Diffraction - A4 PDF

The University of Texas at Dallas Erik Jonsson School
PhoTEC
FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY
Partial dierential equation approach:

Analytical solution
Solve PDE by separation of variables
Use boundary conditions to restrict set of possible solutions
Useful only for certain highly symmetrical geometries
Numerical solution:
Discretize using nite dierences or nite elements
Obtain a system of linear equations that also incorporates the boundary
conditions
Integral equation approach:
Turn the PDE into an integral equation
Incorporate approximate boundary conditions
Get an approximate analytical solution
Numerical solution

c C. D. Cantrell (06/1997)
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FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (1)
Maxwells equations imply the vector wave equation

1 2
[ E(r, t)] + 2 2 E(r, t) = 0
v t
Vector (polarization) eects are often negligible except for very small aper-
tures or obstacles
In a uniform dielectric and in Cartesian coordinates,
2

1
2 2 E(r, t) = 0
2
v t
Scalar wave equation:
2

1
2 2 2
U (r, t) = 0
v t
Valid for (at best) one Cartesian component of E

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The scalar wave equation,

2

1
2 2 U (r, t) = 0,
2
v t
and the assumption of a perfectly monochromatic wave,
U (r, t) = u(r)eit,
imply the scalar Helmholtz equation
2
+ k u(r) = 0
2
where
2
2
k = 2
v
Boundary conditions for the Helmholtz equation
Dirichlet (u given on the boundary)
Neumann (du/dn given on the boundary)

DIRICHLET BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
u=0
u=f u=0
u=0

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BESSEL BEAMS
Transverse radial prole is a Bessel function of the rst kind

A Bessel beam propagates without spreading
An exact solution of the Helmholtz equation (2 + k 2)u = 0 is
u(, , z) = Jm() eim eiz

The condition
k 2 = 2 + 2
must be satised
Most useful for m = 0, because J0 gives the beam a central bright spot
Because the radial prole is independent of z, diraction does not lead
to spreading

INTENSITY PATTERN OF A BESSEL BEAM
http://www.doe.carleton.ca/rpm/bbessel.html
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Approximate scalar boundary conditions obtained from

St.-Venants hypothesis:
The optical eld u in an aperture is the same as if the aperture were not
present
u = 0:
At all points on the screen
At large distances in image space
Obviously not entirely correct, but useful
Ignores currents in the edges of the aperture

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Green function for the scalar Helmholtz equation:

Scalar Helmholtz equation:
(2 + k 2)u = 0
Green function in free space:
eik|rx|
G(r, x) =
|r x|
G is a spherical wave expanding out from a point source at r
G satises the equation
(2 + k 2)G(r, x) = 4(r x)
and outgoing boundary conditions at
A solution of the equation (2 + k 2)u(r) = s(r) in a region V is

(4)1 G(x r) s(r) d3r, if x V ;
u(x) = V

0, if x
/V

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Green function for the scalar Helmholtz equation:

Scalar Helmholtz equation:
(2 + k 2)u = 0
Green function in free space (outgoing boundary conditions):
eik|rx|
G(r, x) =
|r x|
G is a spherical wave expanding out from a point source at Q
G satises the equation
(2 + k 2)G(r, x) = 4(r x)
and outgoing boundary conditions at
A solution of the equation (2 + k 2)u(r) = s(r) is

1
u(x) = G(x r) s(r) d3r
4

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Derivation of Greens theorem:

Recall Gausss theorem:

F d3r = (n) F dS
V V
V := surface that bounds the volume V, n := inward normal to V
Apply Gausss theorem to the vector eld F = uG Gu:

(n)(uG Gu) dS = (uG Gu) d3r
V V
= [(u) (G) (G) (u)] d3r

V
+ (u2G G2u) d3r

V
= [u(2 + k 2)G G(2 + k 2)u] d3r = 4u(x)
V
We used (2 + k )u = 0 and (2 + k 2)G(r, x) = 4(r x)
2

KIRCHHOFFS BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
u=0 In A, u = field
with no screen present
Screen S with
aperture A
s
r Q u=0
P
x
P0
n := inward
normal
u=0

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The Helmholtz-Kirchho integral theorem:

From Gausss and Greens theorems,

1
u(x) = [u (n G) G (n u)] dS
4 V
n := inward normal to the surface that bounds V
eik|rx|
G(r, x) =
|r x|
Substitute for G:

iks
iks

1 e e
u(x) = u(r) n (n u(r)) dS
4 V s s
Expresses u(x) in terms of elds at points r on the surface that bounds
V , but not in the same way as Huyghens Principle
Kirchhos boundary conditions apply

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Kirchhos boundary conditions:

u = 0 everywhere but in the aperture
In the aperture, u is the eld due to a point source at P0,
eikr
u(r) = A
r
Apply the Helmholtz-Kirchho integral theorem:
At any point r in the aperture,
ikr
iks

e 1 e 1
u(r) = r A ik , G(r, x) = s A ik
r r s s
where s := x r
Result: The Fresnel-Kirchho diraction formula,
ik(r+s)
ikA e
u(x) = (n s + n r) dS
4 A rs

COORDINATES FOR THE
FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION INTEGRAL
y0

x0
O0
d
r0 r 0 Q y1
P0 s
O
u rce
x
So e P x1
n d
Pla n 1 r1
Scree
t i o n
e rva
s
Ob e
n
Pla

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The Fresnel-Kirchho diraction formula

ik(r+s)
ikA e
u(x) = (n s + n r) dS
4 A rs
is an approximate scalar solution of the Helmholtz equation, valid for
wavelengths small compared to the aperture size
is based on deep physical insight
is accurate enough to give useful, quantitative results in optics
but
does not make u 0 at large distances (as assumed in Kirchhos bound-
ary conditions)
is not the rst term in any iterative solution of the boundary-value prob-
lem

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Consistency of the Fresnel-Kirchho diraction formula

ik(r+s)
ikA e
u(x) = (n s + n r) dS
4 A rs
with Huyghens Principle
Expresses u(x) as a superposition of spherical waves eiks/s emanating
from the wavefront eikr /r produced by a point source
The inclination factor is
I(r, s) = (n s + n r)
In the backward direction (s = r),
I(r, r) = 0
In the forward direction (s = r),
I(r, r) = 2 cos

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Extensions of the Fresnel-Kirchho diraction formula:

If the inclination factor is nearly constant over the aperture,
ik(r+s)
ikAI e
u(x) dS
4 A rs
Replace the point-source incident wavefront eikr /r produced by a point
source with a general wavefront uinc(r) produced by an extended source
(modeled as a collection of point sources):

ikI eiks
u(x) = uinc(r) dS
4 A s
Characterize the aperture by a transmission function to model
amplitude and/or phase changes due to lenses & diraction gratings

ikI eiks
u(x) = (r) uinc(r) dS
4 A s

THIN LENS
d

t0
R d = R (1 cos )
12 R 2
2

2R
2
[
Optical path in lens kn t0
2R ]

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TRANSMISSION FUNCTION OF A THIN LENS
Transmission function of a thin lens (thickness = t):

2 /(2f )
() | ()|eiknteik
If the incident eld is uinc(r) = eikz , then the eld transmitted by a
plano-convex thin lens (neglecting reections) is

2 2
utr(r) exp ik z + + n t0
2R 2R
Therefore the plano-convex transmission function is
2 /(2R)
plano() eiknt0 eik(n1)
For a biconvex lens, with curvatures R1 and R2,
ikn(t1 +t2 ) ik(n1)2 /[(2R1 )1 (2R2 )1 ]
biconvex() e e

1 1 1
Focal length f = net curvature: = (n 1)
f R1 R2

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DIFFRACTION THEORY (1)
Applications of the Fresnel-Kirchho diraction formula

ikI eiks
u(x) = (r) uinc(r) dS
4 A s
Diraction of light from a point source:
eikr
uinc(r) = A
r
Fraunhofer limit (plane waves)
Fresnel regime
Diraction theory of image formation
Aberrations
Focal-plane ltering
Transfer functions
Propagation of the mutual coherence function

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Fresnels approximation to a spherical wave:

eikr eikr ik1 ik[2(r)2]/(2r)
e e
r r

eikr
= spherical wave centered at P0
r
eik1 = plane wave with propagation constant k1 := k r
ik[2 (r )2 ]/(2r )
e = lowest correction for wavefront curvature
This factor is approximately 1 when the Fresnel number is small:
b2
1
r
where b2 := 2 (r )2
Bottom line: You get a nearly plane wave if you move far away from a point
source (but its easier to use a lens!)

THE FRESNEL APPROXIMATION
r

r
a = r
b2 = 2 a2 = 2 (r )2
r + a
r=
cos
r
+ a r(1 + 12 2) + a
b cos
2
b
a r + a +
2r

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FRESNEL APPROXIMATION DETAILS (1)
Approximate r in terms of r (xed) and (varies over aperture):

Vector addition:
r = r +
r2 = r + 2r + 2
2

21/2
r
r = r 1 + 2 2 +
r r
Binomial expansion correct to order (/r)2:
r 2 (r )2
r r + +
r 2r 2r3

2
( r )2
r r + r +
2r 2r

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FRESNEL APPROXIMATION DETAILS (2)
The Fresnel approximation, valid for small angles between r and r:
denominator = r r

2
( r )2
phase = kr kr + k1 + k
2r

eikr
= spherical wave centered at P0
r
eik1 = plane wave with direction r
Propagation constant: k1 := k r
ik[2 (r )2 ]/(2r )
e = lowest-order approximation to the phase of a spherical
wavefront

eikr eikr ik1 ik[2(r)2]/(2r)
e e
r r

y0
x0
O0
d
r0 0 Q
r
P0 r
e O
u r c
So e
l a n
P

COORDINATES FOR THE
FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION INTEGRAL
y0

x0
O0
d
r0 r 0 Q y1
P0 r s
O
u rce
s
So e P x1
n d
Pla 1 r1
c reen
S
t i o n
e rva
s
Ob e
n
Pla

COORDINATES FOR THE DIFFRACTION INTEGRAL
k2
q
k1
s
r r1
s
r

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Diraction pattern of a point source, part 1:

Fresnels approximation applied to the spherical waves eikr /r and eiks/s:
ikr

2
e ikr
e ik1 (r ) 2
e exp ik
r r 2r
iks

e iks
e ik2 (r1 ) (r1 ) [s (r1 )]
2 2
e exp ik
s s 2s
where the propagation vectors are
k1 := k r, k2 := k s, q := k1 k2
Diraction integral for a point source in Fresnels approximation:

ik(r +s ) 2 (r )2 (r1 )2 [s (r1 )]2
ikIAe ik2 r1 iq
ik
2r
+
2s
u(x) = e (r) e e dS
4rs A

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Diraction pattern of a point source, part 2:

Diraction integral for a point source in Fresnels approximation:

2
(r )2 (r )2 [s (r )]2
ikIAeik(r +s ) ik2r1 iq
ik
2r
+ 1
2s
1
u(x) =
e () e e dS
4r s A
where q := k1 k2, k1 := k r, k2 := k s
eik2r1 = plane wave carrier incident at P
Integral over aperture = signal

2 (r )2 (r1 )2 [s (r1 )]2
ik +
2r 2s
e = wavefront curvature correction
Fresnel diraction: Wavefront curvature is an essential part of the
physics
Fraunhofer diraction: No wavefront curvature correction needed

u(x) = () eiq dS
A
= Fourier transform of
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Fraunhofer diraction at a rectangular aperture:

u(x) = () eiq dS
A
where q := k1 k2, k1 := k r, k2 := k s
Aperture dimensions: 2a (in x) 2b (in y)
q is not necessarily in the plane of the aperture, but we can assume that
it is for this case because its z-component is small
Integral over the components of :

ikIAeik(r +s ) ik2r1 a b i(qx+qy )
u(r1) = e e
4rs a b d d
= (constant)[2 sinc (qxa)][2 sinc (qy b)]
Intensity:
S(q) = S(0) sinc2(qxa) sinc2(qy b)

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Fraunhofer diraction at a circular aperture:

u(x) = () eiq dS
A
where q := k1 k2, k1 := k r, k2 := k s
Aperture radius = a
Integral over the components of :
ik(r +s ) 2 a
ikIAe ik2 r1
u(q) = e eiq cos d d
4rs
0 0
2J1(qa)
= (constant)(a2)
qa
Intensity:

2
2J1(qa)
S(q) = S(0)
qa
(the Airy pattern)

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Dimensions of central feature:

Rectangular aperture, 2a 2b

For a small diraction angle, qx k , qy k
s s
First zero of sinc function is at x =
2 0
At the rst zero in , a=
s
s s
0 = , 0 =
2a 2b
Circular aperture, radius a
For a small diraction angle , q k
First zero of J1 is j1,1 = 3.832 = 1.220
At the rst zero, qa 20a/ 1.220

0 0.610 1.220
a d

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Fraunhofer diraction by N randomly arranged identical apertures:

Aperture Am is displaced from aperture A1 by a random vector am
Amplitude of diracted eld is proportional to
N
eiq dS = eiqam eiq dS
A m=1 A1
Intensity of diracted eld is

N 2

S(q) = (const.) eiqam eiq dS
A1
m=1
N 2 2
N

iq(am an )

= (const.) e e dS = N (const.)
iq e dS
iq
m=1 n=1 A1 A1
2

eiq dS diraction pattern of a single aperture

A1
Intensities add, not amplitudes, when the arrangement is random
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Fraunhofer diraction by periodically arranged identical apertures, part 1:

The same unit cell is translated through integer multiples of the vectors
a1 and a2 (not necessarily orthogonal!)
Amplitude of diracted eld is proportional to
M1 M2
eiq dS = eiq(m1a1+m2a2) eiq dS
A A1
m1 =M1 m2 =M2

= g1(q a1)g2(q a2) eiq dS
A1
Grating functions:
Mj

gj (q aj ) = eimj qaj
mj =Mj

sin (Mj + 2 )q aj
1
=
sin 12 q aj

THE GRATING FUNCTION
1

sin (M + 2 )x
g(x) = for M = 20
sin( 12 x)
60
40
g(x)
20
-20
0 2 4 6
x

PhoTEC

Properties of the grating function

sin (M + 2 )q a
1
g(q a) =
sin 12 q a
Peak value of g is 2M + 1 at
q a = 2n

Half-width of central peak =
M + 12
Amplitude of rst side lobe is 0.212 amplitude of central peak

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Intensity of diracted eld is proportional to
2 2

eiq dS = |g1(q a1)|2 |g2(q a2)|2 e dS
iq

A A1
The grating functions are sharply peaked at values of q such that
q a1 = 2n1 and q a2 = 2n2
These conditions imply that q is 2 times a reciprocal lattice vector:
q = 2(n1b1 + n2b2)
Peaks
are modulated
2 by the diraction pattern of a single aperture,

e iq
dS

A1

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2-D RECIPROCAL LATTICE (1)
The 2-d direct lattice spanned by non-parallel vectors a1 and a2

consists of the points
rm1,m2 = m1a1 + m2a2
The reciprocal lattice to the a1 a2 lattice consists of vectors
kn1,n2 = n1b1 + n2b2
where
bi aj = i,j
The reciprocal lattice basis is
a2 z z a1
b1 = , b2 =
z (a1 a2) z (a1 a2)

1 3
Hexagonal lattice basis: a1 = x, a2 = x + y
2 2
1 2
Reciprocal lattice basis: b1 = x y, b2 = y
3 3

PhoTEC
Calculation of the eld in the image plane, part 1:

Assume normal incidence
Inclination factor
I = (n s + n r) = 2
Diraction integral assuming a point source and a thin lens with focal
length f : ik(r+s)
iA e
u(r1) = () dS
A rs
ik(r+s)
iA e 2
ik 2f
e () d2
A rs
= transmission function of lens and aperture

= transmission function of aperture alone

PhoTEC

Diraction integral assuming a point source and a thin lens with focal
length f : ik(r+s)
iA e 2
ik 2f
u(r1) e () d2
A rs
The sum of the exponents is (in the Fresnel approximation)

2 2
(r ) 2
( r ) 2
ik r + s
0 1
ik r + s + +
2f 2f 2r 2s

2
2 2
1 1 1 r r r0 r1
= ik r + s + + + + 0 + 1 +
2 f r s 2r 2s r s

PhoTEC

At the Gaussian focal point of a thin lens,
1 1 1
+ + =0
f r s
This makes the coecient of 2 vanish in the exponent
The diraction integral reduces to a phase factor times the Fourier
transform of the pupil function :

2
r0 r12

iA ik 2r + 2s +r +s r r
ik ( 0 + 1 ) 2
u(r1) e () e r s d
r s A
The image is spread out by diraction
The peak amplitude occurs at the stationary-phase point:
r 0 r1 s

+ = 0 r1 = r0 (Gaussian image displacement)
r s r

PhoTEC
Imaging by a thin lens of an extended, coherently illuminated object:

Superpose the elds due to a distribution of point sources:

i eikr ik 2f2 eiks
u(r1) (r0) () e d2 d2r0
S A r s
Instead of performing two 2-d integrations simultaneously, we can eval-
uate a diraction integral to go from the source to the lens and another
to go from the lens to the observation plane
Field incident at lens:

i eikr ik(r0 )2
uinc() (r 0 ) e 2r d 2
r0
r S
ikr
ie
(r 0 ) F k/r ( r0 ) d r0
2
r S
uinc is a convolution of the source distribution with the Fresnel
function Fk/r , where
ir2
F(r) := e
PhoTEC
THE FRESNEL FUNCTION (1)
The Fresnel function is

1 ir 2
F(r) := e 2
where r lies in the x y plane

The 2-d Fourier transform of F is

F(q) = eiqr F(r) d2r
2i
= F1/(q)

2i i q2
= e 2

PhoTEC
Imaging by a thin lens of an extended, coherently illuminated object, part

2:
The eld incident on the lens, uinc, is a convolution of the source distri-
bution with the Fresnel function Fk/r :
ikr
ie
uinc() = (r 0 ) F k/r ( r0 ) d r0
2
r S
ikr
ie 1
= 2
(q) F k/r (q) e
iq 2
dq
r (2)
Diraction integral for the eld in the observation plane:
2 ik(r+s)
i e
u(r1) = (q) Fk/r (q) () e
E(q,,r1 ) 2
d d2
q
(2)2rs A
The sum of the exponents is (in the Fresnel approximation)

2
2
r12
r1
E(q, , r1) = ik + + + i q k
2f 2s 2s s

PhoTEC

3:
In the back focal plane
s = f
the sum of the exponents does not depend on 2:
r12
E(q, , r1) = ik + iq
2s
where
r1
r1
:= r1|s=f and q := q k
s
Diraction integral for the eld in the back focal plane:
2 ik(r+s) r 2
i e 1
ik 2f
u(r1) = e (q) Fk/r
2
(q) (q ) d q
(2)2rs

PhoTEC

4:
Diraction integral for the eld in the back focal plane:
2 ik(r+s) r 2
i e 1
ik 2f
u(r1) = e (q) Fk/r
2
(q) (q ) d q
(2)2rs
The Fourier transform of the pupil function, , is very sharply peaked at
q = 0 (for a circular pupil, is the Airy disk)

r
For an innite aperture, (q) = (2)2(q) q = k 1
f
In this limit, and with the Fraunhofer approximation,

i r
u(r1) k 1
f f
The back focal plane contains the Fourier transform of a
coherently illuminated object

PhoTEC

5: Focal plane ltering
Concept: Alter the image by (intentionally or unintentionally)
ltering the Fourier transform in the focal plane
Propagate the eld from the back focal plane to the image plane using
yet another diraction integral!
Field in the image plane:
iku
i e
u(r1) = (r1) u(r1) d2r1
F u
Focal-plane lter transmission function =
Vector from point in focal plane to point in image plane:
u = s + r1 r1

PhoTEC
Imaging by a thin lens of an extended, coherently illuminated object, part 6

Propagate the eld from the back focal plane to the image plane
Assume an innite aperture, (q) = (2)2(q):
2
ikr1 1 r
i r1
u(r1) e
2 f f2
k
f s
Sum of exponents in the diraction integral:

ikr1 2 1 r 1
+
2 f f 2 s
Use Newtons equation for the focus-to-image distance rI :
1 r f r 1
2= =
f f f2 f rI
All quadratic phase terms cancel in the image plane, f rI = s

PhoTEC
Imaging by a thin lens of an extended, coherently illuminated object, part 7

Field amplitude in the image plane:
2 2 r r
i 1 kr
i 1 r1 ik 1 1 2
u(r1) 2
e 2s (r1) k e s d r1
(2) s f F f
The image-plane eld is proportional to the Fourier
transform of the product of the focal-plane ltering
function and the Fourier transform of the original eld


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The University of Texas at Dallas Erik Jonsson School

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY

Partial dierential equation approach:

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (1)

Maxwells equations imply the vector wave equation

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (2)

The scalar wave equation,

Transverse radial prole is a Bessel function of the rst kind

u(, , z) = Jm() eim eiz

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (3)

Approximate scalar boundary conditions obtained from

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (4)

Green function for the scalar Helmholtz equation:

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (5)

Green function for the scalar Helmholtz equation:

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (6)

Derivation of Greens theorem:

= [(u) (G) (G) (u)] d3r

+ (u2G G2u) d3r

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (7)

The Helmholtz-Kirchho integral theorem:

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (8)

Kirchhos boundary conditions:

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (9)

The Fresnel-Kirchho diraction formula

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (10)

Consistency of the Fresnel-Kirchho diraction formula

FRESNEL-KIRCHHOFF DIFFRACTION THEORY (11)

Extensions of the Fresnel-Kirchho diraction formula:

TRANSMISSION FUNCTION OF A THIN LENS

Transmission function of a thin lens (thickness = t):

DIFFRACTION THEORY (1)

Applications of the Fresnel-Kirchho diraction formula

DIFFRACTION THEORY (2)

Fresnels approximation to a spherical wave:

FRESNEL APPROXIMATION DETAILS (1)

Approximate r in terms of r (xed) and (varies over aperture):

FRESNEL APPROXIMATION DETAILS (2)

DIFFRACTION THEORY (3)

Diraction pattern of a point source, part 1:

DIFFRACTION THEORY (4)

Diraction pattern of a point source, part 2:

DIFFRACTION THEORY (5)

Fraunhofer diraction at a rectangular aperture:

DIFFRACTION THEORY (6)

Fraunhofer diraction at a circular aperture:

DIFFRACTION THEORY (7)

Dimensions of central feature:

DIFFRACTION THEORY (8)

Fraunhofer diraction by N randomly arranged identical apertures:

Intensity of diracted eld is

DIFFRACTION THEORY (9)

Fraunhofer diraction by periodically arranged identical apertures, part 1:

DIFFRACTION THEORY (10)

Fraunhofer diraction by periodically arranged identical apertures, part 2:

DIFFRACTION THEORY (11)

Fraunhofer diraction by periodically arranged identical apertures, part 3:

2-D RECIPROCAL LATTICE (1)

The 2-d direct lattice spanned by non-parallel vectors a1 and a2

DIFFRACTION THEORY (12)

Calculation of the eld in the image plane, part 1:

 = transmission function of lens and aperture

DIFFRACTION THEORY (13)

Approximate r in terms of r (xed) and (varies over aperture):

= transmission function of lens and aperture