Dhanalakshmi College Of Engineering

Manimangalam, Tambaram, Chennai 601 301

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

GE6162 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY

I SEMESTER - R 2013

LABORATORY MANUAL

Name : _______________________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________________________

Section : _______________________________________
 DHANALAKSHMI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VISION

Dhanalakshmi College of Engineering is committed to provide highly disciplined, conscientious and

enterprising professionals conforming to global standards through value based quality education and
training.
MISSION

To provide competent technical manpower capable of meeting requirements of the industry

To contribute to the promotion of Academic Excellence in pursuit of Technical Education at different

levels

To train the students to sell his brawn and brain to the highest bidder but to never put a price tag on
heart and soul

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VISION

To impart professional education integrated with human values to the younger generation, so as to
shape them as proficient and dedicated engineers, capable of providing comprehensive solutions to the
challenges in deploying technology for the service of humanity

MISSION

To educate the students with the state-of-art technologies to meet the growing challenges of the
electronics industry
To carry out research through continuous interaction with research institutes and industry, on
advances in communication systems
To provide the students with strong ground rules to facilitate them for systematic learning,
innovation and ethical practices
PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

1. Fundamentals
To provide students with a solid foundation in Mathematics, Science and fundamentals of
engineering, enabling them to apply, to find solutions for engineering problems and use this knowledge
to acquire higher education

2. Core Competence
To train the students in Electronics and Communication technologies so that they apply their
knowledge and training to compare, and to analyze various engineering industrial problems to find
solutions

3. Breadth
To provide relevant training and experience to bridge the gap between theory and practice which
enables them to find solutions for the real time problems in industry, and to design products

4. Professionalism
To inculcate professional and effective communication skills, leadership qualities and team spirit in
the students to make them multi-faceted personalities and develop their ability to relate engineering
issues to broader social context

5. Lifelong Learning/Ethics
To demonstrate and practice ethical and professional responsibilities in the industry and society in
the large, through commitment and lifelong learning needed for successful professional career
 PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs)
a) To demonstrate and apply knowledge of Mathematics, Science and engineering fundamentals in
Electronics and Communication Engineering field

b) To design a component, a system or a process to meet the specific needs within the realistic
constraints such as economics, environment, ethics, health, safety andmanufacture ability

c) To demonstrate the competency to use software tools for computation, simulation and testing of electronics
and communication engineering circuits

d) To identify, formulate and solve electronic and communication engineering problems

e) To demonstrate an ability to visualize and work on laboratory and multidisciplinary tasks

f) To function as a member or a leader in multidisciplinary activities

g) To communicate in verbal and written form with fellow engineers and society at large

h) To understand the impact of Electronics and Communication Engineering in the society and demonstrate
awareness of contemporary issues and commitment to give solutions exhibiting social responsibility

i) To demonstrate professional & ethical responsibilities

j) To exhibit confidence in self-education and ability for lifelong learning

k) To participate and succeed in competitive exams

4
 GE6162 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY
SYLLABUS

COURSE OBJECTIVES
To provide exposure to the students with hands on experience on various basic engineering
practices in Electrical and Electronics Engineering

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Study of Electronic components and equipment Resistor, colour coding measurement of AC
signal parameter (peak-peak, rms period, frequency) using CRO
2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, EOR and NOT
3. Generation of Clock Signal
4. Soldering practice Components Devices and Circuits Using general purpose PCB
5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR

COURSE OUTCOMES

Ability to fabricate electronics circuits

4
 GE6162 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY
CONTENTS

Page
S.No. Name of the Experiment
No.
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE

1 STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT 1

2 STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF LOGIC GATES 13

3 GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL 20

4 SOLDERING AND CHECKING CONTINUITY 26

5 MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR HALF-WAVE 32

AND FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS

1 * V-I CHARACTERISTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE 39

2 * V-I CHARACTERISTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE 48

GENERAL PROCEDURE

0
Ex. No.:1

STUDYOFELECTRONICCOMPONENTSANDEQUIPMENTS

Aim:
1. Study of electronic components and equipment.
2. Calculation of resistance using colour coding.
3. Measuring the parameters of a sinusoidal AC signal using CRO.

1. STUDYOFELECTRONICCOMPONENTS

Electronic components are divided into two types

1. Active component
1. Passive component

ActiveComponents

Activecomponents are non-linear. They deliverpowerto

thecircuits.Thecharacteristicsofthesignal changeswhen they passthroughthesecomponents.
Examples: Transistors, Diodes etc.

Transistors

Transistor is a active component. It is a three terminal device. The three terminals

are Emitter, Base, Collector. Semiconductor device consisting of two PN junction is formed by
sandwiching a thin layer of N-type conductors between two layers of P-type semiconductors.
There are two types of transistors. They are
1. PNP Transistor
2. NPN Transistor

Diodes

A semiconductor diode is a two layer, one junction device, which is formed by

joining one P-type and one N-type semiconductor material. The P region of diode is called anode
and the N- region is called cathode.

PassiveComponents

Passivecomponentsconsumepower.Theydissipateenergyintheformof
heatorstoreenergy.Theyarelinear.Thecharacteristicsofthesignaldoesnotchange
whenpassedthrough these components. Examples:Resistors,CapacitorsandInductors.

0
Resistors

Fixedresistor

R
1 2

Variableresistor (or) Potentiometer

Colourcoding

Colour Value Tolerance

Black 0 --
Brown 1 +/-1%
Red 2 +/-2%
Orange 3 --
Yellow 4 --
Green 5 --
Blue 6 --
Violet 7 --
Grey 8 --
White 9 --
Gold* -- 5+/-0.1%
Silver* -- +/-10%
NoColour* -- +/-20%

Calculationofresistance:
Resistors

Resistors are used to limit or control the flow of current or to provide required
voltage drops at required places.A Resistoris denotedbyRandits unitis(ohm).

Ohm( )isdefinedastheamountofresistancethatallows1Acurrentto
flow,when1Vpotentialisapplied.

Resistorsareclassifiedinto
FixedResistors
VariableResistors

Fixed resistor isone whose resistance valueremains constant. For avariable

resistor,the resistance value canbechanged.

ColourCodingofResistors

Colourcoding is used to rate the resistance of a resistor. This is advantageous in

that, the essential information can be marked on small
componentsofcylindricalshapewithouttheneedtoreadtinyprintings.The
resistanceiscodedinunitsofohm().Fourstripsofcoloursareprintedonthe
resistor,eachcarryingaspecificvalue.

st
1 stripgivesthefirstdigitof theresistance

2ndstripgivestheseconddigitof theresistance.

3rdstripgivesthedecimalmultiplierinpowersof 10.

4th st rip i f presentindicatesthetolerancevalueinpercentage.Nocolourin

thisbandcorrespondstoatolerancevalueof 20%. Some resistors have five strips, instead of four. In
this case the first three strips give three digits followed by the decimal multiplier in the fourth
strip and tolerance.

Capacitors

TheCapacitorisachargestoragecomponent.Itconsistsoftwoconducting plates called

electrodes and an isolating layer between them known as the dielectric.It
isdenotedbyCanditsunitis F (Farad). The potential difference V between the ends of a
capacitor is proportionaltothechargeQonit.

V=Q/ C

Where,Qis thechargeinColumb&C isthecapacitancein Farad.

Capacitors

Inductor

PNJunctionDiode

LED

D1

LED
Inductors

The property of a coil by which it opposes change in the value of current or flux
through it, due to the production of self inducede.m.f, is called inductance. The inductance is
measured in Henry and it is denoted by L.

Multimeter

Amulti-meteroramulti-tester,isanelectronicmeasuringinstrumentthat
combinesseveralmeasuring devicesinoneunit.Astandardmulti-metermay
includefeaturessuchastheability tomeasure voltage, currentandresistance.
Therearetwocategoriesof multi-metersviz.,analogmulti-meteranddigital multi-meters. Multi-
meterisahand-helddeviceusedtofindfaultand tomeasure mostof theelectricalquantitieswithvery
highdegreeofaccuracy. They canbeusedto troubleshootelectricalfaultsin a widerangeof
circuitsandwiringsystems.

Thecentralknobofthemulti-meterhaslotofpositionsandthecorrectone
whicheverappropriateforourmeasurementshouldbeselected.Forexample,if
themeterisswitchedto20VDCthen20VisthemaximumDCvoltagethatcan be measured.
Oscilloscope

Oscilloscopeisanelectronictestequipmentthatallowssignalvoltagesto
beviewed,usuallyasatwodimensionalgraphofoneormoreelectricalpotential
difference(Verticalaxis)plottedasafunctionoftimeorsomeothervoltage (Horizontalaxis). A typical
oscilloscopeis a rectangularbox witha small screen,input
connectors,controlknobsandbuttonsonthefrontpanel.Toaidmeasurement, a gridcalledthegraticule
isdrawnonthefaceofthescreen.Eachsquareinthe graticuleisknownasdivision.Thesignaltobe
measuredis fedononeof theinput connectors,whichisusuallyacoaxialconnectorsuchasBNCorN-
Type.

Inthesimplestmode,theoscilloscoperepeatedly drawsahorizontalline
calledthetraceacrossthemiddleofthescreenfrom lefttoright.Oneofthe controls,
thetimebasecontrol,setsthespeedatwhichthelineisdrawnandis calibratedinsecondsperdivision.
Iftheinputvoltagedepartsfrom zero,thetrace
isdeflectedeitherupwardsordownwards.Anothercontrol,theverticalcontrol,
setsthescaleoftheverticaldeflection andiscalibratedinvoltsperdivision.The
resultingtraceisagraphof voltageagainsttime.
Mostoscilloscopes allowustobypassthetimebaseandfeedanexternal
signaltothehorizontalamplifier.ThisiscalledX-Ymodeandisusefulfor viewingthephaserelationship
betweenthetwosignals,whichiscommonly done inradioandtelevisionengineering.

Oscilloscopes mayhavetwoormoreinputchannels,allowing themto

displaymorethanoneinputsignalonthescreen.Usually,theoscilloscope hasa
separatesetofverticalcontrols foreachchannel,butonlyonetriggering system andtimebase.
NPNtransistor

PNPtransistor
 CathodeRayOscilloscopeBlockDiagram

PropertiesofACSignal

Currentcanbedirect current(DC)oralternating
current(AC).Thedirectcurrenthas
constantamplitudeovertimeandhencerepresentedwithastraightline.The
amplitudeofalternatingcurrentkeepschangingwithtimeinasinusoidalfashion
andhencerepresentedwithsinewave.

PeakValue

TheACsignalhastwopeaks, oneinthepositivecycleandtheotherinthe
negative cycle.Thevalueofthevoltageinthesetwopeaksiscalledpeakvalueof ACsignal. It is denoted
by Vm .Forexample, ifthemaximumamplitudeofthesignalis20V,thenthe peakvaluesof
thatsignalare+20V or-20V.
Peak-to-Peakvalue

SumofthemagnitudesofboththepeakvaluesofACsignaliscalledasits Peak-to-
Peakvalue.In theexamplegivenabove,theP-Pvalueis20+ (-20)= 20 + 20 = 40 V.

AverageValue

The areaunderonecompletecycleperperiodiscalledastheaveragevalue of
theACsignal.

Averagevalue=Areaunderonecompletecycle/ Period

RMSValue

TheRootMeanSquare(RMS)valueisalsocalledastheeffective valueof
ACsignal.Itisgivenby,

Vrms=0.707Vm
CathodeRayTube(CRT)

ParametersofasinusoidalACSignal
 Observations:

Amplitude Vpp =

PeakVoltage Vm=

TimePeriod T=
Frequency F=1/ T

RMSVoltage V=0.707Vm

Result:
Thusthe electronic components and equipment are studied.

Viva-voce

1. What are active and passive components?

2. How the transistor acts as a switch?

3. What is Faradays law?

4. What is the significance of RMS value?

5. What is the working principle of CRT?

6. What are the types of Resistors?

7. What are the types of Capacitors?

8. Why resistor is called as a Passive component?

9. What is meant by RMS Value?

10. What are the application of CRT?

11.What is meant by Peak to Peak voltage?

12.What are the applications of the transistors?

13. What are the types of the Transistors?

14.Draw the symbol for LED

15.What the arrow in the transistor refer to?

CircuitDiagram:
Ex. No.:2

STUDYOFLOGICGATESAND,OR,EX-ORANDNOT
Aim:
To realizelogic functionsusing NOT, OR,AND,EX-OR gates.

ApparatusRequired:
S.No Nameof theEquipment Quantity
1 Digital IC TrainerKit 1
2 IC 7404(NOT) 1
3 IC 7432(OR) 1
4 IC 7408(AND) 1
5 IC 7486(EX-OR) 1
6 ConnectingWires

Theory:
NOTGate (IC7404)

The output of NOT gate is the complement of its input.Itis also called
anInverter,becauseit invertstheinputsignal.Ithasoneinputandoneoutput.If Ais an
input,thenY=Aisitsoutput.
OR Gate (IC 7432)

TheORgatehasanoutputof1wheneither Aor Bor bothare1.Inother words,it isan any-or-

allgatebecauseanoutputoccurswhenanyor all inputsare 1. If Aand Bare
inputs,thentheoutputisY=A+B.

ANDGate(IC 7408)

TheANDgategivesanoutputonlywhenall itsinputsarepresent.
TheANDgatehasoutput1ifbothA&Bare1. Hencethisis an all-or-nothinggate
whoseoutputoccursonlyif allitsinputsare 1.TheoutputY=A.B.
EX-ORGate(IC 7486)

The XOR gate hasanoutput1ifitsinputsaredifferent.Theoutputis0,ifitsinputsaresame.

Itisalso called InequalityComparator.TheoutputY=AB+AB

Procedure:
1. In adigitalIC trainerboard, fixtheIC s firmlyand make theconnectionsas
perthecircuitdiagram.

2. Apply+5Vtothe14thpinof
th
ICs7404,7432,7408,7486andconnectgroundtothe7 pinof ICs.

3. Applyinputstothecircuit&verifytheoutputswithtruth table.
Result:
Thusthelogic gates are studied and verified using truth table.

Viva-voce

1. What are universal gates? Give its significance.

2. Give the truth table of EX-OR gate?

3. What is a FLIP FLOP?

4. What is a latch?

5. What is the difference between DC and AC signal?

6.Why NAND and NOR consider as a universal gate?

7.What is meant by a shift register?

8.Draw the symbol for the AND gate

9.Difference between the Latches and Flipflops

10. What is meant by setup and hold time?

11. What are the types of logic gate?

12. How to convert a NAND gate into a inverter?

13. What are the scales of integration?

14. Difference between the FLIPFLOP and Latches

15. Which gate act as a Masking gate?

CircuitDiagram:

PIN DIAGRAM
Ex. No.:3
GENERATIONOFCLOCKSIGNAL
Aim:
TogenerateclocksignalusingIC555timercircuit.

ApparatusRequired:
S.
No. Component Range Quantity

1 Timer IC555 1

2 Resistors 6.8 k, 4.8 k 2

3 Capacitors 0.1F 2

4 CRO 30MHz 1

5 RPS (030)V 1

Theory:

TheIC555timerisanintegratedcircuitwhichisverystableandcan
generateveryaccuratetimeintervalswiththehelpofinternalcomponents like resistors andcapacitors.

WhenpowersupplyVcc is connectedexternally,timingcapacitorC charges towardsVcc

withtimeconstant(T1andT2). Duringthechargingtime(T1and T2)pinSisHIGHandisequaltoVcc
whichistheoutput.Thewidthoftheoutputwaveformisvariedbychangingof R1,R2 orCvalues.

T1 = R1 C ; T2 = R2 C
 ModelWaveform:

Tabulation:
R1 R2 C Amplitude Theoretical Time TimePeriod(ms)
(V) period ( ms )

TON =

TOFF =

T=TON +TOFF

Procedure:
 1. Connectionsaremadeasperthecircuitdiagram.
2. PowersupplyisswitchedONand5Visappliedtothecircuit.

3. TheoutputwaveformisobservedfromtheCROandisdrawnina

graph.

4. The time period of output wave form is compared with theoretical time

period calculated.

Result:

ThustheclocksignalwasgeneratedbyusingIC555timer.

Viva-voce

1. What are the applications of TIMER?

2. What is a Multivibrator?

3. Why CLOCK signal is essential?

4. What is the significance of AstableMultivibrator?

5. Define Rise time and fall time of a signals.

6. What are the types of Multivibrators?

7. What are the application of IC555?

8. What is meant by Schmitt triggers?

9. What is meant by BistableMultivibrators?

10.What is meant by duty cycle?

11. What are the components present inside a IC555 timer?

Circuit Diagram:

R1
1 2
1k
D1
V1
LED
( 0-5 ) v

0
Ex. No.:4
SOLDERINGANDCHECKINGTHECONTINUITY

Aim:
Topractice solderingofelectroniccomponentsandwiresonPCBandto checkthecontinuity.

ApparatusRequired:

S.NO COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1 PCB 1
2 SolderingIron 1
3 Soldering Flux Few
4 LED 1
5 Resistor 1
6 PowerSupply 1

Theory:
Solderingistheprocessofjoiningthinmetalplatesorwiresmadeup
ofsteel,copperorbraze.Itisverycommonlyusedtojoinwiresinelectricalwork
andmountelectroniccomponents onacircuitboard. Thejoiningmaterialusedin soldering is
calledsolderorfilterrod.Analloyoftinandleadiscommonlyusedas thesolder.
Thefluxisusedtocleanthesurfaceoftheplates/wires tobesoldered.
Aluminiumchlorideorzincchlorideiscommonlyusedasflux.Agoodsoldering
ironisavariabletemperaturesettingtypewithinter-changeableironsandtips. Thetipshould
beremovedregularlytoprevent oxidationscale fromaccumulating
betweentheheatingelementandthetip.
Procedure:
SOLDERING
1. Thegivenelectroniccircuitisstudied.
2. ThePCBBoardiscleaned.
3. Thetipofthesolderingironiscleanedbefore heatingandalsotheresistors
andLEDwhicharetobesolderedare cleaned.
4. Thesolderingironisheatedandsolderisappliedtothetipof it.
5. Theresistor(R)loadsorbendstofitintothePCBboardandit is insertedintheholesof theboardas
perthecircuitdiagram.
6. Thehottipisappliedtothejointsandthesolderisapplied.
7. Thesolderingtipisremovedandtheresistorheldtightlytillthesolderis cooledandset.
8. Theexcesscomponentloadistrimmedwithsidecuts.
9. Theabovestepsarerepeatedtofixtheothercomponentinthecircuit.

DESOLDERING
1. Thetipofthesolderingironisplacedontheresistorboardjointuntilthe solder melts.
2. Whenthesolderismeltedtheresistorisremovedwithatabezer.
3. Theabovestepsareseparatedtoremovetheothercomponents.
4. TheLEDandtheresistorarecleaned.

CHECKINGTHECONTINUITY

Thecontinuityofawireconductorwithoutabreakhaspracticallyzero
ohmsofresistancethereforeanohmmetermaybeusedtotestcontinuity .Totest continuity
selecttheohmrange.Awiremayhaveaninternalbreak,whichisnot
visibleduetoinsulation,orthewiremayhaveabadconduction attheterminals.
Checkingforzeroohmsbetweentwopoints is usedto testthecontinuity.

Inacableofwire,individualwires areidentifiedas colours.Consideredthe figurewherethe

individual wiresarenotseen,butyouwishtofindthewirethat connectstoterminal A.
Thisisdonebychecking the continuityofeachwireto
terminalA.Thewirethathaszeroohmsistheoneconnected tothisterminal. Continuityofalong
cablemaybetestedbytemporarily short circuitingtheother
endsofthewires.Thecontinuityofbothwiresmaybecheckedforzeroohms.
Inadigitalmultimeterabeepmodeisavailabletocheckcontinuity. The
connectivitybetweentheterminalsisidentifiedbythebeepsound.
Result:
Thustheelectroniccomponentsaresolderedand continuityofacircuitor wireischecked.

Viva-voce

1. What is the use of Soldering?

2. How do you test the continuity of a Wire conductor?

3. How do you check the continuity of a wire using Digital Multi meter?

4. What is PCB? Give its significance.

5. What is the material used for soldering?

6. What are the types of soldering?

7. What is meant by a SMT components?

Circuit Diagram:
Ex. No.:5

MEASUREMENTOF RIPPLE FACTORFORHALFWAVE

AND FULLWAVERECTIFIER

Aim:
Tomeasure theripplefactorofahalf wave rectifierandfullwaverectifier.

Apparatus Required:
S.No Apparatus Range Type Qty
1 Diode 1N4007 2
2 Voltmeter (0-20)V MC 1
3 Voltmeter (0-20)V MI 1
4 Ammeter (0-100)mA MC 1
5 Rheostat 1000/2A 1
6 CathodeRayOscilloscope 1

CentreTappedStep-Down
78 ConnectingWires 1
Transformer

Theory:
(A)HalfwaveRectifier:

Inahalfwaverectifiercircuit,thediodeconductsonly duringonehalfcycleofthe inputAC

supply.While theotherhalfcyclediode getsreversebiased.Itwillnotconduct. Theuni-
directionalflowofcurrentthroughthediodeisobtained.

(B) FullWaveRectifier:

Inafullwaverectifiercircuit,twodiodesarepresent.Eachdiode conductsforone
halfcycleoftheinputvoltage.D1conducts forpositive halfcycleandD2conducts for
negativehalfcycle.Theoutputofarectifierisapulsating DC(i.e)ACaswellasDC
componentsarepresentattherectifieroutput. Thepresence ofanACcomponentismost undesirable
andthereforeitmustberemovedfromtherectifieroutput.Itisachievedby meansofafilter circuit.
Procedure:
1. Connectionsaregivenasperthecircuitdiagram.
2. VaryrheostatandnotedownVac andVdc.
3. Thisis repeatedforbothhalfandfullwaverectifier
4. Usingtheformulatheripplefactoriscalculated forall thecasesandcompared.

ModelGraph:
FormulaUsed:
 Inpracticalcase,wecanfilterDCcomponentbyusingcapacitor.Hence,Ripple
factorcanbecalculatedusingthisformula:

Ripple Factor =Vrms/Vdc

Tabulation:
Half waveRectifier

S.No Vac Vdc RippleFactor = Vac/Vdc

1
2
3
4
Average

Full waveRectifier
S.No Vac Vdc RippleFactor = Vac/Vdc

1
2
3
4
Average

Result:
Thusthehalfwaveandfullwaverectifierarestudiedandtheir ripplefactorhasbeenfound.
 Viva-voce

1. What is a rectifier?

2. What is self and mutual inductance?

3. What are applications of a rectifier?

4. What is the method to remove the DC component in a rectified output?

5. What is ripple factor?

6.What are the types of rectifiers?

7.What is meant by Form factor?

8.What is meant by ripple?

9.What is meant by Peak factor?

10.What is meant by RMS Value?

Ex. No.:1

*V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

Aim:

To study and verify the functionality of PN junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias and
to

1. Plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Diode.

2. Find cut-in voltage for P-N Junction diode.
3. Find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased conditions.

Apparatus Required:
S.No Apparatus Range Type Qty
1 Diode 1N4007 1
2 Voltmeter (0-20)V MC 1
3 Ammeter (0-100)mA MC 1
4 Resistor 1K 1
5 Dual DC Regulated Power 1
supply (0 - 30 V)

6
Bread board
ConnectingWires 1

Theory:

A PN junction diode is formed when a single crystal of semiconductor is doped with acceptors
impurities (Pentavalent) on one side and donor impurities (Trivalent) on the other side. It has two
terminals called electrodes, one each from P-region and N-region. Due to two electrodes it is
called (i.e., Di-electrode) Diode.

Biasing of PN junction Diode

Applying external D.C. voltage to any electronic device is called biasing. There is no current in
the unbiased PN junction at equilibrium.

Depending upon the polarity of the D.C. voltage externally applied to diode ,the biasing is
classified as Forward biasing and Reverse biasing.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig. (1) - Forward Bias Condition:

Fig. (2) - Reverse Bias Condition:

Forward bias operation

The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to anode (P-side) and ve terminal of the input supply is connected the cathode. Then
diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the
junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the holes from p-
side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current
from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current (injected minority
current due to holes crossing the junction and entering P- side of the diode). Assuming current
flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short- circuited
switch.

Reverse bias operation

If negative terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this
condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier
at the junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to move away from the
junction there by increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue
indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode.
This current is negligible; the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch.

Diode current equation

The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by the following equations:

I = current flowing in the diode, I0 = reverse saturation current

V = Voltage applied to the diode

VT = volt- equivalent of temperature = k T/q = T/ 11,600 = 26mV (@ room temp)

=1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)

It is observed that Ge diodes has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The reverse
saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.
 Fig: V- I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode under Forward & Reverse Bias Conditions

Calculations from Graph:

Cutin Voltage V

Static forward Resistance

Dynamic Forward Resistance

Static Reverse Resistance

Dynamic Reverse Resistance

Procedure:

Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1) using PN Junction diode.

2. Initially vary Regulated Power Supply (RPS) voltage Vs in steps of 0.1 V. Once the
current starts increasing vary Vs from 1V to 12V in steps of 1V and note down the
corresponding readings Vf and If.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2) using PN Junction diode.

2. Vary Vs in the Regulated Power Supply (RPS) gradually in steps of 1V from 0V to 12V
and note down the corresponding readings Vr and Ir.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.
4. To get the graph in reverse region (theoretically), remove voltmeter and with reference to
the supply voltage note down the reverse current readings in Ammeter because current
always selects low reactance path.(Diode have infinite resistance in reverse bias
ideally).To get the graph in reverse region (theoretically), replace voltmeter with nano
ammeter. Voltmeter has less load resistance when compared to diode. Current conducts
in low resistance path.
 Model Graph:

Tabulation:

Forward Bias Condition:

S.No. RPS Voltage Vs (volts) Forward Voltage across Forward Current through
the diode Vf (volts) the diode If (mA)

Reverse Bias Condition:

S.No. RPS Voltage Vs (volts) Reverse Voltage across Reverse Current through
the diode Vr (volts) the diode Ir (uA)
Result:

Thus the Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Diode are studied.

Viva-voce
1. What are trivalent and pentavalent impurities?

2. How PN junction diode acts as a switch?

3. What is diode current equation?

4. How many valence electrons are there in p type doping materials and in n type doping
material?

5. Give the Dynamic resistance expression.

6. What is meant by Fermi Dirac region?

7. What is meant by Doping?

8. What is meant by forward bias in a Transistor?

9.What is meant by depletion region?

10. If a transistor to act a amplifier it should operate in which region?

Ex. No.:2

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Aim:

1. To plot Volt-Ampere characteristics of Zener diode.

2. To find Zener break down voltage in reverse biased condition.

Apparatus Required:

S. No Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 Zener Diode IZ 6.2 1

2 Resistance 1k ohm 1

3 Regulated power supply (0 30V) 1

4 Ammeter MC (0-30)mA, (0-500)A 1

5 Voltmeter MC (0 1)V, (0 30)V 1

Bread board and

connecting wires
Theory:

An ideal P-N Junction diode does not conduct in reverse biased condition. A zener diode
conducts excellently even in reverse biased condition. These diodesoperate at a precise value
of voltage called break down voltage. A Zener diode when forward biased behaves like an
ordinary P-N junction diode.

A Zener diode when reverse biased can either undergo avalanche break down or Zener
break down.Avalanche break down:-If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly
doped,depletion region at the junction widens. Application of a very large electric field
at the junction may rupture covalent bonding between electrons. Such rupture leads to
the generation of a large number of charge carriers resulting in avalanche
multiplication.

Zener break down:-If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped,depletion region
at the junction reduces. Application of even a small voltage at the junction ruptures covalent
bonding and generates large number of charge carriers. Such sudden increase in the number
of charge carriers results in zener mechanism.
Circuit Diagram:

Forward Bias

Reverse Bias
Procedure:

Forward Biased Condition:

1. Connect the Zener diode in forward bias i.e; anode is connected to positive of the power
supply and cathode is connected to negative of the power supply as in circuit

2. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30)V and a series resistance of 1k.

3. For various values of forward voltage (Vf) note down the corresponding values of forward
current(If) .

Reverse Biased condition:

1. Connect the Zener diode in Reverse bias i.e; anode is connected to negative of the power
supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply as in circuit.

2. For various values of reverse voltage(Vr ) note down the corresponding values of reverse
current ( Ir ).
TABULAR COLUMN

Forward Bias:

S. No Vf (volts) If (mA)

Reverse Bias:

S. No Vr (volts) Ir (uA)
Model Graph:

Result:

Thus the Zener diode characteristics have been plotted.

1. Cut in voltage = V

2 Break down voltage = ------------ V

 Viva-voce

1. Can we use Zener diode for rectification purpose?

2. What happens when the Zener diodes are connected in series?
3. What type of biasing must be used when a Zener diode is used as a regulator?
4. Current in a 1W 10V Zener diode must be limited to a maximum of what value?
5. How will you differentiate the diodes whether it is Zener or avalanche when you are
given two diodes of rating 6.2 v and 24V?
6. What are the application of a Zener diode?
7. Why Zenerdiode always act in a reverse bias condition?
8. Draw the symbol of Zener diode
9. Difference between a PN junction diode and a Zener Diode