of
Columbia, nearly 25% of women and 7.6% of men were raped and/or
physically assaulted by a current or former spouse, cohabiting partner, or
dating partner/acquaintance at some time in their lifetime (based on
survey of 16,000 participants, equally male and female).
A recent study of low-income pre-school children in Michigan found that
nearly half (46.7 percent) of the children in the study had been exposed to
at least one incident of mild or severe violence in the family.
Children who live in homes where there is domestic violence also suffer
abuse or neglect at high rates (30% to 60%).
Estimates of the frequency of elder abuse range from 2% to 10% based
on various sampling, survey methods, and case definitions.
 Religion
Religiosity
refers to the numerous aspects of religious activity, dedication, and belief
give meaning to life
help cope with events beyond control of life
3 parts to the system
Meaning system- sense of meaning/ focus help make sense of
world around you
myths- stories that transmit beliefs about world
rituals- often enacted in groups, meant inspire sense aww
symbols- objects/ actions that rep something else
Belong system- sense of interpersonal relation, extended family of
sorts
structural system- organizational part of religion
Durkham- sacred vs profane
Types of religious organizations (e.g., churches, sects, cults)

churches
biggest, include all members of society within their ranks
Primarily gain new members through natural reproduction and the
socialization of children into the ranks
Allow for diversity by creating different groups within the church
(e.g., orders of nuns or monks) rather than through the formation
of new religions

sects
Sociologically, a "sect" is defined as a newly formed religious
group that formed to protest elements of its parent religion
(generally a denomination). An innovative, fervent religious group,
as contrasted with more established and conventional sects and
denominations. (usually still part of overarching religious)
Cult
cult is a religious or social group with socially deviant or novel
beliefs and practices
Religion and social change (e.g., modernization, secularization, fundamentalism)
 Secularization- something about religion is incompatible with modernity.
Religious starts lose social and cultural significance
Fundamentalism- return to fundamental parts of religion to fight
secularization
Rationality is antithetic to religious beliefs- ideas of secularization. But
modernity does not shelter people from what made religion popular in the
first place. Death is still here, so people still turn to meaning systems.
Religion helps make sense of things that we do not understand

Government and economy
Power and authority
Authority- power that people consider is legitimate
traditional authority- based on sanctity of age old rules, based on
loyalty to position
charismatic authority- based on the person, tend to develop in
time of social change that leads to trust in a single person, this is
an inherently weak form of loyalty
rational/legal authority- tend to come about when charismatic
authority fail. creation of bureaucracy
demands obedience to establish rules
mix of first and two- traditional because there are
established positions, charismatic because leaders must
reach that position
Comparative economic and political systems
2 political systems
Democratic party
Believes the government should take control of the general
welfare of the country, while take a liberal stand on social
issues
Republican party
Believes that the government should take limited control in
providing social services and conservative stand on social
issues
2 economic system
Capitalism
A system of producing resources on their own
Socialism
A system of government owning the productions and
control over the economy
Limited private property

Division of labor
In government- separation of power between executive, judicial, and
legislative
 economy- division of labor so that more goods can be created fast. every
worker is a cog in a machine (alienation from product)
Health and medicine
Medicalization
describing contemporary trends in medicine. More and more things are
being medicalized. New things are being classified as medical that were
not before (depression, ADHD, schizo, autism)
have something be medicalized is that there is a explanation for it, which
could lead to less stigmatization.
Influences on treatment. If something become medicalized, they can seek
medical help. Leads to doctors having more power in more and more
areas of life.
The sick role
Being sick comes with rights and obligations
Right
right to be excused from normal social responsibility
sickness is not your fault
obligations
obligation to define being sick as undesirable
obligation to seek help and cooperate in getting well
Delivery of health care
Not everybody has healthcare, and for those who do it might not be the
same
possible issues leading to inequality
lack of insurance because of socioeconomic
structural barrier (no car, no time, etc)
scarcity of providers
linguistic barriers
varying degrees of health literacy
lack of diversity in health care workforce. necessary to treat
diverse workforce
prevalent discrimination of those that treat the sick.
Illness experience
Definition and the ways illness are treated vary all around the world
Physical illnesses in the West are treated by doctors using medicine and
surgical procedures, while in other cultures illnesses are considered
punishment or curse and they apply prayers or folk remedies as the
treatments
Hallucination and hearing voices are considered the symptoms of a
mental illness in the West, whereas in other culture those symptoms are
considered a religious experience and a positive enlightenment

Social epidemiology
 Social epidemiology is a branch of epidemiology that focuses particularly
on the effects of social-structural factors on states of health. Social
epidemiology assumes that the distribution of advantages and
disadvantages in a society reflects the distribution of health and disease.
It proposes to identify societal characteristics that affect the pattern of
disease and health distribution in a society and to understand its
mechanisms.
racial minority have high incidence of chronic disease
black 10% higher chance getting cancer, linked to environmental
conditions
black and hispanic have 2x risk of getting diabetes
minorities have higher rates of cardiovascular disease, HIV/Aids,
infant mortality
The life course approach to health
holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and
other experiences across a persons life.

Culture (PSY, SOC)

Elements of culture (e.g., beliefs, language, rituals, symbols, values)
Social organization
The family patterns and social classes of a culture
Family patterns are a very significant unit of social organization
Social classes: rank/status of people
Belief
Culture is the entire way of life of a society as well as all its products.
Customs and traditions
The way people act and dress
Different types of food they eat
Laws and rules
Religion
Beliefs that answer questions about the meaning of life
Value the groups ideas/feelings
Language
A way of communication
Word by mouth
Arts and literature
A way people entertain themselves
A product of peoples imaginations
E.g. Stories, music, dance, etc.
Forms of government
Group of people that control the general public
Provide and enforce laws
Provide protection from external threats
Economic systems
 Produce and distribute goods and services in the society

Material vs. symbolic culture (SOC)
A material culture is all things realated to a given culture like clothes or food while
a a symbolic culture is based off of a nonmaterial culture whose central
components are symbols like gestures and language.
Culture lag (SOC)
culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, and that social
problems and conflicts are caused by this lag.
Culture shock (SOC)
Culture shock is the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing
an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a new country, a move
between social environments, or simply travel to another type of life.
Assimilation (SOC)
Cultural assimilation is the process by which a person or a group's language
and/or culture come to resemble those of another group.
Psychology- assimilation is taking new information and incorportating it into
existing schemas. Opposite of accommodation which changes the schema to few
new info
Multiculturalism (SOC)
Multiculturalism refers to the evolution of cultural diversity within a jurisdiction,
introduced by its selection policies and institutionalized by its settlement policies.
Subcultures and countercultures (SOC)
Culture at the meso level
Counterculture- values and beliefs are antagonistic to mainstream culture
Mass media and popular culture (SOC)
Mass Media
The mass media are generally defined by sociologists as those agencies
of communication that transmit information, education, news and
entertainment to mass audiences.
three types of media-print, audio-visual, cybermedia
Pop Culture
Significantly influenced by mass media
Widely accepted (hence the name of popular) ideas, perspectives, arts,
images, attitudes, customs, and phenomena
Mainstream of a culture
Affect everyday lives of the society
Criticized by various sources

Evolution and human culture (PSY, BIO)
Evolution influences and is influenced by culture
Culture work as a way of passing down information from generation to the next
There has been increase in complexity in culture as evolution evolved:
Hunting and gathering
 Small groups
No material wealth
High equality level
Status based on sex, age or kinship
Simple religion no gods
Pastoral societies
Larger population
Some material wealth
Development of trade
Belief in gods
Existence of warfare and slavery
Horticultural societies
Large population
Existence of wealth and power
Division of labor
Common warfare
Belief in gods
Elaborate cultural artifacts
Agricultural societies
Continual land cultivation
Inequality of wealth
Development of writing system
More cultural artifacts
Development of transportation system
Industrial societies
Very large population
Less importance of family and kinship
Less influence of religion
Wide diversity of values of belief
Increased importance of science
Importance of education
Problems with pollution, resource depletion, and social
disorganization

Transmission and diffusion (SOC)
A phenomenon of culture spreading out
Conceptualized by Leo Frobenius
Different aspects of culture can be spread out including:
Religions
Technology
Language
Ideas
Styles
Can occur in an individual level (micro level) to meso/macro level
 Some examples of cultural diffusion include:
Chinatowns are found all over the world
Sushi, which is a traditional Japanese dish, became popular in America
English became the second language in many countries

Content Category 9B: Demographic characteristics and processes

In order to understand the structure of a society, it is important to understand the demographic
characteristics and processes which define it. Knowledge of the demographic structure of
societies and an understanding of how societies change helps us to comprehend the distinct
processes and mechanisms through which social interaction occurs. The content in this
category covers the important demographic variables at the core of understanding societies,
and also includes concepts related to demographic shifts and social change. The topics and
subtopics in this category are the following:

Demographic Structure of Society (PSY, SOC)

Age
Aging and the life course
he length of time that a person has lived
According to CIA World Fact book, the median ages of people in United
States: 36.8 years
Males: 35.5 years
Females: 38.1 years
As of 2010, age distribution was:
0-14 years: 2% of the people
15-64 years: 67% of the people
65 years and over: 8% of the people

Age cohorts (SOC)
A cohort- group of people who share a common characteristic or
experience within a defined period. In this case they are born around the
same time
Social significance of aging

Gender
Sex versus gender
The social construction of gender (SOC)
Gender segregation (SOC)
Race and ethnicity (SOC)
The social construction of race
Racialization
Racial formation
Immigration status (SOC)
Patterns of immigration
Intersections with race and ethnicity
Sexual orientation
Cisgender- gender identity aligns with sex
transgender- gender identity no align with sex
queer- blurs gender binaries all together

Demographic Shifts and Social Change (SOC)

Theories of demographic change (i.e., Malthusian theory and demographic transition)
Malthusian theory
Malthusian theory- two forces that develops society that are at odds.
Unchecked population growth can be exponential, and we have to be
 able to sustain this population. Malthus argued that population growth is
exponential, food is linear. Must keep world in sustainable population
positive check- malthusian catastrophe- return population to
sustainable numbers (wars, disease, etc)
preventative checks- what people can do to keep the population in
check (contraceptives)
Neo malthusian- environmental degradation is also caused by too many
people
Demographic transition model
stage 1- high birth, high death. Population grows, but very closely.
(bottom heavy for population pyramid
stage 2- countries go through industrial revolution. Death rate drops, birth
rate is still consistently high
stage 3- post industrial revolution- birth rates fall, balancing out with death
rates. Coincides with other factors in terms of fertility
stage 4- population stabilizes when death rate matches birth rate.
Population growth and decline (e.g., population projections, population pyramids)
population projections- estimates of the population for future dates
population pyramids- shows % of population by gender and by age groups
Fertility, migration, and mortality
Fertility and mortality rates (e.g., total, crude, age-specific)
Fertility
Total fertility rate- average number of children that would be born
to a women over her lifetime if she were to experience the exact
current age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) through her lifetime,
and and she were to survive from birth through the end of her
reproductive life
Crude birth rate- average annual number of births during a year
per 1000 people in the population at midyear
Age specific fertility rate- the number of live births per 1000
women in a specific age group for a specified geographic area
and for a specific point in time, usually a calendar year
Mortality rates
Crude birth rate- total number of deaths per year per 1000 people
Age specific mortality rate- the total number of deaths per year per
1,000 people of a given age
Patterns in fertility and mortality
http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/members/courses/teachers_corner/
3936.html
Push and pull factors in migration
Can by Micro (specific to the individual) or Macro (affecting the country/
whole area
Push factors- something that will push someone to leave an area(war,
high unemployment, etc)
 Pull factor- something that pulls someone to migrate to a specific area
(low unemployment, weather, etc)
Social movements
Relative deprivation
Relative deprivation is the experience of being deprived of something to
which one believes to be entitled
Organization of social movements
Stages
Emergence
Similar social beliefs, usually similar social status as well.
Helps to have pre existing communication network. Often
helps to have an event that galvanized the cause. Develop
a sense of efficacy.
Coalesce
sense of coherence, coherent body
Bureaucratized
system for organizing
establish internal rules
Movement has a variety of outcomes
maybe succeed, maybe repressed, maybe so movement is
popularized and losses effectiveness
Types
Expressive social movements
focuses on changing people and individuals. Making them
better.
Social reform movements
Trying to change a specific dimension of society. Usually
involve legislative modification.
Revolutionary social movements
Try to bring about total change in society. Sometimes
resort to violent means
Resistance movements
Try to preserve society because believe change is bad.
Trying to conserve present state
Global movements

Movement strategies and tactics

Globalization
Factors contributing to globalization (e.g., communication technology, economic
interdependence)
Perspectives on globalization
Social changes in globalization (e.g., civil unrest, terrorism)
Jihad vs McWorld
 Modernity is characterized by two powerful forces in opposite
directions
McWorld
all encompassing force. Force that is
homogenizing, makes all culture the same.
Standardized, homogenous culture, trying make
world single social entity. More integrated and more
interdependent.
Jihad
Struggle/ resistance- force that refers to reaction to
homogenizing force
Pulling in- focus on community rather than
homogeneity
Try distinguish self from those around us, virtues of
individuality and community. Things that are loss in
McWorld.
World is coming apart and together at the same
moment.

Urbanization
Industrialization and urban growth
The process in which a society or country (or world) transforms itself from
a primarily agricultural society into one based on the manufacturing of
goods and services.
industrialization leads to urbanization by creating economic growth and
job opportunities that draw people to cities. The urbanization process
typically begins when a factory or multiple factories are established within
a region, thus creating a high demand for factory labor. Other businesses
such as building manufacturers, retailers and service providers then
follow the factories in order to meet the product demands of the workers.
This creates even more jobs and demands for housing, thus establishing
an urban area.
Suburbanization and urban decline
Suburbanization is the growth of areas on the fringes of cities
The wealthy leave because they would rather commute to work or work
from home. This leaves the less fortunate in the city, leading to urban
decay
Gentrification and urban renewal
Gentrification is the buying and renovating of houses and stores in
deteriorated urban neighborhoods by wealthier individuals, which in effect
improves property values but also can displace low-income families and
small businesses
Urban renewal is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate
to high density urban land use.
Content Category 10A: Social inequality
Barriers to the access of institutional resources exist for the segment of the population that is
disenfranchised or lacks power within a given society. Barriers to access might include
language, geographic location, socioeconomic status, immigration status, and racial/ethnic
identity. Institutionalized racism and discrimination are also factors which prevent some groups
from obtaining equal access to resources. An understanding of the barriers to the access of
institutional resources, informed by perspectives such as social justice, is essential to address
health and healthcare disparities. The content in this category covers spatial inequality, the
structure and patterns of social class, and health disparities in relation to class, race/ethnicity,
and gender. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:

Spatial Inequality (SOC)

Residential segregation
he phenomenon of two or more groups of people separate into different
neighborhoods
Result in negative socioeconomic outcomes for minority groups
Three trends of segregation:
Racial
Blacks are most segregated racial group in United States
In largest metropolitan areas in United States including
Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, New York, and Washington
DC
Hispanics are second more segregated racial group in U.S.
Income
Poor is more isolated and live in the suburbs or central cities
Combined
More than half of all low-income working families are racial
minorities

Neighborhood safety and violence

Environmental justice (location and exposure to health risks)
A social movement in the United States
People that value the fair distribution of environmental benefits and
problems
Regardless of race, color, and financial power, people have right to receive high
level of environmental protection
The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines environmental
justice as the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless
of race, color, sex, national origin, or income with respect to the development,
implementation and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and
policies
Effect on minorities
 Because they have fewer economic alternatives and live in rural areas,
they are more subjected to hazards from the environment including health
risks and excluded from the environmental policy setting/decisions
The lack of political and economical power target minorities for
environmentally hazardous activities
Thus environmental justice is necessary for fairness between all people

Social Class (SOC)

Aspects of social stratification
Social class and socioeconomic status
Class consciousness and false consciousness
Class consciousness- Marxism, to refer to the beliefs that a person holds
regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of
their class, and their class interests
False consciousness- is a term used by some Marxists for the way in
which material, ideological and institutional processes in capitalist society
mislead members of the proletariat.
Cultural capital and social capital
Cultural capital
Non financial social assets that promote social mobility Language
and knowledge are two examples. Usually revolve around
knowledge of high culture. Example- how to conduct self at a
dinner party, appreciate of classical music. Does not have to be
high culture, and utility is contextually important.
elite cultural capital have specific skills that allow them to succeed.
By be unequal distributed- higher for upper to middle class, and
less for people lower in society. Interact in different ways, and the
ways we interact is in a social hierarchy. If a persons specific
capital is not useful where they are then they might repress it.
Social Capital
resource embedded in social relationships. In any neighborhood
do you connect with your neighbors (called closure, closely
connected diads)
Social reproduction
perpetuation of inequality through social institutions
Power, privilege, and prestige
Weber theory of inequality
Property: property such as buildings, lands, farms, houses,
factories and as well as other assets - Economic Situation
Prestige: the respect with which a person or status position is
regarded by others - Status Situation
Power: the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals
despite opposition from others - Parties
 Intersectionality (e.g., race, gender, age)

Socioeconomic gradient in health
Richer tend to be healthier than poor
differnetial access to health care
poor live amidst health risk (more likely to be alcoholics, obese,
smokers)
Education leads to better health
stress of poverty makes people sick
Global inequalities

Patterns of social mobility
Intergenerational and intragenerational mobility
intergenerational (different status from parent), intragenerational (within a
generation mobility
horizontal mobility vs vertical mobility
Vertical and horizontal mobility
vertical- movement from one social level to a higher one/ lower one
horizontal- movement from one position to another within the same social
level, as changing jobs without altering occupational status, or moving
between social groups having the same social status.
Meritocracy
The holding of power by people selected on the basis of their ability
Poverty
Relative and absolute poverty
Absolute poverty- does not have means to live
relative poverty- poverty relative to other people, defined as respect to
others
Social exclusion (segregation and isolation)
 People are systemically blocked from normally available rights,
opportunities, and resources
Including housing, employment, healthcare, and more
Vary from different countries
Segregation- the action or state of setting someone or something apart
from other people or things or being set apart
Isolation- complete or near-complete lack of contact with people and
society for members of a social species

Health Disparities (SOC) (e.g., class, gender, and race inequalities in health)
health risks might be unavoidable, built into day to day life
two identical people with exact same situation, might have different access to health,
leading to different treatments
women more likely attempt suicide, men more likely to suceed (deadlier force)
women tend to have more non life threatenting illness, becuase of stress of routinized
tasks they complete, take care of kids/ parents. Having to work and deal with homework
men tend to have more life threatening disease, trauma, homicide because more likely
to get self into more dangerous situation
women get sicker, but men die quicker
racial minority have high incidence of chronic disease
black 10% higher chance getting cancer, linked to environmental conditions
black and hispanic have 2x risk of getting diabetes
minorities have higher rates of cardiovascular disease, HIV/Aids, infant mortality
where you live leads to treatments offered
tendency for researchers to focus on issues of hetero males.
Women and minorities treated differently
Healthcare Disparities (SOC) (e.g., class, gender, and race inequalities in health care)
Possible methods for prevention/ inequal delivery of healthcare
women and minorities are treated differently
different in socioeconomic- different resources available
lack of insurance because of socioeconomic
structural barrier (no car, no time, etc)
scarcity of providers
linguistic barriers
varying degrees of health literacy
lack of diversity in health care workforce. necessary to treat diverse workforce
prevalent discrimination of those that treat the sick.

THeory Explanation of behaviors personal control

trait stable traits little

biology genetic influence little

 psychoanalytical interplay between id, little
ego, superego

behaviorist learned reaction to little

situations

social cognitive reciprocal interaction some

between personal and
environmental factors

humanistic seeking betterment of free will

self