Copyright @ 1986 by
Printed in USA
This book not only reflects the recent work of the writers, but
also the assistance of others. Without their help the book would
not have been easy to prepare. It is impossible to list all of those
who contributed, but I would like to mention a few and express
roy gratitude to them. Assistance in the construction of many of
the projects was provided by Terry White (KL7IAK), Jeff Damm
(WA7MLH), and Deane Kidd (W7TYRl. I am grateful for dis-
cussions with members of TERAC (Tektronix Employee's Radio
Amateur Club, K7 AUO) and for the photography done by Denton
Bramwell. Special thanks goes to Mike Metcalf, W7UDM. He not.
only provided assistance and advice, but offered a number of his
designs for our use. Discussions with my professional colleagues
in the Communications Division at Tektronix have been helpful and
enlightening. Additional thanks go to Linley Gumm (K7HFD),
Fred Telewski (WA7TZY), and Larry Lockwood (W7JBY). Mention
should be made of the liberal policy at Tektronix which allowed me
to use its test equipment and computer facilities to generate data
which would not have been available otherwise.
Special recognition is given to my friend and co-author, Doug
DeMaw, W1 FB. His candid views of my circuits and his tolerance
of my forthright reviews of.his work have, hopefully, led to designs
which reflect sound engineering practice and easeof duplication.
Finally, I would like to express my deep appreciation for the
patience and assistance given by my wife, Shon, and our sons, Ron
and Roger. Not only did Shon devote several hundred hours of
typing time to the project, but she maintained an attitude of
understanding and encouragement toward the book. The boys
willingly gave up my time that could have been spent with them.
They even breadboarded a few of the circui ts described!
No book of this kind is possible without the good will and assistance
01 the many people who work in the electronics industry as pro-
fessional engineers and technicians. In our effort to make this publi-
cation useful and informative to the reader it was necessary to con-
sult with numerous key people in the serniconductor manufacturing
field. I would like to express my gratitude to the personnel at RCA,
Motorola and National Semiconductor Corp. who provided direct
consultation for some of my circuits, data sheets, booklets and
engineering samples of their various solid-state components.
Without the generosity of Bill Amidon of Amidon Assoc. the
circuits which contain ferrite and powdered-iron toroid cores would
not have been so numerous. International Crystal Mfg. Co. and
John Beanland (G3BVU) of Spectrum International, were responsible
for many of the components used in these circuits.
I wish to recognize the contributions of personal time and
materials received from several members of the ARR L hq. staff,
and finally I want to acknowledge the many hours without compen-
sation that were invested by co-author W7Z01 during tape.letter
and telephone exchanges of technical data. His intense motivation
to make this an outstanding contribution to the amateur's technical
library led to many debates between the authors, and subsequently,
a volume which will expand the technical knowledge of the reader.
8 Modulation Methods
Page 181
Appendix
Page 236
Bibliography
Page 251
Index
Page 254
Chapter 1
Semiconductors
and the Amateur
Em the start, amateur radio has been a cuits which are shown schematically, are, at least conceptually, straigh t-
pastime wherein those involved have but which do not relate directly to a forward. Frills have been incorporated
communicated with one another by given construction project, are proven only where they might serve specific
means of short waves, and at the offset ones, and will provide good perfor- needs in operating the equipment. In
via long-wave paths. During recent years mance. most cases the nonessential circuits can
much of the equipment built by ama- Our present world of solid-state de- be deleted without causing a degrada-
teurs has been for use at hf, vhf and vice technology has been a springboard tion in overall utility. Such features as
above. Homemade gear has been as- for experimenting amateurs in their side-tone monitors, break-in delay TR
sembled for two primary reasons - development of simple and complex switching, and VOX are among those
economics and the need for equipment circui ts for communications. The frills being discussed.
with specific features or qualities not vacuum tube moves gradually into the There is a tendency among some
found in commercially manufactured shadows as the semiconductor advances amateur experimenters to oversimplify
amateur equipment. A third and impor- in character and capability. Industrial their designs. That approach can lead to
tant stimulus has been the amateur's designers are using transistors and ICs in a piece of gear which does not function
quest for knowledge of how circuits nearly all applications where they per- as desired. The equipment might even
operate. Individual creative needs lure form as good as or better than tubes, be plagued with spurious output and
still others into the field of design, and in small-signal work transistors fill distortion. Designs are provided in this
where the pride of achievement comes that role handily. Furthermore, the book which are clean in operation, and
from the act of doing. Generally overall efficiency of a solid-state piece are generally more efficient than some
speaking, communication is for these of equipment versus that of a com- of the most simple circuit configura-
fellows a means to an end - not an parable unit employing vacuum tubes is tions; e.g., the one-transistor crystal.
end in itself. This volume is aimed at markedly greater. Reliability is still an. con trolled transmitter.
those amateurs who are not disposed to other part of the design rationale when Historically, amateurs have viewed
sitting in front of store-bought equip- using semiconductors. Last, but definite- the complexity of a piece of gear as
ment and simply communicating with ly not least, practical miniaturization being commensurate with the number
others who are similarly inspired. when semiconductors are used far sur- of active devices in the circuit. For
Emphasis is placed here on methods passes that which can be achieved with example, the five-tube receiver of the
which are curren tly popular in the tubes. Amateurs have long been aware middle 1950s was considered by some a
amateur community among experi- of the foregoing contrasts in active "simple design." Conversely, those 15-
menters and designers. It is beyond the devices, and have forged ahead with and 20.tube multiconversion "super-
scope and size of this book to offer a enthusiasm as they designed and built hets" were regarded as complex pieces
complete treatment of solid-state design transmitting and receiving equipment of station apparatus. Such a point of
principles for communications, but in for their own use. This volume is in- view is no longer appropriate, for nowa-
the broader sense the reader is referred tended as a guidepost for those ama- days, the number of active devices has
to many general texts which treat most teurs who have embraced the tech- little bearing on the cost or complexity
of the subjects covered here in some- nology of solid-state circuit design. It is of a particular design. Most modern
what greater depth. For the most part, hoped that this primer in circuit design transistors are relatively inexpensive, as
the topics treated in this publication are and application will serve as the basis is true of ICs and diodes. One can view
those which the authors have been for greater achievemen tby the reader, the addition of one or a few more
involved with for the past several years and that it will inspire further study and solid-state devices to a circuit with the
while working with semiconductors as experimentation for many. same casual outlook that is taken when
amateurs. All of the construction proj- adding a resistor or capacitor. Indeed, in
ects illustrated herein have been built, Simplicity Versus Complexity many instances the addition of active
tested and subjected to normal and In general, the writers have at- circuitry may allow the builder to leave
sometimes stringent on-the-air use. Cir- tempted to emphasize methods which out a collection of passive components,
Semiconductors and the Amateur 7
After the circuit is built in physical
form, there is seldom a significant dif- I
mA
i1
ference between the predicted and
actual performance. IDEAL
DIODE
10 The two procedures just discussed
are clearly extreme examples. Moreover,
in the real world of electronics the two
will merge. The more skilled amateur v
will engage in considerable analysis of
o J VOLTS his design before starting construction. Fig. 2 - Current flow in the "ideal" diode.
o .5 1 As a result, he will spend less time to
obtain proper circuit operation once the
last wire has been soldered in place. In
Fig. 1 - Current flow in a diode versusthe reality, a professional designer is likely physicist would examine a diode with
applied voltage.
to spend a great deal more time experi- bias provided from a battery and would
menting with his circuits than we may proceed with a fairly complicated anal-
thereby enhancing miniaturization, low- suspect, and in particular where rf cir- ysis in order to describe the diode
ering cost and contributing to improved cuits are concerned. Because of the operation. First, he would describe the
performance. Thus, counting the experimental aspects of such work, ama- electric fields resulting from the applied
number of transistors or ICs in a circuit teur radio often serves as an excellent voltage. Then he would proceed to
is not a recommended way of judging background for professional design ef- calculate the density of electrons and
the simplicity of a circuit. forts. holes within the semiconductor materi-
Another matter of concern to the In this book the authors attempt to al, the rate at which they are created
builder is being able to make the circuit approach solid-~tate design work from (from knowledge of the material tem-
perform correctly after it is built. Quite the middle ground. There are a number perature), how the charges move
often a circuit which contains only a of circuits which can be "lifted" di- through the material, and the rate at
small number of components will work rectly for use in amateur applications. which they combine with one another.
just as well as, or better than, a similar Regardless, an attempt is made to pro- Such calculations would give him a
circuit which uses many more parts, or vide straightforward mathematical pro- rudimentary knowledge of what is hap-
even some sophisticated integrated cir- cedures and circuit models, both of pening inside the diode.
cuits. There is irony in the fact that which should enable the amateur de- For the physicist or device engineer
some simpler circuits will require adjust- signer/experimenter to gain a better the preceding calculations (and many
ment by means of sophisticated labora- understanding of the work he is under- more) are significant. Were the circuit
tory equipment in order to effect taking. It is hoped that the fallout from designer to go through such an exercise
proper operation, while the seemingly his design work will assure improved in analysis each time he wished to use a
more complex version may function equipment performance. diode, he would be seriously en-
perfectly when power is first applied. cumbered. His only concern is with the
Casual observation should not be relied Basic Transistor Modeling behavior of the device when viewed
upon in the determination of circuit It is not appropriate now to include from its two external terminals.
complexi ty. a detailed discussion of the solid-state The current flowing in a diode is
physics which are the basis of transistor given by the well.known diode equa.
The Design Approach opera tion. The reader is referred to the tion
There are a number of techniques series by Stoffels which appeared in
which can be used by the amateur or QST, and which is available as a re-
professional designer when building a print.1 It will serve as an excellent
piece of equipment. For many amateurs introductory treatise on the topics that (Eq.1A)
the approach has been purely an empiri- will be highlighted in this book. In this
cal one. That is, the circuit must per- section we will discuss some simplified
form a specific function, so the amateur "models" that can be used in the where Is is the diode saturation current
tackles the assignment on an experi- analysis of many communications cir- in amperes, V is the bias voltage across
mental basis. He may peruse the avail- cuits. the diode, q is the fundamental elec-
able literature (application notes, data The term "model" may sound un- tronic charge, k is Boltzman's constant
sheets, magazine articles) until he spots familiar when used in a commentary and T is the temperature in degrees
a circuit similar to what he has in mind. about electronics, even though we are Kelvin. For room temperature (about
The circuit will be duplicated, except familiar with the expression in other 300 degrees K), the fraction kT 7 q has
for subtle changes in component values. ways. Certainly, as youngsters most of the value of 26 millivolts. A germanium
Then, measurements may be performed us have built scaled-down models of diode might have saturation currents in
to discover whether or not the circuit aircraft, ships or cars. We not only the neighborhood of 10-8 A while a
functions "as advertised." On the other ended up with an attractive replica of silicon diode would be typified by
hand, the professional engineer, if he is the item we were modeling, we learned values closer to 10-13 A. This equation
worldly wise in his field, will follow a something about the original after is plotted for a typical silicon diode in
totally different path. From the data which the model was patterned, and in Fig. 1.
sheets he will choose a device which particular about its structure. This information can be used di-
appears to be appropriate for a given Models are often used in the analysis rectly by the designer, and often it is.
application. He will then design a circuit of electronic circuits for the purpose of However, in many situations much less
around the component, say, a transistor. describing various components in terms refined information is sufficient for
He will utilize advanced analytical of simpler and more basic circuit com- design purposes.
methods, often based on the availability ponents. The junction diode serves as an Fig. 2 illustrates a simplified version
of a computer. In this manner he will excellent illustration of this method. A of the curve shown in Fig. 1. This shows
fully understand and establish the cir- how the diode has been replaced by an
cuit performance prior to building it. I Reprint available from ARRL for $1. "ideal" diode, the behavior of which
8 Chapter 1
junction) is forward biased while the
other (base-collector junction) is reverse
I biased. Under these conditions current c
will flow in the collector terminal! This
would not occur when using a pair of
----....IO~----J.6~-V
reverse-eonnected diodes.
Current flow in the collector is not
highly dependent upon the voltage
.~
supplied to the collector. It is, however,
quite dependent upon the cu"ent
flowing in the base-emitter diode. This
Fig. 3 - Current flow in a perfect diode with parameter is a relatively linear one - the
offset.
collector current is directly proportional Fig. 5 - Initial transistor model.
to the base current. The ratio of Je/Jb is
the beta of the transistor.
can be described easily. When the diode At operating frequencies below the ef.
is reverse biased, there is absolutely no Using the Information fective fT the current gain is often well
flow of current. However, when the By using the foregoing information, approximated by (j = fr 7 fop, where fr
diode is forward biased (a more positive we can construct a simple transistor is the gain-bandwidth product andfo is
potential applied to the p- than to the n- model (Fig. 5). A new element has been the chosen frequency of operation. For
material of the diode), the current introduced - the cu"ent generator. It is example, a 2N3904 would have an
which flows is determined totally by the shown in a circle with an arrow which effective beta of 10 at 30 MHz since its
circuit external to the diode. The so- indicates the direction of current flow. fr is 300 MHz.
called perfect diode is a model we can The battery we used with our simplified Fig. 6 shows a composite transistor
use to describe the conduct of real silicon-diode model has been included in model which is suitable for approximate
diodes in many circuits. The use of a the base leg of the transistor model, for analysis of circuits which employ bi-
model leads to simplified analysis. An- it is significant when describing transis- polar transistors at both low and high
other diode model is shown in Fig. 3, tor operation. A battery has been frequencies. This illustration is highly
where a battery has been connected in omitted in the collector circuit because simplified. Models used by modern cir.
series with a perfect diode. With a the collector-base diode is reverse biased cuit designers may contain a dozen or
forward bias of approximately 0.6 volt, in the typical application. Amplification more elements instead of the few depic-
current will begin to flow, still being is implicit in this model, as the current ted in this example. It is not surprising
limited by the ex ternal circuitry. Ger- generator in the collector represents not that sophisticated methods lead to
manium diodes start to conduct at a a constant current, but a dependent amazing accuracy in predicting actual
somewhat lower applied voltage, in the cu"ent where the pertinent inde- circuit behavior. What is spectacular is
region of 0.2 to 0.4 volt. pendent variable is the base current. the fact that for many routine kinds of
If two silicon diodes are connected The model illustrated in Fig. 5 is not circuits the simplified model of Fig. 6
back-to-back as shown in Fig. 4, a complete for many situations. If we will provide surprisingly accurate results
system behavior would prevail which backtrack momentarily to Fig. 1, where - often at very high frequencies.
could be analyzed using the model a real diode is depicted, it can be seen At low frequencies the beta of a
given. This arrangement provides a that the current does not increase in- 2N3904 is 100 typically. Hence, if this
three-terminal device which looks finitely as forward bias is applied. The transistor were biased for an emitter
strangely familiar. It resembles an npn current increase is sharp and pro- curren t of 10 mA, the base resistance,
bipolar transistor! Indeed, if an npn nounced with increasing voltage, but is Rb, would be 260 ohms.
transistor were examined by means of finite in nature. This characteristic can
be depicted in a transistor model by Biasing of Bipolar Transistors
an ohmmeter - connecting only two
transistor terminals to the meter at one inserting a resistance in series with the The simplified model of a transistor
time - it would appear to be nothing base. The magnitude of this resistance presented in Fig. 6 can be used as a tool
but a pair of back-to-back diodes. can be given approximately by in the analysis of circuits such as ampli-
A transistor, conversely, has a prop- fiers and switches. When a transistor is
erty which makes it quite different
from a pair of isolated diodes. The 26(j (Eq.lB)
characterization can be seen when one Je(de)
of the diodes within it (base-emitter
IDEAL
10 Chapter 1
may be regarded as being at ground , R2 (Eq.5) +Vee
potential. However, the dc voltage V = Vee X Rl + R2
certainly will not be at ground.
In Fig. 9B the dc part of the circuit
has been drawn, omitting the details and R' is the parallel equivalent of Rl (-0 OUTPUT
associated with the ac part of the and R2. This equivalen t circuit is shown
amplifier. Using classic circuit theory, it in Fig. 9C. INPUTo---}
may be shown that the voltage divider Presented in D of Fig. 9 is a sche-
consisting of Rl and R2 may be re- matic diagram which results when a
placed with a lower voltage v' in series simplified model of the transistor is
with a resistance R' where substituted in the amplifier circuit. Note
here that the model used is even simpler
than the one employed earlier, and that -Vee
+12V the resistance of the base-bias divider,
R', has been omitted. These changes will Fig. 10 - Dual supply biasing.
be justified in the following text.
Noting the equivalent circuit of Fig.
9D, it can be seen that the emitter
voltage is 0.6 lower than that of the 7000-series oscilloscope, voltages of
base, or in this case, 3.4 volts. The dc +50, +15, +5, -15 and -50 volts are
current flowing in the emitter is hence, available to the designer. The access to a
by Ohm's Law, 3.4 V 7 2000 ohms = large number of supplies greatly simpli-
1.7 rnA. We see from the model that the fies design problems, especially where
emitter current is the sum of the base critical dc biasing situations are con.
and collector currents. However, the cerned. Shown in Fig. 10 is the method
collector current = beta times the base for biasing the simple amplifier just
curren t, and beta is typically a fairly considered, when two supplies are avail-
high value. Thus, the emitter current is able. Since the base is virtually at dc
approxima tely equal to the collector ground potential, the emitter voltage is
RI current. Using this approximation, the -0.6 volt. The emitter and, hence, the
10k
collector current is also 1.7 rnA. It is collector current are given approximate-
significant to note that the value of beta ly by
was not even used in the calculation of
R2 the emitter and collector currents.
5000 If the beta of the transistor used in Vee - 0.6 (Eq.6)
= ----
the circuit of Fig. 9 was 100, the base Re
current would be 1.7 mA/IOO = 17 J.LA.
This current flow through R', the equiv.
(81 alent resistance of the Rl.R2 voltage The collector voltage is merely Ve = Vee
divider, would case a voltage drop of -ReIe.
+12V only .02 volt, causing the base voltage A special type of diode, which is
not to be 4 volts, but 3.98 volts. This is used frequently as a reference element
2000 close enough to 4 volts that the more in a voltage-regulator circuit, is the
detailed calculation is not necessary. Zener diode. This component is merely
Generally speaking, the current flowing a diode which is operated with a reverse
3333 bias that is allowed to increase until the
+4V
through the Rl.R2 voltage divider (0.8
rnA in the example) should be large in reverse-diode breakdown potential is
comparison with the expected base cur- reached. This voltage is usually quite
rent. As long as this constraint is main. stable with temperature, and is rela-
tained, the simplified analysis is justi- tively independent of the current
fied. flowing through the diode. Shown in
Throughout the text many circuits Fig. 11 is a simple model for a Zener
(el are presented, using this bias method, diode.
+12V many of them containing dc voltage Presented in Fig. 12 is a method for
measurements at various points. The biasing a transistor amplifier when using
reader who is unfamiliar with biasing a Zener diode. In the example, an 8-volt
calculations is encouraged to use these Zener diode is used, yielding Ie = 1 rnA,
examples as problems to test his under. and Ve = 6.6 volts. The approximate
Ve
standing of the foregoing concepts. design equations are given in the figure.
+4VO""""-- Typically, the amateur designer
biases his amplifiers with the thought
that only a single power supply will be
available - usually + 12 volts. This con.
straint is the result of the ultimate
10EAL
desire for using the gear in mobile or
+
portable applications where only one
power source is available. However, in
SI .=- v-v.
(0)
modern industrial circuits it is common
to find a number of power supplies
available in a given piece of equipmen 1.
Fig.9 - Typical bias arrangement for a well-
designed amplifier.
For example, in the typical Tektronix Fig. 11 - Zener diode model.
Rl
RA
3400
RA
Vee' ,L
Re
IN~
Vee R2
VR =
Rl + R2
V _ Vee R2
,
Vee - VR 0.6 Vee - Vee
Ie =
-
R - Rl + R2 Ie = RA
RA
Ve = VR + 0.6 -JeRe , ,
Vee = VR Vc = Vee - JeRe
Fig. 12 - Amplifier bias using the Zener Fig. 13 - Separate transistor acting as a bias Fig. 14 - An operational amplifier supplying
diode. source. the bias voltage.
Shown in Figs. 13 and 14 are two conditions, but for the behavior of the circuit redrawn to include the general
additional methods for biasing small- amplifier with applied signals. The model. If this circuit is investigated,
signal amplifiers. One scheme uses an- ability to do analysis at high frequencies with respect now to the application of
other transistor, in this case a pnp was implicit in the model because tran- small ac signals, considerable simplifica-
silicon device such as the 2N3906, while sistor beta was allowed to decrease lin- tion can be realized.
the other technique uses an inexpensive early with frequency, reaching unity at Capacitors Cl and C2 serve as dc
741 type of operational amplifier. The the fr of the transistor. The models blocking units. That is, the dc voltage
appropriate design equations are pre- used by the design engineer are much may be different between the two ter-
sented with the figures. more complicated, often containing up- minals of the capacitor. However, a
The last three biasing schemes may ward of .two dozen components, in- small ac signal presented to one end of
at first sight appear to be absurd, overly cluding many capacitive elements. The the capacitor will appear unattenuated
complicated and expensive. However, general procedures are, nonetheless, the at the other side of the capacitor.
they all have a significant advantage same, although the mathematics are Similarly, capacitors C3 and C4 are
which may not be apparent to the sufficiently complicated to require included merely to insure that the emit-
beginner. The asset is that the bias is computer-based analysis at times. ter of the transistor and the power-
quite stable and well regulated even Even though the models presented supply terminal are at ground as far as
though the emitter of the amplifier is at above are quite simple when compared ac signals are concerned.
ground potential. This can be of ex- with those used by industry, further If the interior of the transistor
treme significance when the transistor simplification can be realized if only model is investigated, a further re-
must be operated at ultra-high fre- small ac signals are considered in the duction can be realized. The 0.6-volt
quencies (e.g., 1296 MHz), or if the analysis. As an example, consider the battery in series with the base may be
amplifier is to be used as a relatively simple audio amplifier presented first in eliminated, since small changes in base
high-power output Class A amplifier at Fig. 9 and repeated in Fig. 15, with the poten tial will be transmitted through
rf. In both of these situations it can be
di fficult to obtain suitable-quality
bypass capacitors for the emitter which
+t2V +12V
would allow the simpler methods out-
lined in Fig. 9 to be used. Furthermore, T C3
INPUT R2 I Rb f I
transistor or a quarter for a 741 oper- : .. :Sibl
ational amplifier. As outlined in an
I I
earlier section, the true complexity of a I I
circuit is difficult to judge by casual I
L... IDEAL .JI
observation.
The Small-Signal Model
The simple models presented in the (A) (B)
;LC4
preceding sections have been general
purpose in that they can be used not
only for the analysis of the dc biasing Fig. 15 - The transistorized amplifier redrawn to include the transistor model.
12 Chapter 1
Ie power gain, in this case 15,400. This can
be expressed in dB with the expression
VOUT
Gp (dB) = 10 log Pout/Pin' or in this lOSS
VINPUT
case 41.9 dB.
The use of small-signal models is
quite universal in almost all areas of
circuit design, and the science has been
well developed by using advanced ma-
trix methods. This discipline is often
described under the name "two-port
network theory." Although the math-
ematics are complicated enough that
Rb = 26{3 such methods are not appropriate for a
Ie (rnA) book aimed at the radio amateur, they
are still exceedingly powerful, and do
Fig. 16 - Small-signal model of the audio not require the use of a computer Fig. 17 - Basic dc characteristics of the junc-
amplifier. tion FET.
except in some of the more specialized
cases. Some of the basic two-port net-
work concepts are presented in the
the battery. Similarly, the ideal diode in appendix, and have been used for many 17 is approximated in the graph with a
the base is no longer of practical value, of the more refined designs in this book. straight line. If it is desired to bias the
for the dc bias in the transistor will Even though the full utilization of FET to a drain current of 5 mA, a load
always keep this diode turned on as long modeling methods is probably beyond line is drawn from the origin to the
as the input signals are kept small with some amateurs, the limited models can 5-mA point on the FET characteristic
respect to the dc levels present. Shown still be of extreme utility. When a curve. The voltage at this point is -3.
in Fig. 16 is the small-signal equivalent circuit is first encountered, the builder The slope of this line is 3 V + 5 mA,
of the amplifier circuit of Fig. 15. should study the circuit and evaluate corresponding to a resistance of 600
Clearly, this circuit will be much easier the biasing conditions. After this is ohms. This is thus the value of resistor
to analyze than would be the case if the done, the equivalent small-signal circuit which would be chosen for the source
more complete model were used and all may be redrawn, either on a sheet of bias. While this method is approximate,
external components were retained. paper or mentally. Through this process it should suffice for most amateur ap-
Consider that an ac input voltage of surprisingly complex circuits may often plications.
l-m V rms is applied to the circuit of be analyzed with ease. Shown in Fig. 20 is a simple small-
Fig. 16. The input current will be Ein + signal model for a JFET. Like the
Rb. If the transistor has a beta at the Biasing and Modeling models used for the bipolar transistor,
opera ting frequency of 100 and is Field-Effect Transistors the basis which leads to a description of
biased for 2 mA of emitter current, the Although the workhorse of modern amplification is a dependent-current
input resistance of the transistor, Rb, communications technology is the bi- generator. However, where the bipolar
will be 1300 ohms. Hence, the current polar transis tor discussed in the pre- transistor had a current generator in the
flowing into the base will be .001 V + ceding sections, a device of increasing collector circuit which was dependent
1300 ohms = 0.77 J.LA. The current popularity is the field-effect transistor
flowing into the collector will be beta (FET). There are several methods which
times this value, or 77 microamps. If a are used to construct FETs, leading to
2000-ohm load resistor, RL, is used, the various schematic symbols and design +12V
voltage across the resistor will be -Ie X approaches. The popularity of the FET
RL = -(77 X 10-6 X 2 X 103) = with radio amateurs is, in large part, due
-0.154 V. The voltage gain is 154. to their similarity of behavior to the
The minus sign in the output is of more familiar vacuum tube. ~OUT
significance. This can be seen from a The basic dc characteristics of an
close examination of the model. A n-channel junction FET are outlined in IN <>--1
current flowing in,to the base of the Fig. 17. Probably the two most signifi-
transistor leads to a larger current cant dc parameters are Idss and Vp' The
flowing into the collector. This current current, Idss' is that which will How in
will flow through the load resistor in the the FET if the gate and source are tied
direction indicated by the arrow. With together and the drain is biased at a
one end of RL grounded, the current voltage higher than the magnitude of (A) FET AMP
flow in the indicated direction will Vp' The parameter Vp is called the
mean that the collector end of RL is pinch-off voltage and is the voltage
going to be negative. Since we are applied to the gate with respect to the
dealing with ac signals, this minus sign source, which will cause the drain cur-
indicates merely that the output voltage rent to go virtually to zero.
will be 180 degrees out of phase with Probably the easiest method for de-
the input voltage. signing the biasing of a JFET Uunction
Power delivered to a resistive load, FET) into the active region is to use a
R, is given as P = ~ + R, where the graphical technique to determine the
voltage is the rms value. Using this value of a suitable source resistor. The
equation, the input lower delivered to circuit is shown in Fig. 18, and a
the base is (.001) /1300 = 7.69 X suitable graph is shown in Fig. 19. In
10-10 watt. The output power is simi- the graph we have assumed that the (B) DC CIRCUIT
larly (0.154)2/2000 = 1.19 X 10-5 values for Idss and Vp are, respectively,
watt. The ratio of these powers is the lOrnA and -6 volts. The curve of Fig. Fig. 18 - FET biasing schematic.
14 Chapter 1
its terminal. However, there wiII be
current flowing in the feedback resistor
with a magnitude of (Vminus - Yout)/Rf.
+ These two currents must be equal since EOUT
"I
R;
the total current entering a point in a EIN
10k
circuit must be zero. This gives us the
REAL
equation
GROUND 20k
REAL REAL
GROUND GROUND
(E - V minus)
----- R =
Fig. 23 - Synthetic ground for an operational i Fig. 25 - Operational amplifier with feedback.
amplifier. (Eq.7)
p>"
source now used.
While the foregoing analysis may
appear to the amateur, who is uncom- RF
'I
.~
"
16 Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Ie basic element of any amateur oscillator. In the simplest kind of trans- perience in circuits built with discrete
radio station is the transmitter. In years mi tter, a crystal oscilla tor may serve as a components. For example, the series
past, the transmitter found in the usual complete circuit. More often, such oscil- inductance, Ls' may approach one.
"ham shack" was a large unit, often lators are used to drive additional ampli- henry, with a series capacitance of a few
mounted in a floor-to-ceiling rack cab- fiers to provide increased power output. femtofarads (10-15 farad). The parallel
inet. This "machine" was decorated In the more advanced amateur trans- capacitance, Cp, is typically around 6
with a large collection of knobs and mi tters, crystal oscillators are used in pF. While not shown in the figure, there
meters, all serving a necessary function. conjunction with mixers and VFOs in a are also loss elements in a more com-
Some of the more elegant units even superheterodyne circuit design. Ulti- plete equivalent circuit, which will give
had windows which were covered with ma tely, the most advanced designs will rise to a finite Q. The typical Q of a
glass or a wire mesh, which allowed the use a crystal-con trolled oscillator as the crystal which might be used in amateur
final amplifier tubes to be monitored reference for a frequency synthesizer. transmitters would be around 50,000.
visually. Too much color on the plates The crystals used in communications In some special crystals, Qs of over
indicated that perhaps the tubes were technology are usually made from 1,000,000 are achieved.
being pushed a little too hard. quartz, where the basis of operation is There are dozens of circuits which
Times have changed and the modern the piezoelectric effect. Materials which can be used to make oscilla tors with
homemade transmitter is often a small exhibit this effect have the character- quartz crystals. We will present a few of
unit, designed with a minimum number istic that when subjected to an electric them here.
of panel-mounted controls. If the field, a mechanical stress occurs within Shown in Fig. 3 is a circuit using a
builder acquires a flair for miniaturiza- the crystalline rna terial. The mechanical bip olar transis tor. Here, a transis tor is
tion, the QRP transmitter can be very displacement resulting from this stress is biased in the usual way, and is operated
small indeed. often in a direction different from that much like an LC tuned oscillator in the
In spite of the variations in size, and of the electric field. Depending upon common-base mode. However, the usual
the fact that most of the modern the nature of the crystalline material base-bypass capacitor is replaced with a
equipment built by the radio amateur is and the physical size and mounting, a crystal which operates as a series-tuned
solid state, there are many similarities. quartz crystal will exhibit mechanical circuit. With a 12-volt supply, this cir-
Shown in Fig. 1 are block diagrams for resonances in much the same way that cuit will deliver a typical power output
cw transmitters of varying degrees of the strings of a musical instrument have of 20 mW or so. The signal on the
complexity. These range from the mechanical resonances. The unusual collector is approximately 10- to 15-
simple crystal-controlled transmitters to characteristic of piezoelectric devices is volts pk-pk.
a frequency-synthesizer-based unit. All that not only can an electric field cause In this oscillator stray and transistor
of these examples could be realized with a stress which will excite an internal internal capacitances provide feedback
modern solid-state technology or the mechanical resonance, but the presence for oscillation. Proper feedback is main-
vacuum-tube methods of the past. In of mechanical stress will generate an tained by adjusting the external capaci-
this, as well as the following chapter, all electric field. The net result with a tor at the emitter of the transistor. This
of the systems ou tlined in the figures quartz crystal is that we end up with a capacitor should be one which will
will be discussed. An attempt is made to small device consisting of nothing more exhibit some 200 ohms of reactance at
expand those areas where minimum than a piece of quartz with two elec- the operating frequency (e.g., 100 pF at
information has been published pre- trical connections which, electrically, 7 MHz). The tuned-collector circuit is
viously. Many of the basics are reviewed behaves just like a tuned circuit. The resonan t at the operating frequency.
also. equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal is This circuit may be hesitant about
shown in Fig. 2. oscillating at the lower frequencies,
Crystal Oscillators The values associated with the equiv- especially at 160 and 80 meters. In
The workhorse of modern com. alen t Land C values are often much these cases, it is often possible to make
munica tions equipment is the crystal different than those we would ex- an excellent oscillator by adding a ca-
Basics of Transmitter Design 17
ANTENNA ANTENNA
c:::J c:::J
1 (A)
1
(B)
ANTENNA ANTENNA
c:::J
I (C)
ANTENNA ANTENNA
(E) (F)
pacitor between the base and the emit- multiples of the fundamental frequency. higher Q at its overtone frequencies
ter. Typically, a capacitive reactance Furthermore, the high Q of a crystal (in than at the fundamental.
(Xc) of 500 ohms is sufficient. comparison with that of a violin string) Shown in Fig. 4 is a simple crystal
One useful characteristic of this cir- allows the overtone oscillation to occur oscillator using a junction field-effect
cuit is that it will operate on the alone, without the presence of the transistor (JFET). This circuit will oper-
overtone modes of a crystal. An over- fundamen tal. ate on crystal overtones as well as at the
tone is merely an oscillation which uses An example of a third-overtone fundamental of the crystal, depending
a harmonic resonance of the crystal. crystal oscillator is the circuit of Fig. 3 upon the tuning of the output circuit.
That is, a violin string can be made to with all constants set for 21 MHz. The simplicity of this circuit makes it
oscillate at frequencies higher than the However, the crystal is a 7 -MHz funda- appealing, although the cost of a JFET
one typically associated with the length mental unit. The output of the overtone is usually higher than that of a good
and tension in the string. It is the oscilla tor will be at 21 MHz. Absolutely bip olar transistor.
existence of these harmonics, along with no output will be detected at 7 MHz! The JFET oscillator is converted
the fundamental, which adds character When crystals are purchased, they easily to a simple variable-crystal oscil-
to the sound, differentiating the violin will usually be fundamental-mode lator (VXO) by paralleling the crystal
from a simple audio oscillator. In a devices up to a frequency of around 20 with a 100-pF variable capacitor. The
similar manner, a crystal can be made to MHz. From 20 to 60 MHz, third- ability to "pull" the frequency of a
oscillate on higher overtones. Because of overtone units are typical. Some 5th-, crystal is, generally, limited to funda-
the mechanical boundary conditions 7th- and even 9th-overtone crystals are mental-mode oscillations in this circuit.
imposed upon the crystal, overtone used in communications equipment. In Using a 14-MHz fundamental-mode
oscillations will occur only at odd many cases a crystal will exhibit a crystal (International Crystal, type EX),
18 Chapter 2
,:T
a high-Q slug-tuned unit. Probably, the OSCILLATOR
LS
Cs Q of the coil is not as critical as is the MPF102
20 Chapter 2
CLASS A a following stage with an input resis- i12V
AMPLIFIER tance of 500 ohms. The net load on the
amplifier is now the parallel combina- 500 Q2
;+;Ot
tion of the two loads, or 250 ohms. tOk
e>;:+, 100
I
RF
IN
5,
100
500
:t-, 10.
Recall that a silicon transistor has an
~-v, input offset of about 0.7 volt. That is,
10k Q1 the base of a conducting transistor is 0.7
400 .01
rL volt above the emitter. Also, note that a
common (grounded) emitter amplifier is
an inverting amplifier. This means that
+t2V an increase in base voltage leads to a
decrease in collector voltage. With these
Fig. 8 - ClassA amplifier using emitter de- ideas in mind, let's analyze the circuit of
generation. Fig. 10. Fig. 10- Rf buffer using shunt feedback.
VIN
0---1 Ll ac signal on the collector of 1.7-volts
peak. The dc collector potential was 12
L2
115 volts. Hence, the instantaneous voltage
~
5000 ~ '"""'~
50-OHM LOAD
on the collector would vary from 10.3
to 13.7 volts at a 7-MHz rate. Note that
the collector potential exceeds the
+12-volt dc bias.
The emitter dc voltage was 3.3 volts.
As an approximation we will neglect the
fact that the emitter is not totally
+12V bypassed. The maximum signal voltage
we could expect to see on the collector
Fig. 13 - Output coupling from a ClassA amplifier using a toroidal transformer in the col- would be (12 - 3.3) = 8.7 volts peak.
lector ci rcuit. That would be the signal which would
cause the transistor to just go into
circuit with an external 5-kS1 resistor appears in parallel with the 29.7 -kS1 saturation on negative peaks. The posi-
the net parallel-equivalent resistance resistor which represents the core losses, tive voltage peak would be (12 + 8.7) or
across the coil would be 4.28 kS1. Hence resulting in a net load of about 1.7 kS1. 20.7 -volts peak. The pk-pk signal is just
the loaded Q would be 4.28 k 7 21rfL = With this load, the voltage gain of the twice 8.7 , or 17.4 volts.
21.6. The loaded Q is always less than circuit (collector voltage divided by base If our amplifier is to stay linear
the unloaded Q. voltage) is 17, a high but probably (barely) during this voltage excursion,
How do we treat this parallel com- stable value. Further, the loaded Q of the current must be fluctuating from
bination of an inductor, a capacitor and the resonator is QL = RL 7 21rfL = zero to twice the dc value of 6.6 mAo
a resistor when they appear in a circuit? 1,700 7 198 = 8.5, where RL is the net Now we ask what the proper load
In general, it would be necessary to load resistance. The loaded bandwidth resistance would be to obtain these
consider the parallel combination of all will then be about 800 kHz. swings in voltage and current simulta-
of the impedances in order to arrive at a Assume now that the amplifier is neously. This is given again by Ohm's
suitable equivalent impedance for use in excited by a OJ-volt peak signal at the Law, as RL = (8.7-V peak) 7 (6.6-mA
an analysis. However, at resonance the input. The ac signal at the collector will peak) = 1.32 kS1. If we increased our
case is simplified considerably, for the be 1.7 volt, peak. The rf collector link from 5 to 6 turns, the load pre-
parallel capacitor and the inductor have current is just 1.7 V 71.7 kS1, or 1 mAo sen ted to the collector would be 1.25
the effect of canceling each other, in Since this is well below the dc current kS1, a close approximation. With this
terms of reactance leaving the parallel standing in the stage, the linearity load the maximum power output will be
resistor as our equivalent impedance. should be excellen t. given as P R = (6.6 X 10-3)2 X 1.250
Indeed, this is the definition of reso- Since the turns ratio on the tuned kS1 = 54-mW peak, or 27-mW rms.
nance. transformer is 6: 1, the voltage across In this example we will not, in
We are now in a position to return to the 50-ohm load resistor is just 1/6 the practice, be able to obtain quite this
the original amplifier of Fig. 11 and ~p. collector voltage, or 283-mV peak. much output. This is because on
calculate its gain. At resonance, the If this amplifier were driven from a negative-going output peaks, when the
tuned circuit appears to be a 29.7 -kS1 low-impedance source, the net voltage transistor approaches saturation, the
resistor. The voltage gain of the circuit gain would be only 2.8, and we would emitter voltage will rise above the
is 29,700 7100,or 297. This gain is not consider this to be much of an 3.3-volt dc level. On the other hand, if
extremely high. In fact, it is so high that amplifier. However, the buffering is this amplifier were slightly overdriven,
the chances of instability are very good. quite good since the input resistance the dc collector curren t would rise
Ignoring this potential problem, we note was 2 kS1 (see previous section). If the above the 6.6-mA bias level and some
that this high gain is obtained while input to this amplifier were impedance additional power output could be ob-
keeping 12 volts of bias on the col- matched, the gain would be a little over tained. This nonlinear mode of oper-
lector, and several mA of current 25 dB - a very respectable value. ation is often used in cw applications.
flowing. This could not be realized In most linear applications it is
without a tuned circuit. Power Output desirable to maintain Class A operating
In order to extract some energy It is interesting to calculate the conditions where the stage current does
from the output of the amplifier, as- maximum power output which can be not fluctuate with drive level. While ssb
sume that a 5-turn link is wound over
the toroidal inductor (see Fig. 13). An
asset of toroids is that almost unity AMPLIFIER
01
r--- 3- POLE FILTER
"I
coupling is provided between various
UUllg'"'
windings on the core. It was this unit VIN <>--l
coupling that led to the simple N
inductance formula described earlier. ~
Another feature is that impedances
terminating one winding are trans-
formed to the other winding according
to the square of the ratio of the turns.
Hence, if a 50-ohm resistor is placed
across the 5-tum link, this has the same
effect as a parallel load resistor across +Vcc
the tuned circuit where: RL = (3075)2
X 50 = 1800 ohms. This external load Fig. 14 - Buffer amplifier with a three-pole output filter.
JJ KEY
Since most 40-meter crystals will oscil-
late readily on their third overtone, the
7-MHz crystals also operate well in the
IS-meter transmitter. When FT.243
Fig. 17 - Schematic diagram of the universal QRP transmitter .. Resistors are 1/2-watt cvmpo-
crystals were used, the 2I-MHz output
sition. C1 is a trimmer capacitor. C3 and C4 are silver-mica capacitors. Remaining capacitors was excellent, as was the keying.
are disk ceramic, SOvolts or greater. See text for Q1, Q2 types. Component values not on <he The reader will note that only one
diagram are listed in Table 1. design is presented for both the 10- and
the IS-meter bands. The circuit func-
twice the dc current expected. mitter are shown in Fig. 17. Only a few tions well on both of the bands by
The efficiencies of Class C amplifiers of the component values are specified merely retuning Cl, the capacitor which
in the 1- to 2-watt category vary con. on the schematic. The rest vary from resonates the crystal oscillator.
siderably, but are usually around 60 band to band and are summarized in A minor problem was observed with
percen t. Efficiencies of over 75 perc en t Table 1. the lO-meter design. It was found that
are not uncommon. If the efficiency is The transmitter is near the ultimate there was a slight chirp when the oscil-
under 50 percent, a better output tran. in simplicity, consisting of a crystal- lator was keyed. This was eliminated by
sistor might be in order. controlled oscillator driving a single- rebiasing the stage for reduced output,
stage power amplifier. The crystal oscil- but the drive to the final was then
A Universal QRP Transmitter lator is keyed in all versions but the inadequate. Best 10-meter operation of
The ideas outlined previously can be lO-meter one. In the output stage a pi this rig resulted from keying only the
applied to the design of a simple two- network is used to match the 50-ohm final, as shown in Fig. 18. Here, a pnp
stage transmitter for the hf or 160- antenna to the collector of the ampli- transistor is used as a switch, allowing
meter bands. Although the seasoned fier. In this case the word "match" is a the key to remain at ground potential.
QRP operator may scoff at a non-VFO bit of a misnomer, for the network An even better solution would be to
transmitter, the use of crystal control shown presents no impedance trans- modify the design with a keyed Class A
can lead to simplicity as well as an formation. When the output is termin- buffer between the oscillator and the
uncompromisingly clean signal. The de- ated in 50 ohms, a load resistance of 50 output amplifier. This approach was
sign lends itself well to the later ad- ohms is presented to the collector of the taken in a 6.meter transmitter described
dition of a VFO. final. However, the network acts as a at the end of this chapter.
The essential details of the trans- low-pass filter to attenuate harmonics. The number of transistors which can
Table 1
Cl C2 C3 C4 C5 L1 L2 L3 Rl RFC
160 M 400 pF 1800 pF 1800 pF 1800 pF 360 pF 73t 8t 30t 1811 SOJ.LH
MAX No. 28 No. 26
T-SG-2 T-SG-2
80M 400 pF 100 pF 7S0 pF 750 pF 200 pF 43t 5t 21t 3911 25J.LH
MAX No. 26 No. 22
T-50-2 T-50-2
26 Chapter 2
are connected. Some means of moni-
+l2V
2N4036
toring the transmitter output is needed.
+12V
Such a QRP power meter is described in
,L ,+:,05 ~KEY
a later chapter, although a suitable
substitute would be a 51-ohm, I-watt
OSCILLATOR
resistor as the output termination with a
~OUTPUT
VTVM/rf-probe combination for
measuring output. Ideally the power
,L ,L supply should be current limited to
around 0.25 A. With the power on and
the key closed, the oscillator tank is
tuned for maximum power output. The
keying is monitored in the station re-
ceiver, just to be sure it's clean. That's
it! Debugging, should problems occur, is
covered in the next section.
Fig. 20 shows a photograph of the
160-meter board. Shown also is a box
which contains the 20-meter version.
The packaged unit contains a slide
Fig. 18 - Modification of the keying circuit for the 28-MHz version of the QRP transmitter.
switch which transfers the antenna and
the 12-volt supply to the final stage
during transmit intervals. The rear of
be used in this design is nearly endless the power output was the same. The the box contains a pair of bnc coax
and is growing daily. In test units built, output transistor could not be destroy- connectors for the antenna and receiver
the oscillator was either a 2N2222A or a ed under the worst mismatch that could as well as banana jacks for the dc power
2N3904. These devices are inexpensive be found. Additionally, the higher input. Dc voltage is always applied to
and readily available. Other good candi- power dissipation and breakdown volt- the crystal oscillator. This allows the
dates would be the 2N4124, 2N3641, age ratings of the '3553 allow the operating frequency to be spotted by
2N3563, 2N3866, 2N3692 or 2N706, transmitter to be operated at up to 28 merely hitting the key.
to mention only a few. volts, a level at which several watts of The 20-meter version was used for a
In all of the units built, the final output power can be obtained. In this couple of months of casual operation in
amplifier was a Motorola 2N5859. This case, careful heat sinking is required. the spring of 1974 by W7IYW. Al-
is a TO.5 device similar to the RCA While this transistor is specified as a vhf though only one crystal was available,
2N5189. The differences between the power device, the cost is only $2.3 0 in contacts were made with KH6, UA0, JA,
two are minimal. The 2N5859 is per- single lots. ZL, VK, KX6 and G as well as with a
haps a bit "hotter," with the 2N5189 Shown in Fig. 19 is a printed-circuit few stateside amateurs. The 3-element
being slightly more rugged. A small layout for the universal transmitter. Yagi antenna (at 80 feet) and an excel-
smokestack type of heat sink was used This board is single sided and is only 2 lent location helped. Similar results can
on the output transistor in all units. X 3 inches. The builder may want to be expected with a dipole or ground
When 2N5859s were used, they ap- make the board slightly larger if it is to plane vertical in a typical location,
peared to operate reliably when the be used on 160 or 80 meters, where the although the contacts will not come as
transmitter was terminated properly in a components are bigger. Likewise, the easily, and the reports are sure to be
50-ohm antenna with a VSWR of under lO-meter version could be reduced in down by a couple of S units.
2: 1. However, the potentially destruc- size, if desired.
tive testing procedure to be described in Tuning of this family of transmitters Construction Methods, Testing
the following section showed that the is straightforward. After the unit is built Techniques and "Bandaids"
transistors would not survive a severe and carefully inspected to ensure that In the earlier sections of this chap-
mismatch. A Motorola 2N3553 was the parts are in the proper slots, a ter, the discussion has been rather basic
substituted in several of the units and dummy load, power supply and crystal with emphasis on the fundamentals.
One design example was presented in
the preceding section, but not very
much has been said about construction
and debugging of solid-state circuits.
There are a few rules which make a
profound difference in the performance
obtained.
Once a design has been transferred
to a hardware form, it still may not
function exactly as originally envisioned
by the designer. Indeed, it is only in rare
cases that debugging of some sort is not
required. Some problems will be covered
in this section. The reader is refer-
enced to a QST paper on this subject
which is especially good.2
As one reads the various amateur
publications, he soon realizes that
RFtl~_
~ ~
r+,
I REt.
~
PNP ;LCM .01
S.M.' SILVER MICA SWITCH 82
04
~
'or
2N3906
EXCEPT AS INDICATED. DECIMAL
rr;:
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE Jl 0+
1000
IN MICROFARADS(jlF I ; OTHERS 12V
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR jljlF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
KEY ~-
REt.
k 01000. M'l 000 000 <+12V
Fig. 22 - Schematic diagram of the 6-meter CRP transmitter. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition. Capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise
noted.
Cl, C2 - 30-pF trimmer capacitor. L2 - 1 turn same wire over L 1 winding. RFCl - 15-,uH choke.
Jl - Two-circuit phone jack. L3 - 9 turns No. 28 enam. wire on T -37-6 RFC2 - Two Amidon miniature ferrite beads
J2,13 - Phono jack or 50-239 fitting. toroid core. on wire lead.
J4 - Insulated jack for 12-volt input. L4 - 2 turns same wire over L3 winding. Yl - 50-MHz, third-overtone crystal (Inter-
L1 - 10 turns No. 28 enam. wire on Amidon L5 - 6 turns No. 22 enam. wire on T-50-6 national Crystal Mfg. Co. type EX or
T-37-6 toroid core. toroid core. equiv.l.
test setup outlined. The game is quite 6-meter design. The crystal oscillator is The current is 15 to 20 rnA, and the rf
simple: Grab the controls on the Trans- a third-overtone circuit of the kind output from the buffer is about 50 mW.
match and twist them to grossly im- outlined earlier. The emitter resistor was The final amplifier is a Class C
proper settings. That is, settings which increased from the usual 220 to 1000 2N3925. This device is specified for
would yield very high VSWR at the ohms in order to reduce the crystal 12-volt operation as an rf power ampli-
input to the Transmatch. If the output current and improve the stability. The fier in the 175.MHz region, and is
transistor survives this rather violent and crystal oscillator is not keyed. capable of several watts of output. In
potentially destructive test, the project Oscillator output is taken from a this design, the power output was held
is pretty well finished. It is then safe to one-turn link and is applied to a keyed down to a bit over 1 watt in order .to
use the transmitter in a fairly casual Class A buffer. This stage operates with permit battery operation. The design of
way, even with in -line type VSWR fairly high gain due to the grounded this stage was performed using the
bridges for antenna adjustments. If the emitter. Bias stability is achieved guidelines offered earlier, with the ex-
output stage does not survive, the blown through the negative feedback at dc ception that some additional decoupling
transistor is replaced. The transmitter is realized with the biasing scheme shown. was included in the form of a pair of
still quite usable, but should be used
only with something close to a proper
termination. Furthermore, the rig
should be used only with Transmatches
which are tuned with an absorptive
bridge.
A 6-Meter QRP CW Transmitter
When the universal QRP rigs de-
scribed earlier were built, it was in-
tended to include a 6-meter version
along with the other designs. However,
when construction was started, several
problems occurred. The most severe one
was that the 50-MHz crystal oscillator
could not supply sufficient output to
drive the final stage when it was biased
to yield good stability. The next at-
tempt was to try to combine two of the
single-sided boards used for the rest of
the "universal" rigs. This also caused
problems - the grounding was not good
enough. Finally, it was decided to build
a separate rig for 6 meters, apart from Fig. 23 - Photograph of the vhf cw transmitter. The circuit board at the upper right con-
the designs for the lower bands, using tains the l-watt 50-MHz transmitter of Fig. 22. The crystal oscillator is at the right end of the
double-sided board. The result is shewn board and the output circuit is at the left. The stud-mount transistor is bolted to a small
piece of circuit board, the latter of which is soldered to the main board. The remaining three
in Figs. 22 and 23. pc boards form a similar design for the 2-meter band. The wafer switch accommodates T-R
A three-stage circuit is used for the switching and band changing.
30 Chapter 2
ferrite beads on the collector supply The design is similar to that described several contacts over 1000 miles away.
line. A 2N3553 would probably serve for 50 MHz. They can be seen in the The reports were always compli-
nicely as a substitute for the output photograph of Fig. 23. An alternative mentary. A frequent comment was that
transistor used. approach to packaging would be to the rig provided "The cleanest cw signal
The transmitter was enclosed in a include a simple crystal-controlled re- ever heard on 6." Perhaps this is not as
small aluminum chassis box along with a ceiving converter in the box with the much a testimonial for this transmitter
switch for transmit-receive switching. transmitter. as it is a commentary on the poor-
Also included in the box is a crystal- Using only a 2-element Vagi ane quality cw signals often found on 6
controlled transmitter for 144 MHz. tenna, this transmitter has yielded meters!
EmPhasis in this chapter will be on circuits have names like Colpitts, Clapp, concerned ourselves mainly with the
the more elaborate and practical con- Seiler, Vackar and Hartley. Many of Ion g-term stability matter the
siderations of transmitter design. We these designs are given in standard refer- "wanderies." The problems of short-
will treat VFOs, frequency multi- ence books. term stability, phase noise, and the
plication and mixing - all means of VFO performance requirements are "wobblies," as well as a-m types of
adding frequency coverage to a trans- varied and many, and depend upon the noise, are covered in the receiver chap-
mitter, beyond that which is reasonable intended application. For use in a ters.
for the crystal-controlled rigs in the typical transmitter the major need is Fig. 1 shows the block diagram of an
previous chapter. that the oscillator have good long-term oscillator. The basic components are a
Several design examples are given. stability. By long term we mean that the resonator (tuned circuit), an imped-
They are intended to illustrate the oscillator should have a constant average ance-matching network, an amplifier
methods outlined in the text and are frequency for periods of a second and and a second impedance-matching net-
also suitable for duplication. Additional longer. For critical receiver applications, work. The two matching networks may
examples are given in later chapters. and for most transmitters, the oscillator include phase-reversing properties, de-
should have good short-term stability pending on the nature of the amplifier.
Building and Using VFOs and low noise. In this chapter we have Typically, these networks are merely
In chapter 2 emphasis was placed on
the use of crystal-controlled oscillators.
The approach is ideal from a cost and
ci rcuit-simpIicity outlook. However,
-
there are occasions in operating where a
VFO provides a necessary flexibility Zs
which is not possible with VXOs and
simple crystal oscillators. A VFO per-
mits greater effectiveness during low-
power work, especially if crowded band
conditions prevail. However, inclusion
of a VFO compromises miniaturization
and battery drain. Also, frequency sta-
RESONATOR (A)
bility is more difficult to realize when a
VFO is used in preference to a crystal
oscillator - notably when the equip-
ment is designed for field use where the
temperature environment may change
markedly. It is of paramount impor-
tance, therefore, to design for the best
stability possible with ordinary circuits
and components.
VFO Design Philosophy
As the radio amateur reviews the
RESPONSE
ham magazines, he finds a large number (B)
of VFO designs. The more extensive the
search, the less rigid may be the con-
clusions reached. Some of the popular Fig. 1 - Block diagram of an LC oscillator.
32 Chapter 3
capacitors between the tuned circuit voltage-gain buffering may be used after degree the permeability of the core
and the amplifying bipolar transistor or the oscillator. In cases where additional material. Such changes will shift the
FET. The usual tuned circuit contains driving energy is required, a simple Class inductance and, hence, the frequency.
an inductor and capacitors, with the A low-level amplifier can be included. No matter what materials are used, the
impedance-matching capacitors often The solid-state VFO offers a distinct wireon the coil form should be cemented
being part of the resonator. Further- advantage over a tube type of VFO - securely to the form by means ofQdope
more, the parasitic capacitors of the reducing heating. The efficiency is or some other high-dielectric compound.
transistors are, to some extent, part of better, and 60-Hz fm is not as likely to The inductor should not be mounted
the resonator. The better oscillators are occur in a transistorized VFO, because near any component that radiates heat.
those which use high-quality com- there are no filaments to hea t. Finally, Toroidal inductors (magnetic core)
ponents throughout, such that changes miniaturization is greatly enhanced by are perhaps the most prone to changes
in temperature do not change the fre- employment of transistors as opposed in characteristics as the ambient tem-
quency of the resonator. The sources of to tubes in VFO circuits. perature shifts. They should be used
heat which can cause this drift include It is beyond practicality to describe only in VFOs that will be operated in a
not only the external environment, but all of the VFO circuits which can fairly constant temperature environ-
the heat created by the rf energy circu- provide good stability. Additional data ment. The most stable toroid core ma-
lating in the loss elements Qf the tuned not offered here can be obtained from terial is the SF kind (Amidon type 6).
circuit. The Radio Amateur's Handbook. We Slug-tuned inductors are a better choice
There are a number of methods for shall emphasize several circuits, all of than toroids. They should be chosen
matching into and out of the tuned which are easy to build and adjust. and operated so that the slug barely
circuit. The gentlemen who have studied Long-term stability is attainable by enters the coil winding at resonance.
the various methods now have their adhering to some simple guidelines. The farther into the winding the slug is
names attached to the configuration Rule No. I is to use only that amount placed, the more pronounced the un-
that they found most interesting. In of feedback necessary to assure quick wan ted temperature effects.
general, the configuration chosen by the oscillator starting and minimum pulling The variable capacitor in a VFO
builder is secondary to considerations of by external load changes. Rule NO.2 is should be mechanically stable, and
component quality and fundamental to bias the oscillator at a power level no should rotate smoothly with minimum
design. greater than that needed for a specific torque applied. A double-bearing type
The conditions for oscillation in a output amount - generally, 10 mW or of capacitor is recommended. Brass or
circuit of the type shown in Fig. I are less of output power. Th,~ higher the dc iron capacitor plates are less subject to
described by the Barkhausen criterion. input power to the oscillator, the temperature effects than are aluminum
These conditions are related to Fig. I B greater the internal heating. Therefore, plates. Air-dielectric trimmers are pre-
where the feedback loop is opened at the rf currents flowing in the fre- ferred over those with ceramic or mica
one point. Assume that the loop is quency-determining components (L and materials.
opened at the input to the amplifier and C units) will be more pronounced. The If a bipolar transistor is used as the
that a signal is applied to the input of higher the rf current flow, the greater active element in a VFO, it should have
the amplifier. The conditions for oscil- the internal heating of capacitors and an fr considerably higher than the VFO
lation (when the loop is closed later) magnetic core materials. This leads to operating frequency, say, a 2S0-MHzfr
are (I) The output signal after amplifi- unwanted changes in operating fre- for a 7-MHz VFO. This minimizes phase
cation and filtering should have an quency. So, in the present vernacular, shift in the transistor. Furthermore, the
amplitude which is greater than the keep it cool! small-signal beta should be 10 or greater
original signal and (2) the phase of this to minimize the amount of feedback
output signal should be exactly the Components needed for reliable oscillation. When an
same as that of the input signal. Tem pera ture -s tab Ie cap aci tors FET or MOSFET is used in a VFO, it
The first criterion specities the gain should always be used in a VFO except should also be a high-frequency device,
needed in the amplifier. It's just that where drift compensation is desired. and the transconductance should be
amount required to overcome the losses Among the best low-cost capacitors 2000 or higher. A 2N4416 or MPFI02
in the resonator. The second criterion available to amateurs are the dipped JFET is suitable for VFOs operating be-
defines the frequency of oscillation. The silver-mica and polystyrene varieties. low 30 MHz. An RCA 4067 3 or 3N200 is
oscillator operating frequency will be The latter, generally speaking, have a fine for VFOs which employ MOSFETs.
that at which the phase shift in the much tighter tolerance to changes in
resonator is proper to fulfill the require- temperature, and are highly recom- Other Considerations
ment. mended. Silver-mica capacitors are Lead lengths in a VFO should be as
These are general conditions. They rather unpredictable with regard to short as possible. Excessive lead lengths
have applied here to the design of temperature effects. Some may exhibit become unwanted "parasitic" induc-
VFOs. However, they may also be positive drift, while others from the tances. In circuits where very low values
applied to crystal oscillators, or to audio same manufactured batch may change of L are used, long connecting leads
oscillators which use RC networks. value in the opposite direction. Still become a ~ignificant part of the tuned
While we will not attempt such an others may be very stable in the pres- circuit and can degrade the Q. As a
analysis in this text, many of the guide- ence of changing temperature. This result, the VFO may not oscillate, or
lines which follow result from a careful phenomenon has not been noted when when the chassis is stressed the leads
application of this theory, along with using polystyrene capacitors in ARRL may move and cause shifts in the
empirical observations. lab experiments. NPO ceramic capacitors opera ting frequency. In some designs
are used in some VFO circuits, single or the circuit-board foils become part of
Design Guidelines in combination with micas or poly the tuned-circuit inductance, so the
Some of the more common VFO units, with good results. layout should be planned for short,
circuits, such as the Colpitts and Clapp The YFU inductor should be rigid direct connections.
varieties, can be made stable enough for and of relatively high Q. Whenever Double-sided pc boards are not re-
most amateur work, and the output possible, the coil should be without a commended in VFOs ... at least not
levels will be ample for ordinary applica- magnetic core (iron or ferrite), as tem- in the frequency-determining part of the
tions. This is true even though unity- perature changes will affect to some circuit. The pc board, if double-sided,
More Transmitter Topics 33
caused by voltage fluctuations, as they
may pull the oscillator. Three-terminal
SHIELD IC voltage regulators are also well suited
r--------, 01 100 .DOl
+ VOLTAGE (REG.I to this application. Some of the newer
I Co I units are no larger than a plastic transis-
I I ~ tor.
I CfbI Examples which show two of the
I Ll Cl C2 I 0..---0 OUTPUT oscillators under discussion are given in
Fig. 2. Approximations are given for the
I I reactances of Land C in significant
I ~I areas of the circuit. These are ball-park
L,+.; 1...1 values, and will enable the builder to
scale either circuit to a selected tuning
COLPITTS range in the hf or mf spectrum. At Fig.
XCfb "'" 45 ohms XCo "'" 750 ohms 2A, Cl can be the main tuning capac-
XCc3_c6(total) "'"200 ohms itor, with C2 serving as a padder for
XCc "'" 100 ohms (A)
calibrating the VFO to the dial readout.
The absolute values of Cl and C2 will
be dependent upon the size of coupling
lOOk CRl capacitor Cc and both Cfb capacitors. It
will be necessary to determine the
lN914
combined series capacitance value of Cc
SHIELD .001 and both Cfb units, then add that value
r-----------,
I I
100 ;:J:; + VOLTAGE
(REG.) to Cl and C2 to find the tuning range of
the oscillator. Ll is a fixed-value com-
I Cfb I
0..------40 OUTPUT
ponent in this case.
I I Generally speaking, the output
I capacitor, Co, should be as small in
I DCfbl value as possible, consistent with ade-
I I quate output voltage to excite the fol-
I C5 C6 lowing stage (buffer or amplifier). The
fixed-value capacitors just discussed
I : should be polystyrene types for best
L ;!., -l frequency stability, but selected silver
micas can be used if the builder is
SERIES-TUNED CLAPP willing to solder-and-try until some
stable ones are found.
XLI"'" 140 ohms Ql - 2N4l24, The circuit of Fig. 2B shows a Clapp
XL2 "'" 260 ohms MPS3563, etc. VFO which is a series-tuned form of the
XLR FC I "'" 4500 (8) Q2 - MPFl02, Colpitts. It has been proved quite stable
2N44l6, etc. when used from 1.8 to as high as 10
MHz. The advantage in using a series-
Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of two common VFO circuits. Reactance values are given for the
tuned gate tank is that greater in-
critical components. ductance is required than with the
parallel-tuned type of tank. This means
that stray inductances have less effect
upon circuit performance - an advan-
tage. At '7 MHz the circuit at A requires
approximately 3 ~H for Ll. Conversely,
the circuit at B will have an L2 value of
roughly 6 ~H at 7 MHz.
provides numerous unwanted capaci- performing at the chosen frequency. Capacitors C3 through C6, inclusive,
tances wherever the circuit foils are The amplifier following a VFO should are in parallel at the bottom of L2 in
formed. The dielectric material of the be operated into a constant load imped- Fig. 2B. The advantage in using several
pc board (phenolic or glass epoxy) is ance and the output examined by means capacitors instead of one or two is that
not especially stable with regard to of a high-frequency scope (if available). the rf current is divided among them,
changes in temperature and humidity, The waveform should be nearly a pure which lessens the internal heating of any
and drift can result from the double- sine wave. Random oscillations above one capacitor. This greatly enhances
sided board approach. Also, capacitors the VFO operating frequency will be stability. Similarly, the builder could
formed in that manner will be relatively superimposed on the fundamental wave- use paralleled capacitors for the Cfb
low in Q, and this can lead to poor form. The measures prescribed earlier units for the same reason.
oscillator performance. (ferrite beads, bypassing, addition of If the Barkhausen criteria for oscil-
Finally, the VFO should be con- low-value resistors) for correcting in- lation outlined earlier are examined, we
tained in an enclosure to isolate it from stability are applicable in VFOs as well. see that they predict the signal in an
stray rf which originates in other parts The operating voltage for a VFO oscillator will always be increasing. This
of a receiver or transmitter. This also should be regulated and well filtered. In is, of course, impossible. Something is
provides thermal isolation. Unwanted rf most amateur circuits a Zener-diode required in any oscillator to limit the
coupling can seriously affect VFO per- regulator will suffice. It is not uncom- amplitude of oscillation.
formance. It should be noted that VFOs mon to see regulation applied to the In the FET oscillator of Fig. 2B, the
can oscillate at some If, hf or vhf point VFO and its buffer stages. The practice output of the circuit is stabilized by
other than the desired one, while still is a good one to avoid load changes means of diode CRI. The diode rectifies
34 Chapter 3
the rf signal from the tuned circuit and
charges the capacitors to some de value.
This bias reduces the gain of the ampli-
fier until the output voltage is sta-
bilized. The oscillator would operate
without this diode. However, the POSITIVE
CONTROL
limiting bias would then be developed in VOLTAGE
the gate-source diode of the FET. This
not only tends to create harmonics in
the output, but loads the tuned circuit.
Further, since the source of the FET is
not tied to ground, the oscillator will
operate at higher amplitudes. The larger
1
circulating currents in the tuned circuit
will degrade stability. Fig.3 - VFO circuit showing varactor-diode tuning.
With both circuits of Fig. 2 it is wise
to apply the least amount of operating
voltage practical. That is, use no more +42V
1"
to shift the frequency slightly. When the
~r
2'9~Hrrloo
,r;'
'A"Et " 1'
~ II
' 1,'"
diode has no external bias applied at
point A, the small variable capacitor,
C2, will charge to a dc voltage such that
virtually no current flows in the capaci-
tor. However, when +12 volts are ap-
plied to point A, rf current will flow in
C2, making it part of the resonant
Fig. 5 - VFO Land C constants for various operating frequencies. circUIt. A decrease of up to 2 or 3 kHz
can be realized, depending upon the
setting of C2.
Shown in Fig. 7 is a simple Hartley
oscillator. This circuit is of significance
for two reasons. First, it is easily scaled
to just about any frequency in the hf
spectrum or lower. Second, it demon-
strates that component quality and
proper application of design funda-
mentals are more significant than a
detailed oscillator configuration.
This oscillator was first bread-
boarded using a large piece of Mini-
ductor coil stock and a 200-pF double.
bearing air capacitor, tuned to reso-
nance at 3.5 MHz. The small 1.10 pF
capacitor was adjusted for easy starting,
but was replaced later with a 5-pF
\.
....,. ceramic NPO unit. Even though the
oscillator was tested on the open work-
bench with no shielding, in a room
.. where the temperature was changing
"! \
rapidly, the maximum drift observed
over a two-hour period was 50 Hz. The
air capacitor was then replaced partially
Layout of the l60-meter transmitter with VFO. The top circuit board contains the entire with a fixed.value silver-mica unit, re-
transmitter. The VFO section is at the left. Seen at the bottom of the photograph is a sulting in degraded stability. A similar
crystal-controlled l60-meter converter with a 7-MHz i-f. Front panel controls are for VFO
tuning, VFO spotting, and T-R control. A receiver antenna trimmer is also on the front
degradation was observed when the air.
panel. The remaining circuitry is for a solid-state power amplifier and T-R relay. core inductor was replaced with one
wound on a T-68-2 toroid core. Good
stability was maintained, however, when
12V most of the capacitance was replaced
220
47
with paralleled 47-pF NPO ceramic
6.2V
~10
MPF102 1W
'A'
+12V
TO
OOWN SHIFT
INFREQ.
Fig. 6 - Schematic diagram of the 80-meter JFET VFO. Cl is the main-tuning capacitor, the
value of which is selected for the desired tuning range. C2 is adjusted for the desired offset Fig.7 - W7Z01 high-stability Hartley VFO
amount, and is an air-dielectric trimmer. Ll is a T-68-2 toroid core wound with 30 turns of
circuit.
No. 22 enamel wire.
36 Chapter 3
OSCILLATOR SOURCE FOLLOWER AMPLIFIER 1.9-1.9 MHz C19
R4 RH .001
+12V
(30mA)
VFO
1.8-1.9 MHz
[ffJ
C16
C19
.001 -:r- OUTPUT
C17
"QQM.
S.M.
R9
C6 270
.1
Fig. 8 - Schematic diagram of the 160-meter VFO. Capacitors of fixed value are disk ceramic unless otherwise indicated. Resistors are 1/2-
watt composition. Numbered components not appearing in parts list are numbered for pc-board layout purposes only. Rms voltages were
measured a VTVM and diode probe.
C1 - 35-pF air variable (Millen 28035MKBB jlH (Miller 43A475CBI, Qu = 180 at RFCl, RFC2 - Miniature 1-mH rf choke
or equivalent). 2.5 MHz). (Millen J301-1000or equiv.l.
C18, C19 - .001-jlF feedthrough capacitor. L2 - Slug-tuned, pc-board-mount inductor, RFC3 ~ Miniature 2.5-mH rf choke (Millen
CR1 - Small-signal high-speed silicon diode, 10 to 18.7jlH (Miller 23A155RPC or J302-2500 or equiv.).
1N914 or equivalent. equivalent), VR1 - 8.6- V, 1-W Zener diode.
L1 - Slug-tuned high-Q inductor, 25 to 58 Q1, Q2 - Motorola JFET.
units. The tap on the coil was 1/4 of the stability there are a number of poly- 50-ohm output impedance, and is a pi
way up from the grounded end. styrene capacitors employed in key network. Although the load seen by a
parts of the circuit, and a 1N914 diode typical transmitter VFO is on the order
A Practical High-Stability VFO is used as a gate clamp. of 500 to 1000 ohms, assuming a
The circuit of Fig. 8 is patterned Q2 presents a high-impedance load low-level Class A amplifier follows the
after the VFO used in a WI CER 10-watt to the oscillator, which minimized VFO assembly, the mismatch is inten-
cw transmitter for 160 meters which loading. It has a broadly resonant source tional. The low-impedance output at Q3
was described in QST for November of circuit from which energy is taken to is less likely to "recognize" load changes
1974. Stability is such that in this drive Q3, a Class A bipolar-transistor than would be the case if a 500. or
model the drift could not be measured amplifier. Regulated voltage is supplied 1000-ohm characteristic were chosen. In
wi th ordinary laboratory-style fre- to the oscillator, buffer and biasing fact, when placing a dead short across the
quency counters during tests in a rela- network of output stage Q3. The col- operating VFO (C19 to ground), maxi-
tively constant temperature environ- lector tank of Q3 is designed for a mum frequency shift was only 10 Hz.
ment (68 to 78 degrees F). From a cold
start (no dc applied) to an "on" condi-
tion exceeding two hours, the frequency
remained constant at plus or minus one
Hz. The operating voltage was keyed
while monitoring the cw signal from the
VFO, and a chirpless note characteristic
was observed. While the builder may not
be able to duplicate this stability, the
circuit should still yield much better
than typical performance.
With the Le constants shown the
YFO tunes linearly from 1.8 to 1.9
MHz. An imported vernier mechanism
with a O-to-IOO dial scale provided
I-kHz readout increments. Increased
frequency coverage can be had by em-
ploying a main-tuning capacitor which
has a greater maximum capacitance
amount.
A Clapp circuit is used to permit a
greater amount of inductance at L1
than would be possible with a parallel-
tuned gate tank. The advantages of this FOI LSI OE TO SCALE
were covered in the VFO philosophy
section of this chapter. To enhance Fig.9 - Scale layout of the VFO circuit board.
1.8MHz
.200
II[FE1 MAJ
TUNE
2200
S.M. 470
lOO
Fig. 10 - Schematic diagram of the 160.meter QRP transmitter. Capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise noted. C1 is an 80-pF air
variable (main tuning). L 1 is a T-68-2 toroid core with 45 turns of No. 26 enamel wire. L2 and L3 are Amidon T.50.2 toroid cores wound
with 23 turns of No. 26 emanel wire. RFC1 must be able to pass O.5A of dc current. T1 is an Amidon FT-37.61 ferrite toroid (lJ.i = 125)
with 25 primary turns of No. 26 enamel wire. The secondary contains 4 turns of No. 26 wire. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition.
r- - - - - - - - - -
I
OSCUATOR-
MP~~02
- BUFfER - - AMPLIFIER - - - --
--r---' .1 C41
I D
.OCHI
+12.~V
I 'T
I I
I I
I C~ I
.~ .0011
I ~P 1Q... 10 "T;v
I S.M. S.M. I pk-pk
I 470 I
I 6800
I
I 330
.01 I
I I
I C3 g~~~~.2S~T~~IL. I T~'G~~20F
L-------------1 ~CH _
_;+, ...J
Rl
2 (STBY OFFSETl
2200
Fig. 11 - VFO portion of the QRP transmitter. Parts values are given in Fig. 12.
The pi.network output tank is a 160.meter use, it can be used in com. Many of the regular operators on "top
simple low-pass filter which attenuates bination with a frequency.multiplier band" are accustomed to receiving weak
harmonic energy. The broadbanding re- stage for 3.5.MHz operation. Al- signals. Hence, they are able to dig into
sistor, R12, does not significantly de. ternative1y,. it can be modified for the noise for a contact.
grade the filtering action of the tuned higher operating frequencies by taking Shown in Fig. lOis the circuit for a
circuit. Measurements showed that the the reactances of the various compo. simple VFO-controlled rig for 160
second harmonic was down some 38 dB nents and calculating new Land C meters. The design is straightforward
from the fundamental output, and the values (see Fig. 2). The pc.board pattern and illustrates many of the circuits
third harmonic was down in excess of is suitable for other operating fre. discussed so far. The VFO is adapted
45 dB. quencies. from the one shown in Fig. 4. The VFO
The VFO is enclosed in an rf.tight is followed by a feedback amplifier with
box made of double.clad pc-board A I.Watt 160.Meter Transmitter a closed-loop gain of unity. This drives a
material. C18 and C19 are feed through with VFO Class A keyed buffer amplifier. This
capacitors which are installed on the There has been a rebirth of interest stage differs slightly from those dis-
box wall. Cl9 is part of the output in the 160'meter band. While the cussed earlier because a broadband, un-
capacitance of the pi network. A pc. number of QRP enthusiasts on 160 is tuned output transformer is used. This
board layou t is provided in Fig. 9. small, the band offers excitement and output transformer is much like a tuned
Although the VFO is designed for challenge to the low-power enthusiast. toroid, except that the unit is wound on
38 Chapter 3
TO C5 Of FIG.n
40 METER
L6
132 OHMS) .9}1H
(50 OHMS)
J1
I RCVR
RELAY DRIVER
~
4
TO Q4
.1 SIC
0;:
330
12k Ts:M. .llQ..
S.M. K1C
~ 12.5V
50"F
lN9I4
1N914
3
SIDETONE
010
2N2222 100
+
25V +12.5V
+ 15k
S2 TUNE SPOT
I-J 560
02
10k
100k J4
SIDE-
CAPACITANCEARE IN MICROfARADS I pf I ; LEVEL ~TONE
OTHERSARE IN PICOFARADS1 pF OR ppFI; I TO
S.M.'SILVER MICA ~RCVR
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; p. POLYSTYRENE ~
blOOD, I0Il.1000000.
Fig. 12 - Schematic diagram of the QRP transmitter. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise indicated. Capacitors with po-
larity marked are electrolytic. Fixed-value resistors are 1/2-W composition unless noted differently. S.M. means silver mica, P means poly-
styrene. Triangles containing numbers indicate circuit connections which are joined directly. Numbered components not listed in caption are
so identified for text reference only.
C1 - Small 78-pF air variable. IMiller No. total area of Amidon T-50-6toroid core R2 - lO00-ohm linear-taper control.
2109 dualijang miniature with only 78-pF (1.3I'H). RFC1-RFC4, incl. - Miniature rf choke
section connected was used here,) L4 - 21 turns No. 26 enam. wire to occupy (Millen J301 series or equivalent).
C3-C5, incl. - .00H.lF feedthrough type. total area of T-50-6 toroid core, tap at RFC5-RFC10, incl. - 40-I.IH low-O rf choke.
C6 - 100-pF mica compression trimmer. 6 turns from collector end. Five turns No. 26 enam. wire on Amidon
CR1 - Silicon switching diode, 1N914 or L5 - 12 turns No. 26 enam. wire to occupy jumbo ferrite bead.
equivalent. total area of T50-6 toroid core. S1 - Subminiature slide switch, S1A and S1B
J1.J4, incl. - Panel-mount coaxial jacks of L6 - 11 turns No. 20 enam. wire to occupy each spdt. S1C and S10 single dpdt unit.
builder's choice. total area of T -68-2 toroid core (0.9I.1H). (Radio Shack switches. See text.)
Kl - Two-pole, double-throw, 12-volt, low- L7 - 13 turns No. 20 enam. wire to occupy S2 - Spst miniature toggle switch (Radio
current relay. (24-V P&B KHP17D12 used total area of T-68-2 toroid core (1.2I.1H), Shack).
here, with spring tension reduced for fast L8 - 8 turns No .20 enam. wire to occupy S3 - Dpdt miniature toggle switch (Radio
pull-in at 12 V,) total area of T -68-6 toroid core (0.5 I.IH), Shack).
L1 - Slug-tuned coil with Qu of 80 or more, L9 - 10 turns No. 20 enam. wire to occupy T1 - Broadband 1:4 toroidal transformer.
6 I.IH nominal. (Miller 42A686CBI used total area of T -68-6 toroid core 10.55 I.IH). Ten bifilar-wound turns No. 24 enam. wire,
here.) L10 - 25 turns No. 26 enam. wire to occupy 8 twists per inch, to occupy entire area of
L2 - Pc-board-mount slug-tuned coil, 3.2 I.IH total area of T-50-6 toroid core (2.4I.1H). two Amidon FT-61-301 ferrite toroid
nominal. (Miller 23A476RPC used here.) Q1, Q2, Q8 - Motorola transistor. cores (stacked one atop the other).
J. W. Miller Co., P.O. Box 5825, Compton, Q3. Q4, Q9, Q1 0 - Surplus 2N2222 or equiv- Amidon Associates, 12033 Otsego St.,
CA 90224. alent. N. Hollywood, CA 91607.
L3 - .17turns No. 26 enam. wire to occupy 05, Q6, Q7 - RCA transistor.
a ferrite core. Most of the toroids used of 125. The reason that high per~ enough that self-resonances are avoided.
by builders of solid-state gear are of meability is desirable for a broadband Broadband performance is enhanced
powdered iron and have a relative per- design is that high inductance may be further by the fact that ferrites exhibit a
meability of around lO or less. The realized with a rela tively small number permeability which is a decreasing func-
ferrite core used here (available from of turns. With a small number of turns tion of frequency. The transformer is a
Amidon Associates) has a permeability the capacitance between turns is low conventional type in contrast to the
40 Chapter 3
pages have utilized oscillators which +20
opera te at the same frequency as the
output of the transmitter (Fig. 12 ex-
cepted). Certainly for the usual crystal- +10
Z RATIO 32:1 controlled rig, this presents no prob-
lems. However, for work in the amateur
'0:L bands above 7 MHz it is better practice
E
~
ri
0
duce transmitter output when driving used to obtain the data which follows,
external high-power amplifiers. Band the results are applicable to the amateur 0
changing is made possible by ganging experimenter with his limited
three miniature slide switches which are measurement capability. ..
E
CD
wall and opera ted by means of a strip of a frequency multiplier of the type ~
0
a.
pc board which is coupled to a knob on found in many published designs, Fig. ...
-20
:>
the front panel (push-pull action). 15. A garden-variety silicon transistor a.
...
:>
Photographs of the interior and exterior was biased for 7 rnA of dc collector 0
of the equipment are shown in Figs. 13 current with no rf drive. With high-value -30
and 14. With the VFO Le values given, rf-drive signals, the current may increase
the tuning range is 7 to 7.070 and 14 to to 15 or 20 rnA. The multiplier output -40
14.140 MHz. Increased range can be conlained a powdered-iron toroid, res-
obtained by making Cl larger in capac- onated at 20 MHz. The performance as INPUT POWER. d8m
i':;~
Z RATIO 32:1
erly, would lead to an acceptable lower curve from the position shewn.
53pF
II doubler.
Shown in Fig. 17 are the results
The balanced diode doubler shown is
not included merely as an example of
obtained when the stage was operated as the effect of balanced circuitry. Shewn
22pF a tripler. Performance is even worse in Fig. 20 are the output powers vs.
INPUTo-l than that of the doubler. The best available drive pewer for this circuit.
suppression of undesired outputs was 12 While the diode doubler has a loss 07 .5
dB. This circuit would provide mar. dB or more, the fundamental feed.
ginally acceptable performance only if a through is as much as 41 dB down!
double. tuned output tank were used. Note that there are no tuned circuits in
Fig. 18 - Circuit of an FET frequency mul- The next experiment is outlined in this multiplier. The performance ap-
tiplier. Fig. 18, where a JFET was evaluated. peared to be essentially the same over
The first FET tried is typical of those an output range of 1 to 50 MHz. The
used by the amateur, a 2N4416 with a input transformer consists of seven trio
the desired doubler output (N = 2) with pinch-off of about 5 volts. The results filar turns of No: 28 wire on a ferrite
the fundamental feed through (N = 1) were discouraging. At high drive levels, toroid, 0.375.inch OD, and a permeabil-
and with the third harmonic of the drive the maximum output obtained was only ity of 125. The diodes are silicon
frequency (N = 3). The input power is +4 dBm, with spurious output down switching types of the 1N914 or similar
not that actually delivered to the stage, only 12 dB when operated as a doubler. variety. If a smaller core and hot-carrier
but the power available from the genera- Surprisingly, the results as a trip1er were diodes are used, the circuit will perform
tor. There is a difference between the slightly better. With a drive of 10 volts well into the vhf range.
two. pk.pk the output was still +4 dBm and This simple diode doubler is used in
The results are quite revealing. We the worst spur, the feed through of the a direct-conversion transceiver described
see that the doubler (Fig. 16) can 6.7.MHz drive. was down 16 dB. later. Although a couple of tuned cir-
provide output powers of up to 50 mW The FET was changed to a 2N4302. cuits are used in later stages for im.
(+17 dBm) with a gain of 7 dB. How- This device has a relatively low trans- pedance matching, no attempt was
ever, the multiplier is not very clean. conductance and more significantly a made to achieve good selectivity in the
The best suppression of undesired com- pinch-off of only 1.5 volts. When transmitter. Still, the 80-meter com-
ponents in the output is only 16 dB. operated as a doubler the output power ponent in the output was measured at
This occurs at outputs below the max. was quite low, only +1 dBm. However, 52 dB below the desired 7.MHz signal.
imum obtainable, a less than desirable all spurs were over 18 dB below the The use of balance to remove un-
situation when sophisticated test equip- desired output. This occurred, again, for desired frequencies from the output of a
ment isnot available for evaluation. The a 10 volt pk-pk drive. The performance multiplier can be extended to stages
performance could be improved sub- as a tripler was extremely poor, al- with reasonable power output capa-
though the behavior as a X-4 and as a bility. Two examples are shown in
X-6 multiplier was reasonable. This Fig. 21. A push-push doubler is shown
1N914 high-order multiplication is not recom. at A. It uses a pair of 2N3904 tran.
mended unless high.quality test equip-
ment is available for evaluation and
+10
OUT alignment.
In view of the foregoing, it is no
surprise that some amateurs encounter o
problems in building and adjusting gear
for the higher hf bands. Furthermore,
-10
the problems are not limited to home-
made equipment! A prime area where
FERRITE BROADBAND TRANSFORMER
(A) problems arise is in a 2-meter fm rig for E
-20
42 Chapter 3
transistors with a single transistor
serving as a current source for the
differential pair. If the current source is
20-MHz
biased into saturation, the differential
~o"'" pair will serve well as a low-power
push-push doubler. This is depicted in
Fig.22.
In general, any of the balanced
multipliers outlined may be used. They
all offer performance which is signif.
icantly better than usually realized with
+12V
single-ended configurations. However,
there are problems encountered with
balanced multipliers which are some.
times difficult to diagnose without the
(Al aid of sophisticated instrumentation.
These are related to imperfections in
Z RATIO 9:9:1 balance.
s:o,,~
Improper balance will result from
two major causes. First is the problem
21-MHz of device similarity .. For example, the
100 push-push doubler of Fig. 21 will not
perform as desired if one of the tran-
sistors has twice the current gain of the
other. For this reason, it is best to use'
.01
7-MHz matched devices whenever these circuits
INPUT o---j are chosen. This is best realized through
the use of in te grated circuits such as the
10
CA3046 transistor array or the
100 CA3028A differential amplifier. Even if
+12V (8)
a perfect match is obtained between the
two devices in a balanced multiplier, less
than optimum suppression of the fun.
Fig. 21 - A push-push doubler is shown at A. The circuit at 8 is a push-pull tripler. damental drive frequency will result if
there is an asymmetry in the driving
sistors. For simplicity, only a bifilar ICs investigated include the Motorola waveform. For this reason, the pre-
winding is used as the inpu t trans- MC1496G, the RCA CA3046 and RCA ceding stage driving the multiplier
former. This is otherwise iden tical to CA3028A. should be a tuned amplifier, or should
the transformer used with the diodes. The MC1496 is a double-balanced be a fairly clean Class A amplifier. An
With 10 mW of drive at 10 MHz, the modulator which is quite useful for alternate might be the use of a low-pass
output is tuned to 20 MHz with a mixing applications. It is used as a filter such as the unit described at the
resonant circuit using a powdered.iron doubler by injecting the fundamental end of the next section.
toroid. The measured output power was drive signal to both input ports simul- It is not imperative that an IC be
50 mW. The spur components at 10,30 taneously. Although the drive level is a used in a push-push doubler, respective
and 40 MHz were, respectively, down little critical, 60 dB of fundamental to matched transistor characteristics.
50, 40 and 31 dB. The collector ef. attenuation was observed with a single. Fig. 23 illustrates how a pair of
ficiency was 42 percent. tuned output circuit. The MCl496 is 2N2222A transistors is connected in
Also shown is a push-pull tripler covered in more detail as a mixer in a push-push style and driven by a JFET
(Fig. 21 B). This is identical to the later section. source follower. Tl is tuned to 7 MHz,
doubler except that a balanced output The CA3046 is an array of five providing push-pull drive to the doubler
circuit is used,. tuned to 21 MHz. The transistors. Hence, four of the tran- transistors. Some forward bias is used
output power was 32 mW with 10 mW sistors may be used to form a pair of on the doubler bases to increase the
of drive. The spurs at 7, 14 and 28 MHz multipliers of the type described in Fig. stage gain, but when driven the
were suppressed by 30, 55 and 46 dB, 21. Other array-type ICs are worthy of 2N2222As operate in the Class C mode
respectively, and the efficiency was 26 experimentation. - essential to doubler action. R1 and
percent. The CA3028A is a general-purpose R2 are chosen in accordance with the
If proper methods are used, these IC consisting of a differential pair of driving voltage available. In this example
balanced multipliers may be used into
the lower uhf region. A small cw trans-
mitter was built with a 54.MHz crystal
oscillator and three cascaded push-push
doublers. All interstage networks are
single-tuned, and a low-Q double.tuned
filter is used on the output to yield 20
mW at 432 MHz with only one detect.
able spur, 55 dB down.
Several ICs lend themselves well to OUTPUT,
clean frequency multiplication. This is 21
44 Chapter 3
the output. (Often, in the generation of literature, the maximum current that
single sideband by the phasing method, ever need be switched is around 1 mAo
a pair of balanced modulators is used Hence, fairly small local oscillator in.
with a common output. This is not what jection voltages are required to achieve
is usually meant by "double balance.") proper switching action. Usually, signals
The internal workings of the MC1496 of the order of 100 to 300 mV (rms)
are shown at Fig. 26B. One signal is will be sufficient. In cw transmitters,
injected differentially on the bases of a the lower level signal can be as much as
pair of common-current sources. Since 100 mY. In linear applications, how-
emitter degeneration is used at this ever, the signal at pin 1 should be less
input, it is usually the best point for than this by 10 or 20 dB. Often, in
applying a low.level signal where it is linear applications, better distortion
desired to preserve lineari ty. For characteristics will be obtained by
Fig. 25 - Block diagram of a heterodyne fre- example, this would be the place to biasing the IC to larger currents. This is
quency generator. apply a low.level ssb signal if such a realized by decreasing the 10.kD resistor
transmitter were being built. that connects to pin S. The standing
The collectors of the two signal- current in the IC is essentially twice the
mixers in a transmitter lineup, there are carrying input stages are then routed curren t flowing in to pin, 5. The
problems which make the design less through four switching transistors. The Motorola data state that the chip should
than trivial. In many ways, the problems stronger local.oscillator signal is applied not run with more than 10 mAo
are akin to those encountered in our to the bases of these switching tran- Shown in Fig. 27 is the internal
study of frequency multipliers. The sistors. Using the component values circuitry (A) and a mixer application of
mixer and the circuits following it suggested in the Motorola applications the RCA CA3028A (B). Although
should be designed in such a way that
only the desired frequency is dominant
in the output. Generally, if we have two +12V +12V
input frequencies, f I and f 2, a mixer
output will contain components at Nfl
:!: Mf2 where Nand M are integer
numbers starting at zero!
Let's consider an example, one
which is typical because it is based on Z RATIO
3:3:1
510
the frequencies used in many 20-meter .01
en
receivers. Assume that we have a VFO HIGH-LEVEL0---7
SIGNAL IN
8
46 Chapter 3
+1 V
causing the diode capacitance to change.
The loop filter is essentially a low-pass
47
* lpF
BYPASS CAPACITORS,PARALLELED
. lpF 001pF
filter which tends to remove any ac
components from the output of the
* phase detector.
~. How is this system used to control.
2
12 frequency? The key to understanding
.01
0---1 11 PLL operation, at least on a rudi.
*
.~~
100mV 4
MAX. IN mentary basis, is to recall that fre-
250mV 5 MIXER
IN 0---) TL 442CN 10 quency is merely the rate of change of
.01 9 phase. That is, the phase of a signal
3 f;+,., ~'"' from a highly stable oscillator is a
(A)
:r: 6 constantly changing parameter. Once
during each cycle of oscillation the
phase returns to some "zero-degree"
TL 442CN
reference point. Recall that the phase
detector is a circuit which compares the
phase difference between two signals. If
the outputs of our two oscillators (the
13 3 reference and the yeO) are exactly at
the same frequency, there will be some
dc voltage at the detector output. This
dc level is pf0portional to the constant
LOW-LEVEL11 phase difference, whatever it may be,
IN between the two oscillators.
Assume now that the yeO starts to
drift a little with respect to the fre-
10 quency of the reference. Say, for ex-
ample, the yeO tends to move in
frequency by 1 Hz from that of the
600
I reference. If the two frequencies were
4 indeed different by 1 Hz, the phase
HIGH-LEVEL 5 difference would be continually
INPUT changing. That is, it would be a I.Hz ac
(250mV RMSl
1000 signal. However, in our PLL, this never
50
happens. As soon as the phase starts to
shift the resulting dc signal from the
phase detector is amplified (and fil-
1050 tered) in the loop filter and then applied
to the yeo. The change in the dc
control voltage on the varactor diode of
the yeO is just that required to bring
1100
215 the frequency of the yeO back to that
of the reference oscillator. The control
(8) 6 voltage may be different from that
present before the yeO started to drift,
Fig. 28-Circuit for a doubly balanced SN.76514 mixer, at A. The circuit at 8 shows the internal work. but the frequencies will be the same.
ings of the IC, courtesy of Texas Instruments. The SN-76514 mixer IC has been reidentified as The simple PLL shown in Fig. 32 has
TL.442.CN by Texas Instruments. It may be procured under either part number. one flaw which may not be apparent
immediately. It will, however, become
applied to a mixer with an output at 7 detector is a three-port circuit, much painfully clear when one attempts to
MHz. A low-pass filter at the output like a mixer. At two of the ports (the build such a unit. Assume, for example,
ensures that none of the higher-order inputs) two signals at the same fre- that the crystal reference is at 1 MHz
spurs are present. With an investment in quency are applied. At the third port, a
only 10 crystals, 25 discrete frequencies dc voltage appears. This voltage is pro-
iil the 40-meter band will be available. A
module of this sort would not be
portional to the phase difference be-
tween the two input signals. SN.
76514
3Tr
Y
expensive to build, for eB crystals could A simple PLL is shown (Fig. 32) in
be used in the 27 -MHz oscillator. block-diagram form. The system in- OUTPUT
Al though frequency synthesizers cludes the phase detector, a reference 13 BAN01
1]
lators are fairly common, they are not (YeO) and a loop filter. The phase-
as practical as might be desired. This is detector operation was defined above,
because a large number of crystals are and the reference oscillator could be, as
required if versatility is desired. The an example, a stable crystal.controlled OUTPUT
techniques used to avoid this deficiency oscillator. The veo is merely a VFO BAND 2
are usually based upon the phase-locked with the usual mechanically tuned ca-
loop (PLL). pacitor replaced with a varactor diode.
Fig. 29 - Illustration of an IC mixer with
There are a number of circuits which As the voltage on the varactor is output on two frequencies. Pins not indio
will serve as the critical element in a changed, the effective width of the cated on the SN.76514 are connected as
PLL (the phase detector). A phase depletion region of the diode changes, shown in Fig. 28.
48 Chapter 3
F1
+5V
F2
10k
01
02 02_'-----'-_-L_-L-_~_'__~_
F1> F2 F1 LEADS F2
F1
(B) (0)
IN
+5V
F4
F2
IN 02
F2> F1 F1 LAGS F2
(Al (C) (E)
Fig. 33 - Representative phase-frequency detector using an SN-7474 IC and 1/4 of an SN-7400 IC. See text for details of illustrations
B through E.
of value in some advanced systems. For mentioned long-term stability (the long-term variations in the frequency
example one could arrange the circuitry "wanderies") and short-term drift (the are not necessarily related. That is, one
and choose a proper phase detector such "wobblies"). Long-term drift is an in- may fight for long periods of time to
that the outputs from the two oscil- stability which usually has its origin in remove the wanderies from a VFO, only
lators were 90 degrees out of phase. The thermal effects. Short-term wobblies, on to find that he has designed a highly
two outputs could then be used for the other hand, originate from noise in stable noise source. Noise considerations
generation of ssb by the phasing the oscillator. Random variations in the are of major significance in the design of
method. output of the amplifying device used in any phase-locked loop. In many synthe-
A much more significant application an oscillator will cause minor variations sizers used by amateurs, a PLL has been
of a simple loop of this kind relates to in the phase (and hence, the frequency) used to achieve a degree of long-term
the noise characteristics of an oscillator. of an oscillator. The net result is that stability at vhf which surpasses that
When we think of an oscillator, we our oscillator seems to provide' a dis- found on even the lower hf bands, but
envision a device which has an output at crete frequency which is modulated by creates a signal which is excessively
one discrete frequency. Perhaps we ac- noise. In this case, the modulation noisy. Casual application of PLL tech-
knowledge the existence of a few har- appears as a variation in phase of the niques can be quite disastrous.
monics, but take a simplistic view of the oscillator. This pm or fm - the distinc- On the other hand, a PLL can be
typical oscillator. Usually, this is justi- tion between the two is essentially used to clean up residual phase noise in
fied. However, if one attempts to build nonexistent - causes sidebands next to an oscillator. The simple loop of Fig. 32
equipment which approaches the state the "carrier." These noise sidebands could be a good example. If the refer-
of the art (whatever that means), the may be the ultimate limitation in the ence oscillator were quite stable (long
noise characteristics of the oscillator design of a wide dynamic-range receiver, term) and noise free, essentially all of
must also be considered. as one significant example. this cleanliness could be impressed upon
In our earlier discussion of VFOs we Unfortunately, the short-term and the output of the veo which might
otherwise be much less than clean.
However, only those noise sidebands on
the veo which are separated from the
veo carrier by a frequency difference
less than the bandwidth of the loop
filter will be suppressed by the PLL.
F1 Q1
TO veo Let's now consider a somewhat more
F2 complicated synthesizer based upon the
PLL shown in Fig. 35. This unit is
typical of many units which have been
implemented for 2-meter fm use. We
Fig. 34 - Simplified schematic diagram of a loop filter for usewith a phase-frequency detector. have shifted our reference frequency
down to 1 kHz. This is easily done by
starting with a crystal-controlled oscil-
lator at 1 MHz, then applying the
resulting signal to a divide-by-lOOO cir.
cuit. Typically, this would consist of
three SN.7490 decade dividers. Sim-
larly, the output of the veo is applied
to a frequency divider. Let's assume for
OUTPUT
the moment that the veo operates in
the 6-MHz region and that the divider is
set up to divide by 6000. If the veo
were right at 6 MHz, we would have two
I-kHz signals being applied to our
phase-frequency detector. The phase-
proportional detector output would
now be filtered in the loop filter and
applied to the yeo. The veo would
move to the exact frequency required to
Fig. 35 - Block diagram of a divide-by-N synthesizer. achieve lock, where both inputs to the
More Transmitter Topics 49
phase detector have a stable, well- switches which would cause the divider It is worthwhile to consider the opera-
defined phase difference. to, for example, divide by 6132 instead tion of the detector in more detail. The
A system of this kind is made of 6000, causing the yeo to lock up at reference frequency in this case is 1 kHz.
"tunable" over a band of discrete fre- 6.132 MHz. By changing the division As a result, once every millisecond the
quencies by replacing the yeO-driven ratio we pick the desired output fre- digital phase detector is pulsed by the
frequency divider with one which is quency. In some kinds of synthesizers reference. The phase detector serves the
programmable. That is, from the front the divider in the reference-frequency function of telling us whether the similar
panel of our synthesizer we could set chain is also programmable. pulse from the programmable divider ar-
+12.~ PUSH-PUSH
J
OSCILLATOR BUFFER DOUBLER
R12
10.5 -10.625 MHz 180
REC. TX
21MHz
SI
:~\~
J2
ANT. I
= PHASING
O-RMS
o .DCV
AMPLIFIER DRIVER
01,02
D/ff s G
R12
2100
@)
03. 04. OS, 06 [Q)
C19
C~
B
/DIAGONAL
CUT
Fig. 36 - Shown here is the schematic diagram of the 15-meter transmitter. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless specified otherwise.
Fixed value resistors are 1 {2-W composition unless noted otherwise. Numbered components not appearing in the parts list are identified for
pc-board layout purposes only.
50 Chapter 3
quency multiplication. This is because
of the degradation of the noise side-
bands inherent with multiplication.
F re quency -syn the sis techniques
offer great promise for future amateur
equipment. However, great care is re-
quired in the design if high performance
is desired.
etical amplifiers and some "cook- thumb, one can assume that the ul. are doubly loaded designs. That is, both
book" equations will be presented in timate attenuation will be 6 dB per the input and output of these networks
this chapter for those who wish to octave per reactive element in the net- must be terminated properly in order to
design their own impedance-matching work. For example, a common network achieve the filtering desired.
networks. Concerning the latter, only found in the amateur solid-state trans- A characteristic of the filters in this
simple math is needed to solve for the mitter is the double-pi network (low Q), section is their reciprocal nature. That
various impedance combinations ger- containing two inductors and three is, even though the networks are singly
mane to solid-state amplifier circuits. It capacitors. If such a design were "cut" terminated designs, it does not matter
is recommended that the builder/ for 7 MHz, the attenuation at 14 MHz which end of the network is terminated
designer obtain one of the low-cost would be around 30 dB. It could be resistively. For example, the pi network
engineering-function electronic calcula- higher than this if the network had a just mentioned was designed such that a
tors for the work treated in this book. high. loaded Q. Another characteristic 50-ohm resistor appears as a 72-ohm
The resolution is far superior to that of the common impedance-matching resistance at the other end. However,
which can be realized with a slide rule, networks is that they are "singly with the same network a 72-ohm resis-
and answers to problems can be ob- loaded." This fact requires some elab- tor at the high-Z end would appear as a
tained more rapidly with a calculator. oration: Assume that a low-power trans- 50-ohm impedance at the low-Z end,
Despite the large variety of networks mitter was being designed for an output with no difference in filtering prop-
available for impedance-matching in of 1 watt with a 12-volt dc supply. erties. This is illustrated in Fig. 1, where
transmitters, all of these designs have Hence, the required load resistance the constants are for 7 MHz and the
some common characteristics. First, which must be presented to the col- design Q is 3.
most of the networks used by the lector is Vee 2 -;- 2Po = 72 ohms. A Once the desired resistances for each
amateur are essentially low-pass types. suitable network would be a pi type, end of a network are determined, the
That is, at frequencies well above the designed to transform a 50-ohm antenna network is then "designed." Inductors
design center the networks offer sig- termination to the needed 72 ohms. and/or capacitors are placed either in
nificant attenuation. As a general rule of What this means is that if one end of series between the two ends of the
the network is terminated in a 50-ohms network, or are connected as shunt
resistor, a resistance of 72 ohms is elements to ground. In the strictest
"seen" looking into the other end. The sense only two reactive components are
..-.
72/'1.
amplifier behaves as if a 72-ohms re-
sistor were coupled capacitively to the
collector. However, the network is not
being driven from a 72-ohm source.
Typically, the output impedance of the
amplifier will be much higher than this,
(A)
perhaps several hundred ohms.
Networks which are used for im-
-
50/\.
pedance matching are called "singly
loaded," since it is necessary that only
one end of the network be properly
Rl <R2 XL =vRIR2 - Rl'2
terminated in order to realize the re-
quired impedance transformation and
filtering characteristics. Not all LC net-
Q=j~ -1
works are singly loaded, however. The
Fig. 1 - Transposition of a pi network to classic double-tuned circuits which one Fig. 2 - The L network and equations for
illustrate effect of resistive termination. might find in the front end of a receiver using it.
52 Chapter 4
the three.element networks described
next, it is necessary for the designer to
specify Q at the beginning of the calcu-
lations.
The L Network
This network is a classic for antenna
matching, but also finds application for
base and collector matching in solid-
state transmitters with powers up to a
few watts. It is not recommended for
high-power amplifiers. The network is
shown in Fig. 2 with the design equa-
tions. Note that R2 must be greater
than R1. The Q of the network is given, Select a Q.
Choose Q (must be greater than Q R2 is greater than RI.
although the designer has no control
shown in Fig. 2).
over this parameter. Q is an increasing
Then: XL = QR1 Let A = j~R-l-(-Q-2-+-1)---1-
function of the impedance-transforma.
tion ratio. This accounts for the unde- R2
XCI =XL -VR1R2-':R12 sirability of the network for high.power B=Rl(Q2+1) XCI= B
designs.
Then XL = QRl Q- A
X C2 -- R1R2
The Controlled.Q L Network Xc1=AR2
XL -XCI
Some of the problems encountered
Fig.3 - Example of a controlled-Q L network
with the standard L network can be Fig. 5 - The L-C.C matching network with
with equations. ' minimized by adding a capacitor in related equations.
series with the existing inductor. A Q is
first chosen. Then, the equations shown
required to perform any arbitrary im- in Fig. 3 are applied. trimmers are used. This network is
pedance transformation. Such a design limited to the case of R2 being greater
is realized most directly through the use The Pi Network thaI' Rl. The equations defining this
of a Smith chart. - A very familiar circuit is the pi network are given in Fig. 5. The flex-
This simplified approach is some- network. It has served in the output ibility of this network is why it is often
times dangerous, for it leaves the de- tank of nearly every tube type of seen in manufacturers' data sheets for rf
signer with no control over the Q of the transmitter built in the last 20 years. A power transistors.
network. If a three-element network is wide range of terminations can be ac-
used, the designer has control over the commodated, including those with sub- The L-C-L Type T Network
impedance transformation, frequency stantial reactance, and the low-pass If two L networks are combined
and network Q. Occasionally, one will nature of the network provides excel- back-to-back, one obtains either a pi
find networks with many 'additional lent harmonic attenuation. The design network or the T network shown in Fig. 6.
components. The advantage of such equations are presented in Fig. 4.' This network has the advantage that
designs is improved harmonic attenu- Manipulation of the equations will show the component values are often
ation and greater bandwidth. In all of that the impedance-matching range of practical for solid.state citcuits. How-
the pi network is not unlimited. It may ever, the difficulty in obtaining variable
be shown that Q2 + 1 must be greater inductors with a wide tuning range
than R1 + R2. For example, a 10-to-1 makes the previous L-C-C T network
transformation is not possible in a net- more popular. The two-inductor T
work with a Q of only 2. network, nonetheless, offers the ad-
Although useful in some transistor
circuits, the pi network is not as popular
as it was in tube-circuit days. The
primary problem is that the component
values dictated by the equations are
sometimes less than practical. For ex- R2
ample, it's not unusual when designing
an 80-meter transistor transmitter to
require inductors of 0.5 JlH and capac-
itors of .01 JlF. Networks other than the
pi will lead to more practical com- Choose Q.
Choose Q and R1 greater than R2. ponent values for the same Q and letA = R1 (Q2 + 1)
impedance transformation. To general-
XCI= -
R1
Q
ize, the pi might be best for impedances
of 50 ohms and higher on both ports.
B= j ~2 -1
X =R2
C2Q2
j Rl/R2
+ 1 - Rl/R2
The L.C.C Type T Network Then XLi
XU
= RIQ
= R2B
One of the most practical networks
X - QRl + R1R2/Xc2 for the low impedances common to A
4 - Q2 + 1 transistors is a T network. It uses a pair Xc=--
Q+B
of capacitors and a single inductor.
Fig. 4 - Pi-network configuration with design Generally, the com ponen t values are Fig. 6 - Circuit and equations of the L-C-L T
equations. practical if large-value mica-compressiop network.
L1 L2
QL = I
Rin, Ro = 50 ohms
XL = 50 ohms B
RO A~
,
"
= 50
Cl'
XCI' C3 ohms A'
B'
=
XC2 25 ohms
I n
Table 1 A
54 Chapter 4
"fishhook" formed from large-diameter i A A' 21
VIN wire which is inserted in the chuck of a VINO>----=~--R
twisted pair of No. 24 enameled wires, which impedes the flow of a net cur-
twisted to about five turns per centi- rent. The current in the coil will, how-
meter, will end up near 50 ohms. ever, grow in time, leveling off at the
Twisted pairs are formed easily by level dictated by the internal resistance
clamping one end of the pair in a vise. of the coil and of the battery. If we had 1:1 BALUN
The other end is hooked through a ideal components with no internal resis-
tance, the current would grow linearly
forever.
Consider now the bifilar-wound
transformer shown in Fig. 10. Again, we
connect a battery to the primary of this R
transformer. In this case, however, cur-
rent can flow instantaneously. As soon
as the smallest current begins to flow in
the primary, AA I, the resulting magnetic
field causes a voltage to appear across
the secondary, BB I. This voltage causes
(B) a current to flow through the resistor
loading the secondary. This secondary R_
56 Chapter 4
and 14 MHz. An output of 25 W was NOTE THAT LEADS ARE ON AN EVEN
1I2'F
- obtained easily on both bands with a
24-volt power supply. The drive reo
PLANE WITH PC BOARD
w
3/S'F
--
--
quired on 20 meters was about 0.5 watt,
while 250 mW were sufficient on 40
meters. No instability problems were
Q.
>- noted.
~ 1I2'S
..
w
'" High-Power Solid.State Amplifiers
..
'""
Q.
3/S'S
There was a time when transistor CORRECT
transmitters were for low-power enthu- (Al
1I4'S siasts. It was not a matter of choice -
the only transistors available were low-
o .2 .4 .6 .S 1.0
lieS-THERMAL RESISTANCE-CASE TO HEAT SINK
power devices. Today final stages with
an output of 100 watts or more are
practical and economical. In a few years PC BOAR~
Fig. 18 - Representation of the thermal
resistance of a transistor case to the heat sink
the amateur may no longer be able to
(see textl. purchase a transceiver in this power
class with even a single tube in the
circuit. Through the use of hybrid-
power splitters and combiners, a
had an initial permeability of 125, and number of amplifiers in the 100- to
had an OD of 0.375 inch (Amidon 300-watt output class have been com.
Associates FT-37-6l). The first case bined to yield over 1 kW of output.
studied was a 4: 1 transformer suitable Most of the problems encountered in IMPROPER
for the output of a 25-watt amplifier building a high-power amplifier are sim- (BI
with a 24-volt supply. Three turns of ilar to those outlined earlier for low-
two bifilar pairs of No: 24 enamel wire power stages.
were wound on a stack of four of the Almost all modern rf power devices
toroids. The high-impedance end of the are specified for operation in the fre-
transformer was terminated in 50 ohms, quency range for which they were de-
and the input impedance of the low- signed. Most manufacturers' data sheets
impedance port was measured. In include curves of input resistance, input
scanning the range from 3.5 to 21 MHz, reactance and output capacitance as a
the measured impedance varied from function of frequency. Output load
12.5 + j3.6 to 13.3 + j4.3. The slightly resistance is not often specified, since
inductive impedance seen should the equation (RL = Vee 2 -;. 2Po) is
present no problem in an amplifier, for sufficien tly accurate. With transistors
the transistor is slightly capacitive. specified for the hf region, most of the IMPROPER
The second case studied was a com- data are for linear operation. However, (CI
posite 16: 1 transformer formed from the information is close enough for use
two 4: 1 transformers. The first trans- in designing Class C stages for cw and Fig. 19 - Correct and incorrect mounting
former (50 ohms to 12.5 ohms) used fm. methods for stud transistors with strip-line
one core wound with six bifilar turns of connector leads.
one twisted pair of No. 26 wire. The Heat Sinking and Mounting
second used two twisted pairs on a The main difference between a high-
single core, again only six turns. By the power amplifier and one for QRP work TRANSISTOR
rules outlined above, the first core is the level of hea t sinking required. The JUNCTION
should have used two twisted pairs, and efficiencies quoted by manufacturers
the second should have had eight! The vary, but a ball-park number might be ? TRANSISTOR JUNCTION TO CASE
cores, however, were too small to accept 65 percent for Class C service, and 30 to Rl(6jc) ~~~~~~~D R:~ISJ:~~~ISTOR
this much wire. In spite of the departure 50 percent for Class AB or B linear MANUFACTURER
from the design ideals, the 16: 1 trans- amplification. The builder should
former looked reasonable, although still expect that as much power will be
inductive. With the high-impedance end dissipated in heat as will be obtained in R2(j1cs)
CASE TO HEAT SINK
THERMAL RESISTANCE
of the composite transformer ter- rf power output. Certain prescribed
minated in 50 ohms, the impedance methods should be followed to ensure
seen at the other port ranged from 3.4 + long transistor life, as heat in excessive
j1.4 at 3.5 MHz to 3.2 +j4.5 at 21 MHz. amounts Gunction temperature) is one
LATERAL - HEAT- TRANSFER - TO-
The relatively high reactance would of the major enemies of power tran- FINNED AREA-OF-HEAT SINK
: R3
probably require some capacitive com- sistors. THERMAL RESISTANCE. USUALLY
SPECIFIED AS ONE TERM BY HEAT
pensation at the higher frequencies. The thermal resistance (resistance of SINK MANUFACTURER
in Fig'. 17. The transistor used was a typical values of thermal resistance for
Motorola 2N5942. This device is spec- differen t package types when the de-
ified for 80-watts PEP linear output, so vices are bolted to their heat sinks in HEAT SINK
it was loafing in the 25-watt test circuit. accordance with the manufacturers'
Nonetheless, the performance was just specified torque. The latter is usually 6 Fig. 20 - Resistances to heat flow when a
about that expected when tested at 7 :!:I-inch pounds for 3/8-inch studs, 5 transistor is joined to a heat sink.
58 Chapter 4
C compensating network a builder may
add to an amplifier will have some .TO
MATCHING
~ PA effect on the circuit, and caution should NETWORK
5O-oH
INPUT be used when such L-C-R sections are
included in a design.
l
of increasing the negative feedback as
the operating frequency is lowered. The
component values depend on the device
characteristics, power levels, and im-
pedance characteristics of the amplifier.
Therefore, no set rules for component
values are offered here. (See chapter 8
for details.) Typical values for a 50-W
amplifier might be 10 ohms and 100 pF
vec
for the circuits of Figs. 25 and 26,
assuming an amplifier bandwidth of 1.8
to 30 MHz. It should be said that any Fig. 26 - Gain compensation networks for negative feedback.
VRl
36V
1W
+12V
60 Chapter 4
aligned, the moment of truth comes
when dc power and rf drive are applied.
The output is terminated in a 50-ohm
resistive load with means for measuring
power output. The light bulb load of
the tube era has no place in the modern
amateur lab, and should not be used as
an rf termination! A current-limited
power supply should be used. Initially,
the voltage is reduced to half of the
normal opera ting level in the case of
high-voltage amplifiers (e.g., 28 volts).
For stages operating from 12 volts it is
Fig. 31 - Method for prealigning an output network. suitable to begin experimentation at
that level. A low amount of rf drive is
applied and the output is noted. The
networks are adjusted for maximum
conservative rule of thumb, one should nected temporarily to the circuit as output, always keeping an eye toward
never design for an output power ex- shown in Fig. 31. In this example, an signs of instability. This procedure is
ceeding the heat dissipation of the appropriate resistance would be a pair repeated at increased power-supply volt.
transistor being used. Less is a better of paralleled IS-ohm carbon resistors. ages and rf drive levels, keeping the
and safer assumption. The network is adjusted for a bridge networks tuned for maximum power
As was outlined earlier, there is a null, indicating that 50 ohms exists at output. The collector current should be
wide variety of networks from which to the output port. The 7-1/2 ohm resistor monitored for any tendency toward
choose for impedance matching. How- is then removed from the circuit! thermal runaway, and the device and
ever, the L-C-C type of T network is an Shown in Fig. 32 is the input part of heat-sink temperature should be mon-
excellent first choice for base and col- a power amplifier. The rf choke serves itored.
lector matching, owing primarily to the as a dc path for the flow of base If the amplifier has forward bias, as
range of impedances which may be current. Since the input resistance of is typical of linear amplifiers, careful
accommodated with a given network the transistor is very low, the reactance attention should be devoted to moni-
design, and to the practicality of the of this choke is not critical and is toring the current during application of
component values. It is worthwhile to usually four or five times the input rf drive, and afterward. Many amplifiers
modify the output network slightly by resistance. However, the Q of this choke which perform well in ssb service may
adding some additional capacitance in should be quite low, often less than 1. not be capable of withstanding the
parallel with the collector. A reasonable This is realized by shunting the choke tremendous power dissipation levels in-
value is a reactance of two or three with a low-value resistor, less than the curred during cw testing or two-tone
times the output resistance, Fig. 30. reactance of the choke. Even lower evaluation.
This added capacitance will have little values (down to an ohm or two), A final problem which can occur
effect at the design frequency, but will comparable to the value of the tran- with high-power amplifiers should be
significantly aid in the suppression of sistor input resistance, will add to the mentioned. Often the collector current
vhf parasitics. This is of major signif- stability of the amplifier. If this practice in a high-power amplifier is several
icance if a vhf power device is used in is followed, the input network may be amperes. With such a high current it can
the hf region. pre aligned with a bridge without substi- be extremely difficult to decouple the
One can pretune the networks to the tution of extra base resistance. amplifier from the remaining circuit.
design frequency and impedance before Once an amplifier is built and pre- Additional decoupling networks may be
power and drive are applied to an
amplifier. This pre alignment is done
easily with a 50-ohm impedance bridge
and a low-level rf source. (A suitable
bridge is described in a later chapter.)
As an example, assume that an amplifier
+12.5V
will deliver an output of 50 watts with a
28-volt power supply. The collector
load resistance will be Vee 2 -;. 2Po = 7.8 19E: +
25V~
ohms. The network is designed and a
reasonably close-value resistance is con-
50.1\. INPUT
INPUT
62 Chapter 4
desired rf power output. Therefore, to
extract 7 W we should use a pair of
transistors whose combined power-
dissipation rating will be 14 W or
greater. Also, the IT should be several
times the highest operating frequency (5
or 10 times as a ball-park number). This
calls for an IT of 17 to 35 MHz, or
thereabouts. Maximum voltage ratings
should be somewhat greater than two
times the operating voltage, which sug.
gests a safe value of 30 or more.
A search through various data
showed that an RCA 2N5320 should do
the job nicely. The price per unit is
roughly $1.50, fr is 50 MHz, and
maximum collector volta~ is 100.
General-purpose broadband push-pull amplifier. This view shows the breadboard version of the Maximum dissipation at 25 C is 10 W
circuit. The transistor mounting bolts affix the transistors to the heat sink and extend through
the pc board. Insulating washers are used. The network at the left was used for filtering during for a 2N5320, providing a 20-W rating
.initial tests on 20 meters. Power output is 6 watts from 1.8 to 14 MHz. In excess of 20 watts for two of the units. The junior version
can be provided by this amplifier at 7 MHz if a 24-volt power supply is used. of the 2N5320 might be used for a 5.W
maximum output power in the push-
pull amplifier of Fig. 35. The device is a
2N2102, designed specifically for high-
The push-pull amplifier was tested to effect such a design has been pro. speed, high-voltage switching. It has an
on 40 and 20 meters. At 7 MHz, the vided in the preceding text. Transistor fr of 120 MHz, which makes it suitable
measured output was 5-1/2 watts with a selection, network design, and heat from 1.8 through 14 MHz. The price tag
drive of 0.5-watt. The efficiency was 59 sinking have been tested in sufficient is approximately $1, and the PD(max) is
percent. These measurements were with depth to make a simple amplifier 5W.
Vee = 12.5 volts. With a 24-volt supply, design possible.
over 12 watts of output were obtained Networks
with 0.5 watt of drive power. On 20 Transistor Choice For the sake of simplicity a conven-
meters, 5 watts of output were seen It was stated earlier that the tran- tional broadband transformer, Tl of
a 12.5-volt supply. However, 1 watt of sistors used in an amplifier should carry Fig. 35, is selected for the amplifier
drive was required. While only 7 dB of a PD rating of approximately twice the input port. It will have a turns ratio of
power gain is marginal, it is still useful.
The amplifier should perform well on
80 meters, and. delivered 18 Won 160 36V
while using a 24-V supply. 1W
Both amplifiers should be followed PA QL' 4
by a filter to remove harmonics. The 1.8 OR 3.5 MHz
half-wave filters described earlier should 1.8 OR 3.5 MHz
be adequate. WA7MLH built one of the
1~~~9Tltl
50-OHM 5:1
single-ended amplifiers with half-wave
filters for 80 and 40 meters. The output
low-pass filters are selected by means of
a slide switch. A relay is included to
switch around the unit during 10w-
power operation.
'1
A Design Exercise
RFCl
Assume tha t a 7 -W amplifier is
needed for 160 or 80 meters. To mini- +12.5V (1.2A)
mize the chance for high levels of +251lF
even-order harmonic output a push-pull
circuit is chosen. Another criterion is to
design for low cost, particularly with
XCEPT
CAPACITANCE
OTHERS ARE
AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
ARE IN MICROFARADS
IN PICOFARADS
VALUES
I j.lF ) ;
I pF OR ppFI;
OF
rI: 25V
XLI.25 OHMS
XLZ.51 OHMS
XC1 + XCZ .20 OHMS (NOM.)
XL1 (TI PRI.) t 250 OHMS
Fig. 36 - Schematic diagram of the 15-watt amplifier. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise noted. Resistors are 1/2-vvatt
composition unless specified differentlv. The 47-IlF capacitor can be electrolytic or tantalum.
(;1 - 450-pF mica compression trimmer transistor. T1 - Primary, 32 turns No. 24 enam. on
(Arco-EI-Menco 466 or equivalent). RFC1, RFC2 - 7 turns No. 20 enam. wire on Amidon T -68-2 core (71lH l. Secondary, 8
C2 - See Table 2. 0.5-inch 00 toroid ferrite core with 125 turns No. 24 over primary winding.
L1, L2 - See Table 2. permeability (Amidon Assoc. FT-5O-61
01 - Motorola MRF449A strip-line stud core or equiv.l ,3IlH.
64 Chapter 4
fairly broad, but a definite peak in
output will occur when it is set cor-
rectly.
IS-Watt HF-Band Amplifier
One advantage of high-gain tran-
sistors is that they can provide con-
siderable output power for low-drive
, levels. The Motorola MRF449A is one
choice a designer has among the high.
'I- ~v 11;; !:'fIinhf-band devices. It is designed for a
'~~.~~ [L power output of 30 W maximum, Class
C, when used below 30 MHz. A 13.V
power supply is required. Power gain is
o .P': -- --I i$
Lt~~-!?Jf rated at 13 dB at 30 MHz.
The circuit of Fig. 36 shows how it
.1"" "t can be used in a single-band cw ampli.
RI and P2 .OI~F and fier with an efficiency of 60 percent.
PI (input) (+12.5V) P3 (outout)
The circuit was described originally in
QST for December, 1975, where it was
FOIL SIDE
(FULL SCALE) specified as a plug-in amplifier for the
Heath HW-7 QRP transceiver. The 3-dB
resistive attenuator at the amplifier
input is included so that exciters having
more than 1 watt of output will not
overdrive the transistor. The HW-7 de-
livers 2 watts of output, so 1 watt is
absorbed in the attenuator. Also, the
attenuator provides a constant 50-ohm
load for the exciter. The addition was
necessary because the MRF449A re-
quires only 3/4 to 1 watt of drive to
produce full output. Those having ex-
citers in the I-watt class can delete the
attenuator.
T1 is a conventional input trans-
former which is wound on a T-68.2
powdered-iron toroid. It provides a
necessary 16:1 transformation ratio (50
to 3 ohms). Two 4:1 broadband trans-
mission-line transformers were tried in
cascade to replace T1, and results were
identical to those with the transformer
specified. The conventional transformer
HEAT SINK was used because only one. toroid was
(USE SILICONE COMPOUND BETWEEN PLATES)
required. To lower the Q of T1 a pair of
10-ohm, 1/2-W resistors have been
Fig. 37 - Scale layout of the 15-W amplifier pc board. Double-clad board (copper on both sides) strapped from base to ground.
is used, and the ground foil on the etched side is connected to the ground-plane side at several
points. Details are given for the homemade heat sink.
Power Level
A power-output level of 15 watts
was chosen to minimize power-supply
1.2
1.2
T.02 2
RFC2,J, 02
113... H 21'13632
22 1.2
l0,uF +
EXCEPT
VALUES
AS INDICATED,
OF CAPAC ITANCE
DECIMAL
1.2
,-L02
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR JlJIF);
RESIST AN CES ARE IN OHMS; 2000
k -1000, M-l 000000 2Vi"
T1 11'14719 T2
S.M.-SILVER MICA
T2 ilFILAR
4 3
1 4
2 ~ 2'\SINGLE
./' 5
2:1 UNBALANCED WINDING
TO BALANCED
1:1 BALANCED
TO UNBALANCED
Fig. 39 - Schematic diagram of the 15-watt linear amplifier. Resistors are 1/2-W composition unless otherwise noted. Capacitors are disk
ceramic unless specified differently. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic or tantalum.
RFC1 - Miniature 1.5-j.lH choke. 2:1 impedance ratio. 14 turns No. 28 No. 24 enam, wire (bifilar wound to 8
RFC2 - 15 turns No. 26 enam. wire on enam. wire on Amidon FT-50-61 toroids turns per inch) for winding 1/3/4. Winding
Amidon FT-37-61 toroid. (two cores stacked). Secondary has 10 2/5 contains 15 turns of single No. 24
RFC3 - 7 turns No. 20 enam. wire on turns of No. 28 enam. wire over primary enam. wire. Use two Amidon FT-5Q-61
Amidon FT-50-61 toroid. winding. cores, stacked.
T1 - Conventional broadband transformer, T2 - Broadband 1: 1 transformer. 15 turns
drain for field use. The network values why the builder could not develop band transformers of Fig. 39 were devel-
are based on that power amount (Table suitable Land C values for the T oped. Performance remains essentially
2), but there is no reason why the full network from the reactances listed in the same regardless of the transformer
30-W output amount cannot be realized. Fig. 25. At 80 and 160 meters there style employed. Lab tests with a spec-
The collector network would have to be may be a tendency toward instability, trum analyzer show that both versions
revised accordingly. If that were done, a owing to the higher gain of the tran- provide an IMD (3rd. and 5th-order
collector characteristic of 2.8 ohms sistor at those frequencies. An addi- products) of -30 dB.
would result. Therefore, a T network tional 10-ohm resistor from base to A peak output power of 15 watts is
with a loaded Q of 4 would require an ground should resolve the problem. available on ssb, and 15 watts of output
XLI of 11, an XL2 of7, and an XCI of Al ternatively, the negative-feedback are provided for cw work. Forward bias
12. The circuit was tested at the 30-W technique shown in Fig. 25 could be is supplied to the transistor bases to pre-
level and performance was good. applied to enhance stability. vent cross-over distortion. (See chapter
However, a slightly larger heat sink than The output waveform as viewed on a 8.) Idling current (no drive applied) is
that shown in Fig. 37 will be necessary 50.MHz scope was very clean. Harmonic approximately 100 rnA with 28 volts of
at the higher power amount. The dimen- energy was at least 40 dB below carrier collector supply. Peak current drain is
sions for Tl, RFC 1, and RFC2 are level. Fig. 38 is a photographic view of 1.5 A.
suitable for either power value. A 50-W the module. Although the amplifier is designed
version of the '449A is available for for 3.5 to 30 MHz, good performance
those wanting more power. It is the A IS.Watt Linear Amplifier was noted on 160 meters with approx-
MRF450A. Approximately 2 watts of The amplifier of Fig. 39 was adapted imately 1 watt of drive. The original
drive power are needed for full output. from one which was described by Lowe version by Lowe was not tested at 1.8
Operating voltage is 13 for the latter (QST for Dec., 1971, p. 11). The basic MHz, however.
also. Both transistors are stud-mount difference is in the transformer design The input port contains a complex
types, and each has strip-line connecting (Tl and T2). The Lowe transformers RCL compensating network to level the
leads. were similar to that of Fig. 28 in this amplifier gain by compensating the
Specifications are not given for 160, chapter, but many amateurs had dif- drive level. Amplifier gain is 16 dB at 15
80, or 10 meters, but there is no reason ficulty duplicating them, so the broad- and 10 meters, and is slightly greater on
66 Chapter 4
CI
20, 40 and 80 meters. Input SWR
R3A
through the compensating network is
!l600 6.8
R3B
less than 1.5: I from 80 through 10
RIA meters.
C7
3.9
Q1 and Q2 are low-cost surplus vhf
RIB transistors. The 2N3632 is designed for
3.9 Class A, Band C service. Maximum
1.8-30MHz VCEO is 65, maximum collector current
~-~uH,.M T1 is 3 A, and h is 400 MHz. Maximum
dissipation is 23 W at 25C.
A finned heat sink measuring 4 X 4
3
!l6 inches or greater is required for safe
operation. Double-sided pc board is
~ 9:1 used to contain the amplifier. Output
1:4
SWR should never exceed 1.5: 1 if
R2A damage to the transistors is to be
C8 prevented. Although the even-order har-
3.9
R2B monics from the amplifier are at least
3.9 20 dB below the fundamental signal,
C2 6.8 filtering should be used at the output.
R4B
The half-wave filters described earlier in
!l600 6.8 the chapter will be suitable.
CII
100
+ 5W
~
50V
DC
IN
VR1
27V
5W
-. -~.
R2
1000
BIAS
ADJ .
68 Chapter 4
Chapter 5
le most used piece of equipment in approaches to design. Several practical ably an absolute mmunum for com-
any amateur station is the receiver. examples are presented. munications applications.
During communications with other sta- In chapter 6 we will consider some A second requirement for a receiver
tions the receiver accepts signals from refined details of receiver design. The is that it process the incoming signal to
the antenna to produce intelligible emphasis will be on designing for wide cause an audio voltage to appear at the
audio output. At other times, the re- dynamic range. The reader is referred to output. The process is called detection.
ceiver is used to "scan the band" and the transceiver section of the book for Circuits to perform this function will
monitor QSOs. The station receiver is additional construction information. vary considerably, depending upon the
also a valuable piece of test gear. nature of the information contained on
Fundamental Considerations the incoming signal.
In the early days of amateur radio, it
was necessary for every ham to build his Certain criteria must be met in the In all of the receivers described in
own receiver. However, by the time the design of a receiver of even the simplest this chapter, product detection is em-
193o.s arrived, it was common to find an kind. These include meeting specifica- ployed. A product detector is really
amateur station with homemade trans- tions for gain, selectivity, sensitivity and nothing other than a mixer (chapter 3).
mitting equipment and a commercially stability, to mention only a few. However, the two signals to be mixed
built receiver. This was the rule rather The first requirement for a receiver are that of a beat-frequency oscillator
than the exception in the early 195o.s is to provide considerable gain. The (BFO) and a second signal closely'
when the writers first became licensed.' signal levels from the antenna are often spaced. The output of the mixer is at
The onslaught of single sideband prior quite low, while enough power output audio fre~uencies. The term "product
to the '6o.s brought with it the "ap- to drive a speaker or a pair of head- detection' results from the character-
pliance era," when few amateurs built phones is ultimately desired. If we istic of a mixer that the amplitude of
their transmitters, much less their re- assume a weak cw signal as being 0..1 J1.V the output signal is proportional to the
ceivers. The complexity of each was available from a 5o.-ohm antenna, the product of the two incoming signal
similar, making home construction a power available to the receiver is voltages. In most situations, the BFO
task for only the more ambitious and level is very much higher than the
enthusiastic. = y2 = (l X 10.-7)2 incoming signals to be detected, often
The dominance of semiconductor P R 50. . by 100. dB or more. Under these con-
technology has changed this. Today it is ditions, the detector is essentially a
straightforward to build receivers of =2 X 10.-16 watts (Eq.l) linear device in that the output of the
simple design while using transistors and detector is directly proportional to the
ICs. Even receivers offering something If we would like this signal to produce an amplitude of the input. This is not the
approaching state-of-the-art per- output of I volt across a pair of 2000-ohm case for a-m detectors where a threshold
formance are constructed easily if the headphones, the output power is 5 X 10-4 exists, or for fm detectors where the
builder is willing to invest in a bit of watts, or half a milliwatt. The neces- output is independent of incoming am-
time and experimentation. sary power gain is then the ratio of these plitude once a suitable threshold is
In spite of the rela tive ease of powers overcome. The linearity of a product
construction, some amateurs are not detector is of profound significance, for
4 it allows us to achieve tremendous
willing to build a receiver. This is G = 5 X 10.- = 2 5 X 10.12 (Eq.2)
unfortunate, for one of the most ex- 2XI0-16 simplification in designing simple cw
citing experiences available to the ham and ssb receivers.
is the thrill that results from using a This is 124 dB and is typical of the net Another characteristic which a re-
receiver he has constructed himself. gain in many receivers. Since the signals ceiver must possess is selectivity. That
In this chapter we will discuss some of well under the I-volt output men- is, it must be capable of isolating two
basic ideas associated with cw and ssb tioned above are copied easily in 2-kfl signals which are closely spaced in fre-
receivers. For the most part, the empha- headphones, less gain is often satis- quency. This is realized with filters of
sis will be on straightforward and simple factory. Around 80. to 90. dB is prob- various kinds, either at radio or audio
70 Chapter 5
this receiver is tuned to the same signal
at 7049 kHz that was used in the "dc"
receiver example. For the 7049-kHz
signal to be received, the LO will be
tuned to 6049 kHz, resulting in a
1000-kHz output i.f signal. This signal
moves readily through the 500-Hz.wide
filter, is amplified and detected. If the
detector is driven by a BFO at 999 kHz,
a l.kHz receiver output will result. .
Now consider that same bothersome
Fig. 1 - Block diagram of a direct-eonversion receiver. signal at 7051 kHz. This signal will beat
in the mixer with the local.oscillator
energy at 6049 kHz to produce an i.f
simple bandpass filter. The output of response as obtained from the desired output at 1002 kHz. However, the i.f
this filter is routed to a product detec- signal at 7049 kHz. Hence, no amount filter is only 500 Hz wide. Hence, the
tor which is driven by a BFO voltage of audio filtering will eliminate this filter will have significant attenuation at
which is very near the frequency to be response. This undesired response is 1002 kHz, and no receiver output will
received. The output of the detector is called an audio image, and it is a major result. The superhet has eliminated the
applied to a low-pass filter, then routed disadvantage with direct-conversion de. troublesome audio image which plagued
to a high -gain audio amplifier, thus signs. In spite of this, thousands of the dc receiver. This asset of a superhet
completing the receiver. The advantage amateurs have built "dc" receivers and is called single.signal response.
of this approach to receiver design is the use them daily. The simplicity of design Image responses will still be present,
extreme simplicity afforded. The is worth the few practical problems but now they are associated with the
number of stages is minimized. Most of which arise from the audio image during intermediate frequency rather than with
the gain is obtained at audio fre. routine communications. Although the audio. For example, our receiver has a
quencies, where construction is simple. existence of the image would have the I.MHz i.f and an LO at 6 MHz, for a
Finally, the BFO operating at virtually effect of doubling the equivalent noise desired input near 7 MHz. However,
the same frequency as that of the bandwid th of the receiver, this effect is signals at 5 MHz will also beat with the
received signal leads to the design of largely negated by the filtering nature of LO to produce I-MHz i.f signals. Hence,
simple transceivers. 1he human ear. There is virtually no everything possible should be done to
There are other advantages to the fundamental sensitivity penalty to be prevent 5~MHz signals from reaching the
direct-conversion concept which will be paid for the use of direct-conversion mixer input. This is easily realized with
described later. However, there is a price receivers. the 7-MHz preselector filter.
to pay for all of this simplicity - the Shown in Fig. 2 is a block diagram The following sections will consider
receiver is not a panacea. Consider, as an for a classic superhet receiver. Here, the design details of the various sections of
example, a signal to be received at 7049 incoming signal is applied to a pre. direct conversion and superheterodyne
kHz. The BFO might be set to 7050 selector bandpass filter and is then receivers. Examples are presented for
kHz, resulting in a I-kHz beat note from routed to a mixer. The mixer is also duplication. Emphasis will be on simple
the detector. This signal is amplified in driven by a local oscillator which is designs.
the audio stages of. the receiver and separated from the incoming frequency.
applied to the headphones. The output of the mixer is at a fre. Product Detectors
Consider the response to signals at quency which is the difference (or the The product detector is the basis of
other frequencies. For example, a signal sum) of the incoming signal and the the direct.conversion receiver, and it is
at 7040 kHz would not be attenuated local oscillator (LO). This frequency is an integral part of a "superhet" receiver
by the front.end bandpass filter. Hence, called the intermediate frequency, or i.f. designed for cw or ssb reception. As
it would also be applied to the input to The i-f output from the mixer is applied mentioned earlier, a product detector is
the product detector and would result to a filter which usually has a band. essentially a mixer. As such, it is a
in an output beat note of 10 kHz (the width compatible with the signals being three.port circuit with two radio.
BFO is still at 7050). The low-pass filter received. The i.f signal is amplified frequency inputs and an intermediate.
will prevent most of the 10-kHz energy further before it is applied to a product frequency output. When a mixer is used
from arriving at the audio amplifier, so detector. The detector output is ampli. as a product detector, the i.f is at audio.
this signal causes no significant problem. fied and then applied to headphones or A product detector is shown in block.
Consider now, a signal at 7051 kHz. a speaker where the user should perceive diagram form in Fig. 3.
This signal will reach the input of the some intelligent information. When used as the front end of a
detector and heterodyne with the BFO Consider a receiver with an i.f of I direct.conversion receiver, a product
output at 7050 kHz to produce a l.kHz MHz. Assume that the i.f filter has a detector has a number of necessary
beat note, which is exactly the same bandwidth of 500 Hz and suppose that specifications. First, it must have a
'SIGNAL
faro
Fig. 2 - Configuration for a basic superheterodyne receiver. Fig. 3 - Representation of a product detector.
72 Chapter 5
+42V Several ICs other than simple dif- in ohmic value as reasonable, perhaps as
ferential amplifiers function well as pro- much as 1000 ohms ..On the other hand,
duct detectors. Notable examples are the resistance should be zero if maxi-
the Motorola MCl496G and the Texas mum conversion gain and optimum
Instruments SN-765 14. The reader is noise figure are desired. Hence, the
referred to chapter 3, where these de- value will probably be much different
vices were applied as transmitting for applications in superhets than it
tt
mixers. The MC1496 is used as a pro- would be for use as the input to a
duct detector by merely replacing the rf direct-conversion receiver.
collector load with a pair of 2.7 -k.Q The Motorola applications literature
resistors to pins 6 and 9. A circuit is of the '1496 shows the chip biased so
5
shown in Fig. 6. Audio is extracted that about 1 mA flows in each of the
from one of the output termirtals through collector output pairs. However, the
a lO-J1F capacitor. Each of the output signal-handling properties of the chip
I--- (250mV RMS)
IHpF .1pF AND
pins should be bypassed for rf via a
.05-J1F capacitor. Additional conversion
can be improved significantly by in-
creasing the current to approximately 3
6
.004pF IN gain can be had by using a center tapped mA in each collector. This is effected by
PARALLEL
transformer at the output. changing the usual 10.k.Q resistor be-
The TI SN-76514 has built-in 600- tween the 12-volt supply and pin 5 to a
Fig. 7-A product detector can be built from an 3.3-k.Q unit. This biasing scheme is
mm collector resistors. Hence, this chip
SN76514 IC. The SM-76514 mixer IC has been
reidentified as TL-442-CM by Texas Instru- is used as a detector by bypassing the useful also when the chip is employed as
ments. It may be procured under either part two output pins (3 and 13) for rf, and the mixer in a ssb transmitter, where
number. by taking audio from one of the pins linearity is of major importance.
through an electrolytic capacitor (see Another IC which functions well as a
parallel with the transformer primary. Fig. 7). The relatively low collector load product detector is the RCA CA3102E.
The decreased collector load will, how- resistors in the TI balanced-modulator This IC is a dual differential amplifier
ever, decrease the detector gain. IC will limit the conversion gain to and is wired externally much like the
The CA3028A, as shown, is a singly roughly 14 dB, while much more gain MC1496 detectors discussed above. A
balanced product detector. The input can be realized from the MC1496. circuit is shown in Fig. 8. Good noise
signals are applied differentially, while If the internal circuit of the MCl496 figure (as well as fine signal-handling
the BFO drive is applied in a single- is studied, it can be seen that the input ability) was observed with this circuit.
ended fashion. This tends to minimize signal is injected differentially to a pair These traits probably result from a lack
the BFO energy present at the antenna of transistors with externally applied of feedback in the signal input, and the
terminals of a direct-conversion receiver. emitter degeneration .. The level of this switching nature of the circuit, re-
In one case where measurements were negative feedback is controlled by the spectively. The detector circuit shown is
performed, the power at the antenna value of resistance between pins 2 and a doubly balanced format, requiring
terminal was -47 dBm (.02 microwatt 3. In the in terest of signal-handling push-pull inputs at the signal and BFO
into a 50-ohm load). capability, this resistor should be as high ports. A single-ended BFO is converted
Another popular and easily applied
product detector for use in direct-
conversion receivers is a dual-gate
MOSFET (Fig. 5). The circuit is es-
sentially the same as the mixer circuits +12V
~AUDIO
iRANSFORMER
used with this device, except that the CA3102E
output is designed for audio fre-
quencies, with rf signals being bypassed.
44 43 7
With detectors of this kind, the BFO r--- -------r---- --- -6 -----,
injection at gate 2 should be approxi- BI
AF
OUTPUT
'""'m'
lation between all three ports of the
mixer.
Detector balance is of minimal sig-
nificance when the detector is at the
front of a direct-conversion receiver. ,+.;1
However, balance can be of considerable DIODE PRODUCT DETECTORS
(el
consequence when used at the detector
in an advanced superhet. In such a
design, it is mandatory that the energy Fig.9 - Examples of three diode detectors.
74 Chapter 5
AF AMPLIFIER 220
+12V
+ 22pF
10k 5600 ~15V
2200
r-h22P:
15V
5600
DETECTOR 2N3565
+ t-o---v}
10pF
15V
22k 47k
T'Ol ,J,15V
BFO
INPUT
Fig, 10 - A basic direct-conversion receiver using a 5-pole high-pass network at the input port.
conversion receiver which was as- increased until blocking occurred. How- signal generator was adjusted to various
sembled in order to perform some de- ever, the measuremen ts were misleading, harmonic frequencies, with the audio
tector measurements. The input filter is for there is essentially no selectivity output always adjusted for I-volt rms.
a 5-pole high-pass type with a cutoff at following the detector except for a The results are presented in Table 1.
3 MHz. This filter was inserted in order capacitor which provides low-pass fil- The dominance of odd-order responses
to eliminate a trace of broadcast-band tering. The audio amplifier was is clear from the data.
rectification which was present. How- overloading, so the second generator
ever, this was the only selectivity ele- was set to 8 MHz, and the experiment
ment which was used in the receiver. was repeated. Note that the input was
broadband in nature. That is, there was Table 1
The detector was the simple two-diode
type discussed above. It was followed no selectivity ahead of the detector. N Fin Vin Ratio
by a high-gain audio amplifier, using Nonetheless, the detector was able to
three inexpensive (but "hot") tran- provide solid copy of the I-p.Vdesired 1 7 MHz 6IJ.V OdS
sistors. The diodes were silicon signal, with no desensitization from an 2 14 700 41.3
3 21 20 10.5
switching types (lN914 or equivalent) undesired input signal of 0.1 volt. There 5 35 70 21.3
which were matched for forward re- are many well respected commercial 7 49 100 24.4
sistance with a YOM. A BFO energy of receivers which cannot pass this test!
+13 dBm (20 milliwatts) was supplied In spite of the good response to the
from a homemade general-purpose sig- weak and strong signals described, diode
nal generator. detectors have deficiencies which make The harmonic-mixing phenomenon
The first experiment performed was them difficult to use: Diode mixers, in could be used to advantage. For
to evaluate the sensitivity. Since a min- general, should be terminated carefully example, it might be possible to con-
imum of audio filtering was included in if optimum signal-handling ability is to struct a receiver which used both the N
the system, a careful sensitivity mea- be retained. Specifically, the "signal" = 1 and N = 3 responses to cover the 7-
surement would not have been very port of the mixer should look back at a and 21-MHz bands. More often, how-
enlightening because of the wide band- source impedance of around 50 ohms. ever, harmonic mixing is a problem.
width of the system. However, a signal Further treatment of termination is This is especially true if the user lives
of 0.1 p.V was easily detected at 7 MHz, presented during the mixer discussion in close to commercial TV and fro stations.
and a I-p.V signal was plainly audible. chapter 6. As the receiver is tuned, "birdies" may
An audio output of I-volt rms was Another characteristic which can appear across the band.
measured for an input of 6 p.V, in- present a problem, but can be an asset, The answer to the harmonic-mixing
dicating a net receiver gain of 88.4 dB. is a tendency toward harmonic mixing. problem is, of course, preselection. A
The next measurement was to eval- Even if the BFO energy supplied to a good low-pass filter ahead of the
uate receiver blocking. This was done mixer is free of harmonics, the receiver will attenuate harmonic inputs
with two signal generators and a hybrid nonlinear nature of the diodes will to the point that all spurious responses
combiner. The desired signal was from a create large harmonic currents. The re- are eliminated. This can be more dif-
low-level crystal-controlled generator sult is that input signals at other fre- ficult to do than might be suspected, for
which was well shielded. It was set for quencies will also cause major outputs. it is required that the filters ahead of
an output of I p.V, and the BFO was Diode balanced mixers are known for the receiver have the desired attenuation
adjusted for copy of this signal. The their high response to odd-order har- not only near the cutoff frequency, but
other generator was a URM-25D - monics. The receiver of Fig. 10 was used in the vhf stop-band. This means that
another well-shielded instrument. This to evalute the harmonic mixing traits of vhf layout and shielding methods should
was set initially at 50 kHz away from a simple two-diode product detector. be used even in a 40-meter filter!
the desired signal, and the level was The BFO was set at 7 MHz, and the Filtering of the BFO will do little, for
Receiver Design Basics 75
the mixing harmonics are created in the noise figure of the audio amplifier is resistance of the .overall amplifier will be
detector. significant, especially when low-gain de- the input resistance of Ql shunted by
A partial solution is to replace the tectors are employed (such as those the bias resistors, leading to an overall
silicon switching diodes with hot-carrier using diodes). input resistance of roughly 3 kn. The
diodes. These units differ from the usual Shown in Fig. 11 is a three-stage input resistance of Q3 is not given by
PN semiconductor diodes. They consist amplifier using 2N3565s. These tran- the same formula as was used for the
of a junction between a semiconductor sistors are inexpensive, have high beta first two stages, since emitter degenera-
(usually N type) and a metal. These and low noise figure. Using an amplifier tion is used. In this case, Rin = ~Re is a
diodes switch fast and work well design, we will present a fairly detailed suitable approximation, leading to
.through the microwave frequencies. analysis of this circuit. The transistor Rin-3 = 10 k n.
Furthermore, they lack the charge- model is simple. A beta of 100 is Having this information, the small.
storage effects which partially cause assumed for each of the transistors, and signal ac gain of the amplifier may be
junction diodes to create high-order the emitter-base offset is 0.7 volt. A calculated. These calculations are pre-
harmonics. 10-volt supply is used, and the output sented next, assuming a I-J.LY input
While harmonic mixing is a major termination is a set of 2000-ohm head- signal: Vin = 1 J.LY,lbI = Vin .;.Rin 1 = 2
problem with diode product detectors, phones. X lO-loA, leI = ~ lbl = 2 X 1O-8A,
it is present to some extent in other The first step is to evaluate the and Vel = lelRLl = 2 X 10-8 X 2.3 X
detectors as well. For example, the biasing of the amplifier. Three direct- 103 = 4.6 X lO-sy. (Note: The col-
square-law response 'of the dual-gate coupled stages are used. Hence, the lector load is Rin -2 paralleled with the
MOSFET makes this device prone to overall amplifier will be inverting, there- 10-kn_load resist?l) Next, 1'!J2_=Vel .;.
even-order harmonic mixin~. by allowing us to use negative dc feed- Rin2 - 4.6 X 10 --;-3 X 10 - 1.53 X
A useful attribute of harmonic back to bias the circuit. Since all of the 10-8 A'!e2 = ~ h2 = 1.53 X 10-6 A,
'mixing is that it aids the calibration of transistors will be operating in an active Ve2 = le2RL2 = 7.67 X 1O-3y, and
direct-conversion receivers. For condition, the voltage on the base of QI Ve3 = GV3 Ve2 = 7.67 X 1O-2y. Note
example, if a 100-kHz oscillator is used will be 0.7 volt. This voltage can orig- that the emitter degeneration in the last
to calibrate a 7 -MHz direct-conversion inate only from the bias resistors from stage leads to a voltage gain of 10 in
receiver, it is often possible to hear the the collector of Q3. Noting the values that stage.
2nd and 4th harmonics. They can be used, we see that 0.7 volt occurs at the The overall voltage gain of the am-
used as markers (for free) at 50- and base of Ql only when the dc potential plifier is 7.67 X 104 Taking 20 Log Gv,
25-kHz intervals. at the collector of Q3 is 6 volts. we arrive at 97.7 dB, a value quite close
The need for preselection filtering is Knowing the dc output voltage, we to that measured. These methods may
significant for the reasons outlined can evaluate all of the dc voltages in the be used to evaluate any of the simpler
above and in the preceding section (e.g., amplifier. The collector current for Q3 audio amplifiers which are used in sim-
image rejection in superhets). Harmonic must be 2 rnA [(10 - 6V)2 kn], ilar applica tions.
responses can be suppressed with the leading to Ve3 = 0.2 volt and Vb3 = 0.9 There are a few subtleties to the
halfwave low-pass filters described in volt. Continuation of this analysis gives design of the amplifier of Fig. 11. First
chapter 4. A number of narrow-band, us the voltages and collector currents is the 100-ohm emitter-degeneration re-
multi section band-pass receiver filters for Ql and Q2. These are shown in sist or in the last stage. This serves a
are presented in the appendix. squares in the figure. number of functions. First, it decreases
The next step is to evaluate the the gain to a level which is compatible
Audio Amplifiers for input resistances for each stage. For Q 1 with the desired overall gain. Addition-
Direct -Conversion Receivers and Q2, the input resistance of each is ally, since the output signals from Q3
Direct-conversion receivers differ in given by Rin = 25~ .;. le(mA) leading to may be large, it adds linearity to this
a number of ways from the "superhet." input resistances of 5 kn and 3 kn for stage in order to minimize distortion.
Most significant is where the incoming Ql and Q2, respectively. The input Finally, it increases the bandwidth of
signal is detected immediately with no
intermediate heterodyning processes.
Another difference is the gain dis-
tribution. The typical superhet will have +10V
most of the gain concentrated in the i-f
section, with only 30 to 60 dB being E3>EV
achieved at audio frequencies. On the 10k 1000
other hand, the direct-conversion re-
ceiver has nearly all of the gfIin con-
centrated in the audio section. Indeed,
when a diode type of product detector
+1
is used without an rf amplifier (as
described in the previous section), the
only gain in the receiver is in the audio 10pF
stages. INP~+ 15V 2000-
OHM
The high gain requirement of the 10pF LOAD
audio section of a direct-conversion 15V
-
receiver places more stringent require- RIM
-3000
ments on the amplifier design than
25k 50k
would be the case with a superhet. Not
only must the gfIin be high, there should +
be no instability in the amplifier. While 10k T~10PF
~15V
oscillations rarely occur in the low-gain
amplifiers used in superhets, they can
take place when the amplifier has up to
100 dB or more of gain. Finally, the Fig. 11 - A three-stage. highllain audio amplifier which uses inexpensive bipolar transistors,
76 Chapter 5
the supply while still providing high
10
gain: In this case about 78 dB (assuming
the output is terminated in a resistance
equaling the input resistance of the
transistor). The gain of the op amp is
determined by the feedback resistors, in
this case the 47 -kn and l-kn units. It
would be possible to increase the gain
considerably by shorting the l-kn re-
sistor, thus biasing the op amp to
operate at its open-loop gain value.
However, the noise would probably be
10'"
in tolerable. If op amps are used in
z high-gain applications, it would be wise
:>
.... to use low-noise types. The LM-301A is
~ preferred over the 741, and the
LM-308N is probably one of the best
low-noise units available.
While op amps have appeared
frequently as audio amplifiers in the
halp literature, they have often been
misused. The advantage of using an op
amp over other kinds of circuitry is that
the performance of the ultimate circuit
is controllable through the use of feed-
back. Generally, an op amp should not
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9103 2 3
be used in an open-loop manner. Fur-
FREQUENCY thermore, potentiometers should never
be necessary to bias an op amp in an
Fig. 12 - Circuit and frequency-response characteristics of a passive audio filter.
audio application!
The two amplifiers described in the
foregoing text are suitable as the major
gain blocks in many direct-conversion
the overall amplifier. This is of sig- driven from a 50-ohm source, and the receivers. There are other ways to ob-
nificance in stabilizing the operation of output is termi,nated in 3000 ohms. tain the needed gain, leaving plenty of
the gain block, because of the dc feed- Note that over 40 dB of attenuation is room for experimentation. The am-
back method of biasing. present at 10kHz. plifiers described are merely examples.
A O.l-J.lF capacitor is shown from Another convenient means for If a loud speaker is driven instead of
the base of Q3 to ground. This capacitor achieving high gain at audio frequencies 2000-ohm headphones, other circuits
will have an impedance of about 1.6 kn is through the use of IC op amps. Most must be used, ones which are capable of
at 1 kHz, leading to a low-pass charac- of the commercially available op-amp driving lower impedances.
teristic for the overall response. Note ICs have ex tremely high open -loop gain
that this impedance is much less than at dc, and are applied easily in audio Practical Audio Amplifiers
the collector load of 5 kn on Q2. circuits. Considerable care must be used Integrated circuits have come to the
The input impedance of the overall if optimum results are to be obtained. fore in recent years, filling a need for
amplifier is about 3 kn. Hence, if the Shown in Fig. 13 is an audio am- compact low-power audio amplifiers of
input were driven directly from the plifier using a bipolar transistor and a the transformerless variety. For most
low-impedance output of a diode type 741 op-amp. The advantage of this amateur applications a chip in the 025-
of product detector (typically around circuit is that it is decoupled easily from to 2-watt class is suitable. The majority
50 ohms) very little of the output
energy would be transferred. To realize
the full gain of the amplifier, an im-
pedance transformation is required at +12V
the input. This could be a simple audio +. 1000
23,uF
transformer with a turns ratio of, say, T AUDIO AMPLIFIER
6800
1:5. Transformers at the input to a ,..J, 22k
VOLTAGE GAIN'18
70...
6.
8 9
10
1
5 '. ,'2
ssb reception. The net effect is one of
minimizing high-frequency noise and
4 3 heterodynes. This aids in reducing the
80TTOM VIEW
+12V QRM problem and enhances the overall
(8)
signal-to-noise characteristics of the re-
ceiver. Some cw operators prefer an
3.5-W
even lower roll-off point for the audio
DRIVER AF OUTPUT system - 600 or 700 Hz. Similarly, one
470
may desire to cause a low-frequency
Ql
2N58801 roll-off in the 100- to 300-Hz region.
S7003
The exact frequency is a rnatter of
subjectivity, depending on the op-
1000 10k
erator's choice of receiver fidelity. A
good low-frequency roll-off will im-
1000
prove reception by eliminating much of
1000
the low-frequency rumble caused by
1000 QRN and sideband energy from ssb
Rl stations operating near the chosen fre-
1000 quency. Furthermore, 60-Hz hum prob-
lems are minimized if shaping of that
22k kind is used. Low-impedance hi-fi head-
8 7 6 5 Q1.Q2 phones are not recommended for use
(C)
8 1 2 3 4
TOP VIEW
O
8
BOTTOM
VIEW
o
E
C
with receivers which do not have audio
systems that have been shaped for com-
munications bandwidths. The wide fre-
quency response of such headsets will
degrade the readability of weak signals
by allowing noise and high-pitched het-
erodynes to pass, to say nothing about
Fig. 14 - Examples of audio amplifiers. 60- and l20-Hz hum that may be
present.
In the interest of reducing the har-
monic distortion level of an audio-
of these ICs are designed to operate into distortion characteristics. Distortion of ou tpu t amplifier, it is useful to have
a nominal load impedance of 8 ohms at that kind is not especially troublesome more audio power capability than is
the rated harmonic distortion character- at high audio-output levels, but during required. When the maximum rated
istic set by the manufacturer. However, weak-signal reception, and at mod- power of an audio IC or discrete-device
headphones can be substituted for a erately low audio-output amounts, the amplifier is depended upon for adequate
speaker in most instances, regardless of distortion will affect the quality of the sound level, the system is operating in
the headset impedance (4 to 2000 received signal. A cw note, for example, its maximum harmonic-distortion
ohms), and satisfactory operation will will exhibit a fuzzy sound which can region. Hi-fi designers rely on the
result without damage to the IC re- impair readability. general concept of having more audio
sulting from a mismatched condition. The use of discrete devices in an than is needed, thereby permitting the
One problem exists when certain audio-output stage (at power levels amplifier to operate over a portion of its
audio ICs are used: Biasing is done above, say, 100 mW) permits the de- curve where minimum distortion will
internally, thereby preventing the signer to tailor the circuit for minimum occur.
builder from improving the cross-over cross-over distortion. It would be waste- A a.s-w Ie audio amplifier is shown
78 Chapter 5
resenting a voltage gain of 3.
V OUTPUT
An audio preamplifier is necessary
VINPUT
4700 ahead of U3 if the system is to be used
directly after a product detector. A
single-stage Class A amplifier, such as a
2N2222A, will suffice. Rl functions as
a protective circuit for the input of U3
during discharge periods of C 1. CRI
serves as an antisaturation clamp to
Fig. 15 - Example of a two-pole passiveaudio filter which contains an 88-mH toroidal-wound
inductor in each resonator.
prevent latchup of U3. This circuit is
patterned after one described by lung
(IC Op Amp Cookbook). Idling current
is practically zero because QI and Q2
in Fig. 14A. A Motorola plastic 8-pin lations. The R-Cnetworks and all other are biased off during no-signal periods.
dual inline device is used. The chip circuit connections to the chip should Additional audio amplifiers for driving a
contains a preamplifier and audio- be kept as short ''is possible to ensure speaker are presented in the ARRL
output section for driving an 8-ohm stability. A .05-pF capacitor is em- Electronics Data Book and in the Hand-
load. The preamplifier voltage gain is ployed between pin I and ground to book.
nominally 100, and the audio power decrease the amplifier bandwidth -
another aid to stability. This IC can be Audio Filters
amplifier has a gain of 10. The com-
bination provides a voltage gain of used safely with headphones which ex- When overall selectivity in a receiver
1000. With 3 mV of input signal, 0.5 W hibit impedances from 4 to 2000 ohms. is lacking, especially for cw use, a
of audio output will occur. Similarly, a 4- or 8-ohm speaker can be significant improvement can be realized
No-signal resting current is approx- used in place of a 16-ohm one, but the with the addition of an audio filter.
imately 4 rnA at 9 V. The IC works lower the voice-coil impedance below There are two common situations. One
nicely with headphones in the 8- to 16 ohms, the greater the percentage of is when a superhet receiver is designed
2000-ohm impedance class and is quite harmonic distortion. primarily for ssb and has an i-f band ..
suitable for use in small portable re- width of approxim~.tely 2 kHz. If this
ceivers. The 33-pH rf choke seen at the A 3.5-Watt Amplifier receiver is used for cw, an audio band-
output port is used to suppress hf In applications where maximum cur- pass fIlter can do wonders in reducing
parasitic oscillations which can occur. rent drain is not a matter of prime the effects of QRM. The other case is
Such unwanted energy can radiate from importance, the circuit of Fig. 14C is when the receiver follows the direct-
the circuit board and speaker leads, worthy of consideration. A com- conversion concept, where all adjacent-
causing interference to the front end plementary-symmetry Class B audio channel selectivity must, by necessity,
and i-f sections of a receiver. For op- pair, Q I and Q2, is driven by U3, a originate at audio frequencies.
eration from a 12- or 13-V power noninverting voltage amplifier which Audio filters may be synthesized
supply, it is a simple matter to drop the serves as a phase spli tter. through two methods. The first is where
IC operating voltage to 8 or 9 volts by This circuit is designed to deliver inductors and capacitors are used to
means of a three-terminal regulator. If approximately 3.5 watts to a 4-ohm form resonant circuits. These resonators
the IC is operated from a 9-V battery, a load. Supply voltage can range from 12 are coupled in order to obtain multi pole
300-pF capacitor should be placed in to 14. THD (total harmonic distortion) responses. The other technique (more
parallel with the battery to prevent will be roughly 0.25 percent at 3.5 popular) is the use of R-C active-filter
distortion caused by increased battery watts output. Most of the voltage gain is sections. Here, capacitors and resistors
resistance as the battery becomes de- effected at U3, with QI and Q2 rep- are used in conjunction with feedback
pleted. Under normal operating con-
ditions the harmonic distortion is rated
at 0.5 percent at 250 mW of output to
an 8-ohm load. . 100
+12V
+
A I-Watt Amplifier 1O}J~T 4700
15Vr+7 FILTER
A Motorola MCI454G can be used
when a power output of I watt is
desired. The IC has ten leads and is
contained in a 602B style case (similar
INPUT o---j
22'
:O}JUTIO:F
15V 15V
4
w
CJl
z
0
a..
CJl
w 3
ll:
W
R = 1 <!l
2rrlo y CIC2 ~
0 2
>
/C1 w
>
i=
Q=1/2.j E2
..J
w
ll:
I
R2s2C I C2 + I + 2sRC2
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 4400 1600 4800
where s = jw = j2rrl FREQUENCY
Fig. 17 - A simple low-pass filter section Fig.18 - Curves for output voltage versus input frequency. illustrating the effects of Q.
using an active device.
amplifiers in order to synthesize the low-pass and band-pass responses will be Earphones can be driven directly from
same effect that could be obtained with considered in this section. the outputs through an electrolytic cap-
a passive combination of inductors and Shown in Fig. 17 is a simple low-pass acitor.
capacitors. The advantages of the latter filter section. This circuit should be In principle, any number of filter
are many. First, inductors for the audio driven from a low-impedance source - sections may be cascaded to obtain the
frequencies are bulky, heavy and ex- one with an output resistance much less response desired. For most amateur
pensive. Their losses are often high. than the R used in the filter. At dc this applications identical fIlter sections are
Conversely, resistors and capacitors are circuit will have a voltage gain of unity. used, resulting in a Bessel type of
lightweight and compact, and are inex- However, at well above the cutoff fre- transfer response, while simplifying the
pensive. If desired, gain can be obtained quency there will be significant atten- design procedure. It is not necessary
from an active filter. uation. The response near the center that the sections be identical. If the
Shown in Fig. 15 is a simple two- frequency will depend upon the design cu toff frequencies and individual
pole band-pass filter which is designed Q of the network, which is determined section Qs are chosen properly, Butter-
around an 88-mH toroidal inductor of by the ratio of the two capacitors used. worth and Chebyshev response filters
the kind used by RTTY enthusiasts. The output voltage will be Q times the may be synthesized. .
This filter was designed (using predis- input voltage at the center frequency, Shown in Fig. 21 is a single-section
tor ted Butterworth tables) for a center 10' Fig. 18 presents curves of output band-pass filter. This circuit differs from
frequency of 800 Hz and a 3-dB band- voltage versus input frequency for cases
width of 150 Hz. The measured un- where Q is 1/2, 1, 3 and 5.
loaded Q of the inductors was approx- The amplifier used for filters of this
ima tely 25 at 1 kHz. kind is quite simple. The voltage gain
The operation of any LC selective should be unity and the amplifier
filter is critically dependent upon the should be noninverting. A simple emit- INPUT
resistive terminations at each end of the ter follower using a high-beta transistor
fIlter. The unit described in Fig. 14 such as the 2N3565 is often suitable.
must have a termination of 4.7-kD on Shown in Fig. 19 are two other circuits
each side if the proper passband is to which may be used. One is a 741 or
result. Shown in Fig. 16 are two suitable similar op amp, wired in the follower
methods fcir terminating the LC filter. configuration. The other uses a pair of
Both of these systems can provide con- transistors in a feedback arrangement.
+12V
siderable gain. In the case where op Both amplifiers should be biased so the
amps are used, the designer should dc voltage is approximately half the 10k
remember that the use of feedback supply voltage.
causes both the output impedance and Useful filters are built using the
the impedance looking into the in- circuits just discussed by cascading
verting port to be essentially zero. many sections. The fact that this circuit OUTPUT
The more exciting technique for has unity gain at dc makes biasing easy. 2N3565
audio filter design is the R-C active An example is shown in Fig. 20. The INPUT 1N914A
approach. Virtually all of the response first unity gain amplifier is used as a
types of interest can be handled. This follower to bias the following stages
includes the low-pass, high-pass, and properly. The lO-J.lF input capacitor is
bandpass responses as well as assorted large enough to allow response down to
band-reject and all-pass functions. An low frequencies. A O.l-J.lF unit would be
example of an all-pass response would desirable since this would cause the
be seen in the phase-shifting networks input section to act as a single-section UNITY GAIN NON INVERTING AMPLIFIERS
of the kind used in phasing-type ssb high-pass filter. This would ensure con-
transmitters or receivers. Only simple siderable attenuation at 60 and 120 Hz. Fig. 19 - Unity-gain noninverting amplifiers.
80 Chapter 5
the low-pass filter, a value of 0.1 tIF for
+t2V Cl is a good starting point, with C2
being picked to yield the desired section
OUTPUT
Q. A value of .022 tIF is suitable for the
+ t--o band-pass circuit.
IOl
INP~,uF
10}JF Care must be used when applying
'5vlook 157
these ideas to the design of a direct-
conversion receiver. Ideally , for best
BIAS OF LOW-PASS FILTER
dynamic range, the place for selectivity
in any receiver is at as Iowa signal level
as possible. However, noise considera-
Fig. 20 - Biasing of cascaded filter sections is simple, as shown here. tions may not allow this route to be
followed. For example, the active band-
the low-pass one because there is no the 741, 747, '5558 duals or the pass filter discussed has a resistive at-
response at dc, and the attenuation at LM-301A. For critical low-noise applica- tenuator at its input if it is designed for
high frequencies is not as pronounced as tions the LM-308N would be ideal, but anything less than maximum possible
with the low-pass filter. The filter offers it is more expensive. gain. This attenuator, along with the
some simplification because the capac- Other circuits may be employed to noise in the op amp used for the first
itors are equal in value. Furthermore, obtain a bandpass response. However, filter section, would severely com-
this circuit is capable of yielding con- the results would be essentially the promise the noise figure and sensitivity
siderable voltage gain at the center same. The simple band-pass section dis- of a receiver which used a diode type of
frequency. cussed has the advantage that it is not as product detector - if the filter were to
Shown in Fig. 22 are normalized sensitive to component variations as follow the detector. On the other hand,
voltage responses for this circuit, as a some other circuits. This general ap- if all of the selectivity of a direct-
function of frequency, for design Qs of proach is used commercially for some conversion receiver was concentrated at
1, 3 and 5. The voltage gain at the ready-built filters offered to the radio the output of the audio amplifier, one
center frequency can be as high as 2Q2 . amateur. would have an acceptable noise figure,
While high voltage gain is sometimes Both of the R-C active filters pre- but the audio amplifier would severely.
an advantage, it can cause a problem if sented allow latitude to the designer in overload from adjacent-channel signals.
the filter is used with an existing re- the choice of components. In each case The best approach would be a com-
ceiver. In such cases, it is more desirable the capacitors may be picked on an bination of the two methods. That is,
to operate a filter with a gain close to arbitrary basis. The design frequency some passive low-pass filtering should be
unity, or just slightly above. The band. and the Q are then chosen. For the used between the product detector and
pass circuit of Fig. 21 is modified easily low-pass fIlter the Q will place a con- the first audio amplifier in order to
by including an attenuator section at straint upon the ratio of the capacitors, protect the audio amplifier, with the
the input, which causes the overall while the center-frequency gain must be major close-in selectivity achieved after
voltage gain to be H o. This is any chosen for the band-pass case. Mter some amplification. It is worthwhile to
desired value less than or equal to the these parameters are pinned down, the include selected capacitors within the
maximum available value of2Q2. resistor values can be calculated. For audio amplifier to attenuate the higher
Since the filter section of Fig. 23 has low-Q situations (Qs less than 6 or 8), audio frequencies.
no output response for a dc input signal, the nearest lO-percent resistors can be A question often posed is whether to
it requires a different approach to used. It is advisable to select the larger use a low-pass or a band-pass filter. This
biasing if a single power supply is used. capacitance values, for this leads to query is difficult to answer, for it will
A circuit using several bandpass sections lower resistance values, and keeps the depend to a large extent upon the
with a single power supply is shown in impedances low enough to maintain a personal preferences of the user. Cer-
Fig. 24A. Multisection filters of this low-noise output. Miniaturization would tainly, the sharp band-pass filter built
kind may be built with op amps, such as lead one in the opposite direction. For with four or five sections, each having a
1.0
c
VIN~C
r R'
vo ....
oo
z
.8
R 0
c-
oo
.... .6
a:
....
(!)
~
oJ
0 .4
>
....
>
-sCR' ~
oJ .2
UJ
a:
1+s2C2RR' + 2sCR
0
\400 \800
where s = jw = j2rrf 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
FREQUENCY
Fig. 21 - Representation of a single-section Fig. 22 - Curves for output voltage versus input frequency of the single-section band-pass
active band-pass filter. filter.
'~"1' 6
+12V
10k
CAl
10k
l +
O0
)lF
+v
150
150
150 150
+
,.Ll5)lF +
+ ~15)lF
~15)lF + + 2700
~15)lF 33k
r:
'+;5)lF
R
.~
15)lF
04
R R
R R
.1
Fig. 24 - Multisection active filters with single power-supply voltage. 01 to 05 are 2N3565 (or equiv,L R is 3300 n for 1-kHz cutoff or
1500 n for 2.3-kHz cutoff,
82 Chapter 5
speaker. The usual i-f was 455 kHz.
Such a receiver, set for reception at 14.0
SIGNAL
MHz, is seen in Fig. 25. INPUT
Note that the local oscillator in this
receiver is operating at 14.455 MHz in
order to produce a 455-kHz i-f from an
arriving 14-MHz signal at the antenna
terminals of the receiver. However, the
i-f image in such a receiver is the other
incoming signal at the mixer input
which would also provide a 455-kHz
output: in this case, 14.910 MHz. To
keep the receiver from being dominated TUNED I-F AMPLIFIER
COIL COIL
INDUCTOR INDUCTOR
R SIGNAL
OUTPUT
COIL
LOSSES
RS
SIG. Cl
IN C2 RL
84 Chapter 5
subtracted from the value specified by
the manufacturer.
SIGNAL
Collins mechanical filters are avail-
INPUT able with center frequencies from 64 to
500 kHz and in a variety of band-
widths. Insertion loss ranges from 2 dB
to as much as 12 dB, depending on the
style of filter used. Of greatest interest
to amateurs are the 455.kHz mechanical
filters specified as F455. They are avail-
able in bandwidths of 375 Hz, 1.2 kHz,
SERIES RESONATING 1.9 kHz, 2.5 kHz, 2.9 kHz, 3.8 kHz and
(AI 5.8 kHz. Maximum insertion loss is 10
dB, and the characteristic impedance is
2000 ohms. Different values of reso-
MIXER
na ting capacitance are required for the
SIGNAL
INPUT various models, spreading from 350 to
II 00 pF. AIthough some mechanical
130 filters are terminated internally, this
series requires external source and load
terminations of 2000 ohms. The F455
filters are the least expensive of the
Collins line.
Crystal Filters
+12V
PARALLEL RESONATING Although a complete theoretical
(Sl understanding of crystal filters is com-
plicated, it is possible for the advanced
Fig. 31 - Examples of series and parallel resonating when using mechanical filters. amateur to build his own filters. This
possibility should not be dismissed as a
viable approach. We will not describe
the design procedure from a formal
poin t of view: Some basic concepts will
Hz. Bandwidths down to 0.1 percent through the disk resonators to filter out be presented which should allow some
can be obtained with these filters. This the undesired frequencies, then through filters to be built empirically.
means that a filter having a center the output transducer where the Shown in Fig. 32 is the equivalent
frequency of 455 kHz could have a mechanical energy is converted back to circuit for a crysta1. It is used as the
bandwidth as small as 45.5 Hz. By the original electrical form. basis for filter synthesis. This circuit
inserting a wire through the centers of The transducers serve a second func- shows the normal series-resonant circuit
several resonator disks, thereby coupling tion: They reflect the source and load consisting of the motional inductance
them, the fractional bandwidth can be impedances into the mechanical portion and motional capacitance which are in-
made as great as 10 percent of the of the circuit, thereby providing a herent in the piezoelectric crystal. The
center frequency. The upper limit is termination for the filter. An analogous parallel capacitance, Cp, is predomi-
governed primarily by occurrence of representation of a mechanical filter is nantly a result of the metallic plating
unwanted spurious filter responses given in Fig. 30. which is used to provide electrical con-
adjacent to the desired passband. Mechanical filters require external nection to the quartz plate. Also shown
Mechanical filters can be built for resonating capacitors which are used is a series resistance, Rs, which repre-
center frequencies from 60 to 600 kHz. across the transducers. If the filters are sents the losses in a crystal.
The main limiting factor is disk size. At not resonated, there will be an increase
the low end of the range the disks in insertion loss, plus a degradation of
become prohibitively large, and at the the passband characteristics. Concerning
high limit of the range the disks become the latter, there will be various
too small to be practical.
An illustration of how a mechanical
unwanted dips in the nose response
(ripple), which can lead to undesirable
o
filter works is given in Fig. 29. As the effects. The exact amount of shunt
incoming i-f signal passes through the capacitance will depend on the filter
input transducer it is converted to model used. The manufacturer's data
mechanical energy. This energy is passed sheet specifies the proper capacitor
values.
Most bipolar transistor i-f amplifiers - - -liZ - - - - - - - - - - -
have an input impedance of 1000 ohms
or less. There are situations where the
..
,.:
}3dB
output impedance of the stage pre- :J Bw
...
0.
tuned circuits. For example, an 80- As the resistance is decreased, the ripple
meter crystal was studied while using will disappear, leaving a fairly flat
'homemade test equipment, leading to a response over a bandwidth determined
motional inductance of 69 mH, a by the separation in crystal frequency.
motional capacitance of .029 pF, a Shown in Fig. 36 is a modified
parallel capacitance of about 8 pF, and version of the filter just described. Four Fig. 36 - Example of a cascadedhalf-lattice
a series resistance of 21 ohms. The crystals are used. This filter is called a crystal filter.
86 Chapter 5
metallic can, should be mounted
YI YZ Y3 Y4
RG 0 0 0 0 VO
directly against a metallic ground plane.
~IJ1'f
LOWER-SIDEBAND LADDER FILTER
Intermediate-Frequency Amplifiers
The intermediate-frequency
~OUTPUT
AGe VOLTAGE
+12V 47 220 .1 (APPROX. 4 VOLTS
FOR MAX. GAIN)
~ OUTPUT
3900
S;TUN:OTOI-F
'''"'1 +12V
88 Chapter 5
+12V
considering the low currents required. collector voltage of the input stage, Q3,
In spite of these assets, the device is not also remains constant. This results in
a panacea. One problem is that the noise minimal capacitive feedback in the in-
figure of the MOSFET increases fast as put stage, ensuring good stability and
the gain is decreased. Also, the distor- excellent input to output isolation.
tion properties degrade markedly as Under normal bias conditions, with
.1
reverse agc is applied to gate 2. This is no agc voltage applied to the circuit of
evident if gate 2 is made more negative Fig. 46, the output current of Q3 will
~
2200 than the source. The reader is referred be routed directly into the emitter of
to the appendix for information on the Q1. However, as current is injected into
2200
.,... .. +5V analytical design of MOSFET amplifiers. the base of Q2, this transistor will begin
to conduct. As a result, part of the
+5V r+-,
IC I-F Amplifiers collector current in Q3 will be routed
BIPOLAR DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Shown in Fig. 43 is the circuit of an through Q2 ,causing a decrease in the
amplifier using a differential pair of signal flowing in Ql, the output. With
Fig. 43 - A differential pair i-f amplifier.
bipolar transistors. Although it may not this type of agc the operating biases on
be obvious, the two transistors are Q3 remain constant. Because of this, the
receivers. The main objective is to en- operating essentially in push-pull. This input impedance of the circuit remains
sure that the noise figure does not can be seen by considering the effect of constant.
increase faster than the gain decreases, a positive-going signal at the base of Q1. While the agc range available from a
as agc is applied. This voltage causes the current in Q1 to cascade amplifier of the type shown in
increase. However, the emitter resistor Fig. 45 is limited, the technique can be
MOSFET I-F Amplifiers common to the two stages supplies applied in more complicated circuits.
A popular i-f amplifier is the dual- virtually a constant current to the pair An IC i-f amplifier that uses this
gate MOSFET. This device has some of transistors. Hence, as the current in "current-robbing" method for agc is the
attributes that make it attractive. First, Q1 increases, that in Q2 decreases. Motorola MC1590G. A less expensive
very high stable gain can be realized. Signal currents flow in both transistors cousin is the MC1350P. A circuit using
The noise figure can also be made with opposite phase. this Ie is shown in Fig. 46.
exceptionally low. Techniques for The differential amplifier has its The main advantages of the
achieving low noise figures with input impedance higher by a factor of2 MC1350P amplifier come from its
MOSFETs are discussed in the following as contrasted to a single-stage amplifier. sophistication. Three differential ampli-
chapter. Finally, by changing the bias This can be used to advantage in termi- fiers are contained in one package. The
on gate 2 of the device, considerable nating crystal filters. middle differential pair of transistors is
gain reduction can be realized. An i-f The gain in a differential amplifier paralleled with an extra pair that serves
amplifier using a dual-gate MOSFET is may often be lowered by decreasing the the role of current robbing from the
shown in Fig. 42. current supplied to the two emitters. main signal path. The MC1350P is
An advantage of a MOSFET ampli- While this could be achieved by lifting capable of gains up to 65 dB and has
fier is that the input impedance is the grounded end of the emitter resistor agc ranges of comparable value. A curve
relatively independent of the gain and and applying a positive potential, it is of gain reduction verSllS applied agc
current in the device. Furthermore, the done more easily with an additional voltage is much smoother than tha t of
distortion properties are relatively good, transistor. the typical differential amplifier. This
This brings us to a popular IC i-f
amplifier using the RCA CA3028A. A
circuit is shown in Fig. 44. Q3 in this
amplifier acts as a constant-current +t2V
source to supply the emitters. Because
of controlled techniques applied in the
manufacturing of ICs, Ql and Q2 are
virtually identical. This results in good 5600
90 Chapter 5
amplifier. This might be followed by a each approach. While the audio-derived
VARIABLE-GAIN
mixer or a product detector which agc systems are often easier to build, we AMPLIFIER
would have a different output fre. will show that the i-f derived system is
quency than the one at which the main much better from a dynamics point of
amplifier operates. Eventually, a low- view.
impedance source is used to drive a Consider first the case of audio peak
diode peak detector. This produces a dc detection. Shown in Fig. 51 are the
control voltage on capacitor Cl. This waveforms that will result - assuming
output is increased in a suitable dc that initially the system is operating at
amplifier and applied to the control line full gain and that the agc loop is
of the variable-gain amplifier. The dc opened at point X in Fig. 50. At some
amplifier may be inverting or nonin- instant (t = 0) a strong carrier appears in
verting, depending upon the nature of the passband of the receiver. The
the desired control voltage. The choice resulting audio signal that is applied to
is made so that an increased voltage on the input of the detector is shown in Fig. 50 - Circuit representation of a total agc '
Fig. 51A. The current that will flow in loop.
C 1 leads to a decrease in gain of the
controlled amplifier. the detector diode is shown in part B of
There are two schemes for detection. the figure, while the resulting voltage on
One detects the i-f signal while the other CI is displayed at Fig. SIC.
uses the audio that is present in the Consider now' what will happen if
receiver. There are valid arguments for the agc system is again turned on by removing the open circuit at point X of
Fig. 50. Assume that the desired maxi-
mum level of audio output is VA peak
volts (Fig. 51 A).
+12V When the instantaneous voltage at
the detector input reaches this level, CI
3000
will have been charged to a level which
will stabilize the gain. However, the
.01 PIN .01 audio cycle has just barely started. In
INPUT<>--1 r--00UTPUT
reality it continues to grow, placing
more charge into Cl. Once the peak of
the audio cycle has been reached, no
PIN additional diode current flows. In all
2700
likelihood, the capacitor will have
charged too far, and no additional audio
output will occur for several cycles of
6V
Tv;
;+.;01 audio output. The capacitor will slowly.
[.0 MAX. GAIN
discharge through Rl until the gain
VGC '\:.6 MAX. ATTENUATION
recovers to the point where current
pulses again flow in the diode at the
Fig. 48 - Bridge-Tee attenuator using PIN diodes. audio peaks. Because the level is now
changing slowly in comparison to the
ra te tha t the curreri t pulses are arri Ying
from the diode output, the agc loop will
now follow the strength variations of
the arriving signal, holding the output
fairly constant. However, the initial
tOO
100 ,.+;1 overshoot described not only causes a
1000 1000
,+;1 large click or thump in the receiver
output, but may cause information to
.O?-_.f-~~f_~rt be lost for a short period.
The answer to stabilization of the
~ audio-derived loop is to add some resis-
,01 10 10 .01 tance in series with the diode (or to
INPUT<>4 +6V +6V
;L1 f-oOUTPUT
increase impedance of the diode driver).
RFC
This will slow the response to the point
that the capacitor CI may not become
.0~.Ot
FL2
completely charged by one cycle of
510 510 audio. Unfortunately, this reduces the
1000 1000 rate that i.f gain is reduced and leads to
100 100 the initial information causing excessive
+6V
1'.1
r+, ,.+;1 +6V receiver output.
Consider now the case of an i.f
derived detection system. This is shown
in the set of curves shown in Fig. 52
where the time scale is essentially the
same as that used for the audio-derived
case. There are a number of different
PIN DIODE FILTER SWITCHING features. First, the rate that current
pulses from the diode detector are
Fig. 49 - Diode switching with PIN devices in i-f filter section of a receiver. applied to the memory capacitor, Cl, is
92 Chapter 5
+12V
The action of the two loops is . range, from ground to the positive
explained by considering sequentially supply. This will cause C2 to be charged
10k
how the circuit behaves. First, consider to a high negative voltage. The value will
OUTPUT
TO AGe OET. the effect of a short pulse of noise. This be approximately twice the supply volt-,
pulse will produce a lengthened age at U2. In this condition Q3 is
response at the output of the i-f filter, pinched off. Because of this the only
15V
10~"
AF
GAIN
which is detected ultimately by CRl to discharge path for the main memory
cause a momentary reduction of the i-f capacitor, Cl, is through Rl, a 22-
gain. Audio output will result in the megohm resistor. When the signal
receiver and will also cause a signal to disappears, C2 begins to discharge
appear at CR2 and CR3. Because of the through R2. When the voltage at the
lN914 100-kQ resistor in series with CR2, C2 gate of Q3 becomes close to ground, so.
will acquire a small charge from this the FET is no longer in a pinch-off
pulse. As a result, the main memory condition, Cl is discharged quickly
Fig. 54 - Audio limiter for use with af types capacitor, C 1, will discharge quickly through Q3.
of agc loops. through R3 and the drain of Q3. Listening to a system of this kind is
On the other hand, co'nsider the enlightening after being accustomed to
effect of a carrier, a string of cw the simpler methods. With the full hang
characters, or a ssb signal. CRI will agc, the receiver is virtually silent after a
again charge C 1, and will lead to a gain strong signal disappears from the pass-
Diode CRI serves as the main agc reduction. in the i-f system. The sus- band. However, after a timing period
detector, with the following amplifier tained audio signal that results will associated with the C2-R2 timing net-
being adjusted to drive MC1350P or cause CR2 and CR3 to operate and work, the receiver returns to full gain
MC1590G amplifiers. The system could charge capacitor C2 negatively. The gain within roughly 50 milliseconds. The
be adapted for the reverse agc of the of the op amp driving these diodes is time delay is virtually independent of
CA3028A, or for virtually any i-f adjusted so that normal signals cause the the strength of the incoming signal.
characteristic. op-amp output to swing over its full An audio signal is suitable for driving
+12V
10k
+12V
47k
CW 1N914A
10k
MANUAL
GAIN
1N914A
1N914A
;f0 CA3028AS
lEl
Fig. 55 - Circuits for audio or i-t derived agc which can be interfaced with IC j-f amplifiers.
CR1
lN914 +12V
OR HOT
CARRIER
DIODE
I-F/AF~
INPUT V"""( 6
1.uF
\ 1N914
5V,NO SIGNAL
10k
CR2
100k lN914A
10k TO
f---o
.1
TO AF GAIN CONTROL
(HIGH END)
lOOk
100k
Fig. 56 - Agc system which offers improved time constant over the circuits of Fig. 55.
secondary detector, CR2, because a drive the detector diode. This extra gain Usually, the variation in audio output in
slow response is desired in this loop. An is usually minor with audio-derived dB is given for an input variation from a
i-f derived signal could be used also. The systems, since the levels are already high few dB above threshold to a level 60 or
741 op amp, U2, would need to be when that part of the receiver is 80 dB stronger. This figure of merit, no
replaced with a circuit suitable for the reached. With an i-f derived detector, 10 rnatter how it is defined, will depend
i-f frequency used. to 40 dB of additional gain is often mainly on the overall fixed gain in the
An agc system of this kind is used in required, depending upon the overall i.f agc loop and upon the agc character-
a receiver at W7Z0I. It will be described gain. Care should be taken to ensure istics of the i-f amplifier.
later. The agc characteristics have been that the agc detector is not activated by
studied extensively by means of a trig- Simple Superheterodyne
the BFO energy. BFO energy should be
gered oscilloscope. No sign of overshoot Front.End Design
confined to the product detector, as
or pumping could be detected with outlined earlier. Of all of the parts in a receiver the
signals ranging from the minimum The agc threshold of a receiver (the front end is probably the most critical.
detectable amount up to 50 mW at the level at the antenna terminal where agc A poor design can lead to disastrous
antenna terminals. Higher levels would action begins) is determined by the results. A proper design will yield
probably endanger the front.end com- characteristics of the detector diode and acceptable performance. This receiver
ponents of the receiver. Thesignal to be the gain ahead of the detector. For most section is so critical that we have
detected was derived from a9-MHzH applica tions a suitable threshold is -100 devoted an entire chapter to its design.
amplifier. to -110 dBm. Special attention is paid to the problems
With the agc systems outlined, addi. The "tightness" of an agc loop can of noise figure and dynamic range. The
tional gain may be required in order to be expressed in a number of ways. criterion for optimizing either is pre.
sented with a discussion of the tradeoffs
between the two.
While not difficult, the subject of
front-end design is complicated enough
that it cannot be approached casually.
TO I-F In this section some information is
ANTENNA I
presented for the beginning experi-
~ menter. Totally acceptable performance
for general-purpose applications may be
attained if a few precautions are fol-
lowed. Some sample circuits are given
with rules of thumb for their use. The
TO reader is referred to chapter 6 and to
I-F
ANT. I the appendix for design details.
~ Block Diagram
The front-end section of a receiver is
that portion containing the first mixer,
Fig. 57 - Block diagrams of receiver front end for single-conversion circuits. preselection filters and perhaps an rf
94 Chapter 5
is determined by the unloaded-Q value
LO. 5V pk-pk
. 01 f MIXER
40673
9MHz
of the inductor and the loading pre-
sented by the 50-ohm antenna .
The values shown in Fig. 58 are for
14MHz
D
T1
an input on the 20-meter band. The
inductor has a Qu of approximately 200
TO and consists of 20 turns on a toroidal
10k ~500-0HM
form. The antenna link contains 2 turns.
~ LOAD
Bee ause impedances transform
according to the square of the turns
ratio with toroidal cores, the equivalent
resistance across the coil is 5000 ohms.
The inductance is nominally 1.5 IlH.
The equivalent parallel resistance repre.
senting the unloaded Q is of the order
Fig. 58 - Circuit for a dual-gate MOSFET mixer. of 27 kil. Since this value is large when
compared to the 5000 ohms repre-
senting the antenna loading, the losses
amplifier. The standards that must be Furthermore, it is wise to protect the in the circuit will be small. The loaded
met are to provide sufficient receiver receiver from signals other than those to Q will be 5000 (2rr[L) = 37.4. (See
noise figure and image rejection. Gain is which the receiver is tuned. In many chapter 2 for details.) The 3-dB band-
often desired, although not always receivers this front-end selectivity is wid th of this circuit will be 14;000/37.4
necessary. Shown in Fig. 57 are block provided with a single or a double-tuned = 374 kHz. No tuning would be re-
diagrams for the front end of single- circuit. The latter is preferred, owing to quired for the complete 20-meter band.
conversion receivers. the improved skirt selectivity for a given It would be needed for the lower bands.
The two systems differ only in the 3-dB bandwidth. The design of simple If a higher loaded Q was desired in
inclusion of an rf amplifier in the preselector filters is covered in some of the preselector, it could be obtained by
second. The first contains none. Both the sample circuits. The subject of changing the turns ratio. For example,
circuits have a preselector network and loaded and unloaded Q was covered in the link could be reduced to a single
a mixer. The most tragic mistake made chapter 2. turn. This would produce a QL value of
by the beginning experimenter is that he 85. The value might be higher. This is
uses an rf amplifier when it is not really Mixer Circuits because with only 1 turn for the anten-
needed. The only purpose of an rf There are a number of semi. na link, the coupling may become weak
amplifier in a receiver front end is to conductors that will function well as enough that the turns squared relation-
reduce the overall noise figure. This will mixers. Of all that are available the ship no longer applies. A loaded Q of 85
enhance the sensitivity of the receiver. simplest to use is the dual-gate would imply a bandwidth of 165 kHz.
However, on most of the lower fre- MOSFET. A circuit is shown in Fig. 58. It may be shown that the insertion loss
quency amateur bands an acceptable A single tuned circuit is used as the of the filter will now be much higher
noise figure may be obtained with a preselector. A tuned transformer at the (nearly 10 dB), which would degrade
mixer front end. The effect of the rf output matches the crystal fIlter that noise figure. This is not desired.
amplifier is to increase the signal levels follows the mixer. An additional problem with the
at the mixer, causing a degradation in The gain realized with this circuit higher turns ratio configuration is the
signal-handling ability. will depend upon exact device paramo higher signal voltage appearing at the
A standard for evaluating a receiver eters. Values of 15 dB are representa- input of the MOSFET. This could com-
for sufficiently low noise figure was tive. The proper LO injection level for promise dynamic range. A lower voltage
presented at the beginning of this this mixer is 5 volts pk-pk. Lower levels at the input may be realized by tapping
chapter. It bears repeating: When the will decrease gain and will compromise the gate down on the tuned circuit. This
antenna is connected to the receiver, the dynamic range. The noise figure of this will not alter the loaded Q of the
output noise should increase signifi- front end is often 8 to 10 dB. This is preselector, nor will it reduce insertion
cantly. If this criterion is met there is no low enough to ensure usable sensitivity loss. The tap may be on the coil, or it
need to seek a lower noise figure. in alm.)st all hf applications. may be composed of tapped,capacitors.
Generally speaking, the atmospheric and The dual-gate MOSFET appears to The method of capacitive matching
man-made noise levels from 1.8 to 21 present a very high impedance at its is shown in Fig. 59 where it is applied to
MHz are high enough that an rf ampli- input (gate 1) in the hf region. Because matching of the antenna. If the antenna
fier is redundant. of this, the tuned circuit is singly resistance is Ra (usually 50 ohms) and
Image rejection must be maintained. loaded. The loaded Q of thepreselector the equivalent resistance presented
'IN
ANT.
>-r---1
I
C1
.... T L2 ~
ANT':s:}C2
Receiver Design Basics 95
across the coil is Rc, the two are related
MIXER
with
CIN C3 Ra
>, R =--- (Eq.6)
ANT. I c (l + C1 )2
C2
~
Using this equation, it may be shown
that a 9:1 capacitance ratio would
produce the same 100: 1 impedance
transformation that the link on the coil
Fig. 62 - Example of a double-tuned front end circuit. Seetext for RT' of Fig. 58 afforded.
If a capacitive transformation is used
to decrease the impedance level driving
the gate of the MOSFET (Fig. 60), care
should be used. A resistor would be
required from the gate to ground to
MIXER establish a proper dc bias. This resistor
should be very large in ohmic value.
Otherwise, it might load the coil exces-
sively. In a single tuned circuit, the
loading should come from the antenna
and not from extra resistors that are
added.
A third method for matching into
the resonator would be to use a low-
value capacitor directly between the
antenna terminal and the "hot" end of
the tuned circuit. This is shown in Fig.
Fig. 63 - A singly terminated double-tuned input circuit. 61. The equations for applying this
method are examined in the appendix in
connection with the filter tables.
In the mixer circuit of Fig. 58, a
tuned transformer was used to match
between the drain of the MOSFET and
the crystal filter that follows. With
almost all MOSFETs that are used in
+12V
mixer applications, the output imped-
MIXER ance .is very high. Values of 100 kD. or
fJl",1"
4700 more are representative. If the trans-
C1 2N3137
'~s;J"
former were designed to match between
this level and the 500-ohm input to a
filter (symbolic of the KVG line of
~OUTPUT 9-MHz crystal filters), the dynamic
range of the mixer would be compro-
mised severely. It is mandatory that a
resistance be placed across the coil. This
ohmic unit establishes a well-defined
LO +12V
termination for the filter and limits the
impedance presented to the drain of the
Fig. 64 - Bipolar-transistor mixer with LO-energy injected at the emitter.
mixer.
In the circuit of Fig. 58, the drain
transformer has a 30:7 turns ratio. This
causes the 10-kD. resistor to appear as a
500-ohm termination for the filter. An
equally viable (and often desirable) cir-
cuit for the output would be a pi
RF AMPLIFIER network. It should be designed for a Q
100 E-300 22 of 10.
The single tuned circuits that have
been used for preselection are often
lacking in skirt selectivity. This will
compromise image rejection. A better
circuit is a double or triple tuned one.
Shown in Fig. 62 is a double-tuned
'0:L 47
front end. Again, only a mixer is used.
No constants are given, since they will
+12V
depend upon the band of interest.
Specific designs are presented in the
Fig. 65 - Circuit of a common-gate JFET rf amplifier. filter tables of the appendix.
96 Chapter 5
+12V
repeated until the desired bandwidth is
obtained. The builder should use the
.01
100
filters in the appendix as a guideline for
.1 the approximate values to begin with in
his (or her) empirical realization of a
~ singly terminated filter. It is not recom-
mended that three (or more) filter
~---o TO FILTER AND sections be attempted unless each end
MIXER
FROM of the filter is terminated properly.
FILTER While we have strongly recom-
mended the dual-gate MOSFET mixer,
there are other devices that will perform
suitably for such applications. These
include many ICs which were discussed
in the product-detector section. Bipolar
transistors will also perform as mixers.
A typical circuit is shown in Fig. 64.
The LO is injected onto the emitter of
Fig. 66 - A bipolar-transistor rf amplifier.
the mixer. Best performance will be
obtained from this circuit if large dc
bias currents are used. Bipolar mixers
are not recommended.
A resistor is shown at the output of able. Initially, it should be adjusted for Some of the ICs that are used as
the preselectors, from the gate of the minimum capacitance. The resonators mixers are the MC1496G and
MOSFET mixer to ground. This resistor are then peaked (C I, C2). The input is CA3028A. They have the advantage of
is necessary to terminate the filter prop- swept to ensure that a single response is balance. This reduces the amount of LO
erly. These filters are classed "doubly provided. Then, coupling capacitor C3 is power that might appear at the antenna
terminated," and are representative of increased slightly, and CI and C2 are terminal. These devices are usually more
the filters in the appendix. It is not peaked again. subject to overload effects than the
necessary that double-tuned circuits be This procedure is repeated until a MOSFET is. A receiver described later
doubly terminated. Suitable circuits double-humped type of response ap- in this chapter shows an application of a
may be realized with antenna loading as pears. The coupling-capacitor value is CA3028A mixer.
the only termination. See Fig. 63. This then decreased slightly and left in that
will alter the designs from those given in way. If the bandwidth obtained with RF Amplifiers
the appendix. The best approach for this course is too narrow, the loading at It is sometimes desirable to use an rf
using such filters is empirical. The the antenna terminal may be increased amplifier ahead of a mixer. Special
coupling capacitor (C3) should be vari- (more turns on the link). The process is applications where inclusion could be
DETECTOR
1200 39 10
+12V
+ + iOOpF
1000
.1 3900
~'5"F
25V ,L. 25V
1000
~
.01
9
INP~~ <D---1 8
UI ,L0i 820
1000
II~O
3-8 MHz MC1496G 2200
6
+
15":L
":
~1~;).,JI Ll
j., 820
1000
;Lol +
i5V
<000
2"F '5V 10,oF
"~ ..
OUT
1000 ~
T.'
,L' ft.f
R1 1 V+ 1000
20'
AF GAIN
Fig. 67 - Schematic diagram of the product detector and audio amplifier. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic except those with polarity
marked, which are electrolytic. Fixed-value resistors are 1/2-W composition.
C1 - Miniature 365-pF variable. L1 - Three turns No. 24 enam. wire on Q1, Q2 - Npn transistor, 2N3565 or equiv.
J1 - Antenna receptable of builder's choice. Amidon T68.2 toroid core. R1 - 20,OOO-ohm audio-taper carbon control.
J2 - Two-circuit phone jack. L2 - 40 turns No. 28 enam. wire on L1. U1 - Motorola MC1496G IC.
98 Chapter 5
ner may find it desirable to expand the
size especially if small components are
not available. The existing layout will be
cramped unless rather small O.l-J.lF ca-
paci tors are used.
The VFO is built on a 3 X 3 inch
piece of unclad circuit board with rivet-
in terminals for solder connections. (A
board could be etched for this circuit.)
The two-band receiver is packaged in
a 2 X 4 X 6 inch chassis. No vernier
drive mechanism was used. Instead, two
tuning capacitors are used in parallel.
One functions as the main tuning while
the other serves as a bandspread control.
The main board for the receiver. The input tuned circuit is at the left. adjacent to the product- The advantage is one of mechanical
detector IC. An audio amplifier is contained 'on the remainder of the board. simplicity, allowing quick completion of
the project. Accurate calibration is not
easily realized with this method.
BANDSPREAD +12V
The results obtained with this re-
ceiver were gratifying. Unlike some pro-
140
C2[foo
20 -
NPO
47
470
jects, this receiver functioned as de-
signed when power was applied. Cw and
ssb quality are excellent.
+t2V
;Lol 47
het. After being buil t as shown, a crystal
filter could be added. The VFO can be
BUFFER
moved easily to any frequency in the 3-
05
to 15-MHz range, as outlined earlier.
S.M. SILVER MICA
560 2N2222A The addition of a dual-gate MOSFET
mixer and a crystal-controlled BFO
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL would result in a superheterodyne sys-
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADSIpF I; OTHERS
tem (see Fig. 70).
ARE IN PICOFARADSI pF OR pprJ; The builder might want to add an rf
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; amplifier, especially if the receiver is to
'IOOO.M'IOOOOOO
be used on one of the higher bands. A
suitable circuit using a 2N5179 is shown
in Fig. 71. For dynamic-range reasons,
one might scowl at the use of a bipolar
transistor instead of an FET. However,
this opinion is not valid.
Fig. 68 - Schematic diagram of the tunable oscillator for the receiver of Fig. 67. Fixed-value
capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise indicated. Fixed-value resistors are 1/2-W com-
The amplifier shown is broadband,
position. has 50-ohm input and output imped-
C2 - Miniature 20-pF air variable. 4400-2 form), tapped 5 turns from ances, and provides nearly 20 dB of
C3 - 200-pF mica trimmer. ground. gain. The use of heavy feedback ensures
CRl - High-speed silicon diode, 1 N914A or 03 - JFET, MPFl 02, HEP802. or TIS-88
equiv. suitable.
stability. Good signal-handling ability
L3 - 20 turns No. 24 enam. wire on 3/8-in. Sl - Spdt miniature toggle. results from a high bias current (20
dia. ceramic slug-tuned form (Miller VRl - 6.2-V, 40o-mW Zener diode. rnA). The input preselector networks
are in the appendix at the end of the
book.
A Pocket-Size Direct-Conversion
Receiver for 40 Meters
Solid-litate technology permits mini-
a turiza tion and low power con-
sumption. The receiver of Fig. 72 was
built to take advantage of both assets,
while offering simplicity of construc-
tion.
The pocket portable uses two tran-
sistors and two Ies. Power is provided
by a small battery contained in the I X
3-1/2 X 5-1/2-inch aluminum cabinet.
The receiver is built on a 2-1/2 X 3-1/2
inch double-sided pc board (one side is
all ground foil). Only II rnA of current
are required from the 9-volt battery.
The 40-meter cw band was chosen.
Fig. 69 - Foil-side circuit board pattern and parts layout for the detector and audio circuit of The receiver could be adapted to any of
Fig. 67. Drawing is to scale. the bands from 1.8 through 14 MHz.
100
.01
T1
~
.01
~OUTPUT
INPUT
SIGNAL '---..J1fT[
or I
~
I
I
'T',OI
68 r+-->
FLI
DETECTOR
SI ~II~
tOO
BTl H,
+9V AT11mA
01 2200
2200 2200 100
2N3906 33
+!.91!. AF
T-15V +
47NF AMPliFIER
IO"Frl, 15V~
t5V
+ 2200
to"F
tW
~
+ ~5?-o---v}Jl AF OUT
1200 5600
470
1000
Fig. 72 - Schematic diagram of the pocket portable receiver. Fi xed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise noted. Polarized
capacitors are disk ceramic. Fixed-value resistors are 1/2-Watt composition.
BT1 - Small 9-volt transistor-radio battery. L1 - 30 turns No. 28 enam. wire on Amidon L5 - 15 turns No. 28 enam., c1osewound on
C1 - Miniature 180-pF trimmer (mica com- T50-2 toroid core. 1/4-in. dia. ceramic slug-tuned form (Miller
pression type). L2, L3 - 5 turns each of No. 28 enam. wire 4500-2 form). Inductance - 1.5 J.lH
C2 - Miniature 15-pF variable. over L1. approx.
J1 - Two-circuit phone jack, L4 - 4 turns No. 28 enam. wire over ground R1 - 1O,OOO-ohmaudio-taper carbon control.
end of L5. U1. U2 - Motorola IC.
100 Chapter 5
low-pass nature of the filter allows
80-meter signals to pass unattenuated. A
short piece of coaxial cable is used to
connect the panel-mounted variable ca-
pacitor in the preselector to the circuit
board.
The drain of the mixer feeds the
tuned primary of the transformer sec-
tion of the crystal filter. The secondary
is a center-tapped 12-turn winding. To
ensure good balance, this winding is
wound as six bifilar turns. The crystals
were ordered for 1700.0 and 1700.3
MHZ. To keep the cost down, a .01-
percent tolerance was specified. When
the crystals arrived, their separation was
only 200 Hz. While each crystal was
within the manufacturer's specification,
the bandwidth was narrower than de-
sired. If the receiver is to be used for the
reception of ssb as well as cw, a sepa-
ration of 1.5 kHz is recommended. With
the existing filter, cw selectivity is im-
pressive. Single-sideband stations can be
copied, but the audio sounds distorted.
Inside layout of the receiver. All of the circuit is on a single pc board. The slug-tuned coil is A lO-kn resistor is used to termina te
part of the local oscillator. the filter. This value was arrived at
experimentally. It assured minimum
filter loss without passband ripple.
Other values may be required, de-
pending on the crystal characteristics.
The product detector uses a Motor- proved with audio filtering. Because A stage of i-f gain is provided by Q2,
ola MFC8030 differential-amplifier. miniature projects like this one are a dual-gate MOSFET. While the gain is
This IC is similar to the CA3028A, dependent upon the size of the compo- not high, it is enough to overcome the
except that external biasing resistors are nents available, no pc layout pattern is loss of the crystal filter. Some variation
required. This adds to the parts count, offered. of i-f gain is provided with a front-panel
but allows the IC to be biased for switch. In normal operation, gate 2 of
minimum current - a major design goal. A Simple Superhet for Q2 is biased at about 4 volts. However,
The detector output is applied to a 80 and 40 Meters when the switch is closed, the bias on
2N3906 pnp amplifier. This is routed In the 195 Os nearly every issue of gate 2 is reduced to .0. This causes a
through the audio-gain control to an the Handbook contained a receiver decrease in stage gain of approximately
MFC4010A. This tiny four-terminal IC which covered 80 and 40 meters. The 20 dB. In the unit built by WA7MLH,
is barely larger than a plastic transistor. basis of the design was a superhetero- this switch is activated by pulling on the
It contains three direct-coupled stages. dyne utilizing single conversion with an audio-gain control knob. The builder
The VFO uses a bipolar transistor in i-f of 1.7 MHz. The oscillator tuned could use a separate switch.
a Colpitts circuit. For minimum power- from 5.2 to 5.7 MHz. With this set of A third 40673 MOSFET, Q5, is the
supply current, no Zener-diode regula- frequencies, one band was the image of product detector. This stage is typical of
tion is employed. A ceramic slug-tuned the other. This led to simplification, many using a FET, except that the bias
coil is used with an output link to drive because band changing was realized by for gate 2 (where the BFO is injected) is
the detector. The stability is adequate. tuning the front-end preselector. from a grounded resistor. The typical
In spite of simplicity the receiver Shown in Fig. 73 is a solid-state circuit has this resistor returned to the
performs well. Sensitivity is good. Sig- version of the Handbook classic. This
nals from four continents were heard receiver was built by Jeff Damm,
(on cw) during the first evening of use. WA7MLH.
Selectivity is poor, but could be im- Only eight semiconductors are used
in the receiver. Three dual-gate
MOSFETs serve as the input mixer, i-f
amplifier, and product detector. The
rest of the functions are provided by
means of bipolar transistors. Selectivity
is obtained with a homemade two-
crystal filter of the half-lattice type.
Circuit Details
The input mixer uses a 40673
MOSFET with a single tuned circuit as
the preselector. A half-wave filter is
included in the antenna line to suppress
spurious responses from high-order pro- Exterior of the aD- and 40-meter superhetero-
External view of the 7-MHz portable receiver.
The controls are, left to right, af gain, tuning, ducts created in the mixer. The filter is dyne built by WA7MLH. The box measures
and on-off switch. cut for a 7-MHz center frequency. The 5 X 6 X 9 inches.
22k 03
2N3904
5.2-5.7 MHz
C3 100
100 S.M.
~S1
MIXER
01
40673
D
Jl
ANT. I
.~
;L05
100 10k
+12V
+12V
AUDIO AMPLIFIER
PRODUCT 2200 100
DETECTOR +12V
10,uF +
.!2EE.
05
40673
15V-T
D
rh i5Vl
50}JF +
4700
+
220o,L 15V
J2
+~"
10,uF
15V
OUT
47k
BFO
330 + 22,uF
10k 2200
+12V ,L15V
06
2N3904
Fig. 73 - Schematic diagram of the 40- and 8o-meter superheterodyne receiver. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise
noted. Fixed-value resistors are 1/2-Watt composition. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic.
C1 - Miniature 365-pF variable. L 1 - 3 turns No. 26 enam. wire over L2. R1 - 10,OOO-ohm audio-taper carbon control.
C2 - 180-pF mica trimmer. L2 - 36 turns No. 26 enam. wire on Amidon Sl - spst toggle.
C3 - 1OO-pF air variable. (See text.) T68-2 toroid core. S1 - spst toggle.
C4 - 15-pF variable. (See text.) L3 - Approximately 1.57-jlH, slug-tuned T1 - Primary, 53 turns No. 28 enam. wire on
J1 - Antenna receptacle of builder's choice. coil (Miller 42A156CBI). an Amidon T68-2 toroid core; secondary,
J2 - Two-circuit phone jack. L4 - 7.9-jlH slug-tuned coil (Miller 43105- 12 blfllar turns.
CBI).
102 Chapter 5
,.
,',
,."
. /:/
'~
I
Front panel of the 80- and 20-meter superhet-
Interior view of the WA7MLH receiver. The mixer front end is at the left, and the ~rystal !ilter erodyne receiver. Dial calibration is for the
is at the center of the board. At the right can be seen the product detector and audio section. 20-meter band.
source of the 40673. -The technique The receiver is constructed on three and 15-meter design. A 12. to 13-MHz
used led to a simplification. circuit boards. These may be seen in the oscillator would provide full coverage of
Audio gain for the receiver is ob- photographs. The La is built on a board both bands with a 9-MHz i-f.
tained from a pair of 2N3565s. Ample that is mounted close to the tuning The front end of the 80/20 receiver
gain is provided for ear-shattering head- capacitor. The slug-tuned inductor is uses a 40673 MaSFET mixer with no rf
phone output. mounted on a scrap of pc board that is amplifier. Separate preselector networks
Both oscillators in the receiver use soldered to the main board. The BFa is are used for each band. A single-pole
the standard Colpitts format. The main on a second board which is located on double-throw toggle switch is used to
La, which covers 5.2 to 5.7 MHz, is one of the side walls of the cabinet. The change bands at the output of the
tuned with a single-section capacitor remainder of the receiver is on a larger preselectors. Separate coaxial con-
(C3) from a surplus BC-454. Any vari- board that is affixed to the rear wall of nectors are used at the input of each
able capacitor with a range of at least the receiver. preselector, as the unit is used occa.
100 pF will serve as well. With other All of the pc boards are double- sionally for 80-meter cw work, but was
capacitors, a vernier mechanism is sided, with one side serving as a ground intended primarily as a tunable 14-MHz
recommended. It was not needed with plane. Coaxial cable (RG-I74) is used i.f system for use with vhf converters.
the surplus capacitor since a high qual- for connections between boards and to
ity gear mechanism and dial drive are the panel-mounted components.
part of the capacitor unit. An aluminum plate is mounted to
While a commercially available coil the bottom of the tuning capacitor.
was used for the La tuned circuit, the While this pIate could serve as a chassis
inductor in the BFa was a junk-box for some of the boards, its main func-
item. A suitable substitute would be a tion is to isolate the receiver from
J. W. Miller 43105CBI. The BFa is additional circuitry.
tunable from the front panel by means Considering its simplicity, this reo
of a 15-pF variable capacitor. ceiver performs very well. A signal of
0.1 IN from a well-shielded signal gen-
erator was copied easily, indicating
more than ample sensitivity. The selec-
"
51
FL1
3.5MHz
L3 L5
+12V
47
VFO BUFFER
L13
.01 AUX.
f---oOUTPUT
S.M . SILVER MICA 3300
Fig. 74 - Schematic diagram of the 20- and 8D-meter superheterodyne receiver. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless noted.
Fixed-value resistors are 1/2-Watt composition. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic. Numbered capacitors not listed below are trimmers.
C4 - Two~ection 14D-pF variable. L7, L9 - 25 turns No. 28 enam. wire on R1 - Small 50,OOD-ohm carbon control.
Cl0 - 1 OD-pF variable (one section of BC-455 T37-6 toroid core, 1.87 /oIH. R2 - 20,00D-ohm audio-taper carbon control.
variable). L8 - 6 turns No. 28 en am. wire over L7. Sl, S2 - Spdt toggle.
L1 - 25 turns No. 28 enam. on T37-6 toroid L10 - 4 turns No. 28 enam. wire over L9. S3 - Single-pole, three-position miniature
core, 1.87 ,llH. Lll - 40 turns No. 28 enam. wire on T37-6 . switch.
L2 - 3 turns No. 28 enam. wire over L1. toroid core, 4.8 /oIH. T1 - 12 trifilar turns No. 28 enam. wire on
L3, L5 - 44 turns No. 26 enam. wire on T68- L12 - 3.5-,llH inductor on ceramic form . Amidon FT-37-61 ferrite toroid core,
2 toroid core, 10.8 ,llH. I!' (Miller 4505 coil with slug removed). . /01 = 125.
L4 - 2 turns No. 26 enam. wire over L3.; Remove turns for desired tuning range. VRl - 6.8-volt, l-watt Zener diode.
L6 - 5 turns No. 28 enam. on T3D-2 toroid L13 - 30 turns No. 26 enam. wire on an Yl - 9-MHz crystal. International Crystal
core. Amidon T50-6 toroid core, 3.5 I'H. ' Co., type GP.
104 Chapter 5
I-F +t2V
PRODUCT +t2V
DETECTOR
27k
+l2V
470 BFO
+12V IN9t4 IN9t4
IN9t4
EXTERNAL
+12V
TO MUTE
ON AGC
+t2V
S2
47k
2200
5V DC
NO
-....
SIGNAL
2000
S3
LIMIT
AF AMPLIFIER
Ie
.1 12V
+IOOpF
IN914A IN9t4A 010
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
47k 2N3904 ,L15V
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS I JlF I ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR JlJIFI;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k -1000. M'I 000000
150
~'fff
nV-
~1160HMS)
AF OUT
Both preselector controls are polar transistors. A surplus tuning ca- board which is buried in the chassis.
brought to the front panel., A single pacitor from a BC455 is used for tuning .. The product detector uses two
tuned circuit is used at 14 MHz. For Only one section is employed. diodes. In spite of its simplicity, it
80-meter operation, an adjustable A single-sideband type of crystal performs well. The BFO employs a
double-tuned circuit was chosen. This filter is used as the basis of the i.f strip. single transistor, and supplies + 13 dBm
fJ.lter was designed for a 50.kHz band. This is followed by an MC1350P IC i.f of injection to the detector. A single
width and has a Butterworth response. amplifier which supplies approximately crystal was used, limiting reception to
The local oscillator is a FET version 45 dB of gain, and over 65 dB of gain upper sideband or cw. The builder
of the Colpitts circuit. It is followed by variation. The fJ.lter and the IC amplifier might consider crystal switching if he
a two-stage buffer amplifier using bi- are mounted on a small double.sided pc wishes to copy lower sideband (pre-
106 Chapter 5
MIXER I-F AMPLIFIER ~ODUCT
.04
DETECTOR
CAl
IN9I4A
210
R,e2
+~
lav
12V ~SlB
TO~ 2200
COllY.
250
+12V .001
+l3V
'150
BUFFER BFO .1
tOO
+SV ,+;i @
lOll
1500
It
III MICROFARADS (JlF) ; OTHERS VRt
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JlJlFI; Qt Q3
RESISTANCES ARE ,IN OHII$;
k aIOOO M-I 000 000
Q'Pk-pllV O'DCV
13V
(l20mAMAX~~
+
I
SAI
SV3 #i'
2 )) \~
Fig. 75 - Schematic diagram of the 4G-meter receiver. Fixed-value capacitors are chip or dis.kceramic unl~ssnoted otherwise. Capacitors..
with polarity marked are electrolytic. S.M. indicates silver mica, and P is for polystyrene. Flxed-value reSistorsare 1/4- or 1/2-W compositIOn.
Cl, C2, C4 - 170 to 60D-pF mica trimmer nominal. J. W. Miller 42A 105CBI or equiv. T-50-2 core. Turns ratio - 6: 1, QL of
(Arco 4213). Qu = 125. 23, BWL = 0.3 MHz, L = 1 !tH.
C3 - 10-pF subminiature trimmer. Ceramic L3 - Toroidal inductor, 17 !tH. 19 turns No. T2 - Toroidal transformer. Primary has9
or pc-mount air variable suitable. 26 enam. wire oil Amidon FT50-61 turns No. 26 enam. wire on Amidon
C5 - Miniature air variable, 30-pF maximum ferrite core. FT37-61 core. QL = 33, BWL = 0.1 MHz
(Millen 25030E or similar). Rl ;...10,000-ohm miniature composition L = 5.8 !tH, turns ratio = 3.8: 1. Secondary
CR1-CR3, incl. - High-speedsilicon switching control, linear taper. has 3 turns No. 26 .enam.wire. Primary
diode RFC1, RFC2 - Miniature l-mH choke winding hascenter tap.
Jl, J3 - Single-hole-mount phonojack. (Millen J302-1000 or equiv.). Ul - RCA IC. Bend pins to fit 8-pin dual-
J2 - Closed-circuit phone jack. RFC3, RFC4 - Miniature 330-!tH rf choke inline IC socket.
L1 - Toroidal bifilar-wound inductor, Qu = (Millen J302-330 or equiv.). U2, U3 - Motorola IC.
. 100 at 3.3 MHz, QL = 33, BWL = 0.1 Sl - Miniature dpdt toggle. VRl - Three-terminal 8-volt regulator IC
MHz, L = 5.8 !tH. 8 turns No. 28 enam., Tl - Toroidal transformer. Primary has2 . (National Semiconductor!.
bifilar wound on Amidon FT37-61 turns No. 24 enam. wire. Secondary has Y1, Y2 - Surplus crystal in HC-6/U caseor
ferrite core. Note polarity marks. 14 turns No. 24 enam. wire on Amidon International Crystal Co. type GP with
L2 - Slug-tuned inductor (seetext), 11 !tH 32-pF load capacitance.
Audio-output IC U3 contains a pre- latter consists of a stable series-tuned A red LED is used at DSI as an
amplifier and power.output system. It Clapp VFO and an emitter-follower on-off indicator. Since it serves mainly
will deliver approximately 300 mW of af buffer stage. A single-section pi network as ''window dressing," it need not be
energy into an 8-ohm load. RFC5 is is placed between the emitter of Q3 and included in the circuit.
used to prevent rf oscillations from the injection terminal of Ul. It has a
loaded Q of 1, and serves as a fIlter for Construction Notes
occurring and being radiated to the
front end and i-f system of the receiver. the VFO output energy. It is designed The front panel, rear panel, side
The O.l-J.LFbypass at RFC5 also helps for a bilateral impedance of approxi- brackets, and chassis are made from
prevent oscillations. mately 500 ohms. The recommended double-sided circuit-board material. The
A three. terminal voltage regulator, injection-voltage level for a CA3028A chassis is an etched circuit board, the
VR1, supplies the required operating mixer is 1.5 rms. Good performance will pattern for which is given in Fig. 77.
voltage to U3. It also provides regulated result with as little as O.S-volt rms. A There is no reason why the top and
voltage for the VFO and buffer stages of I-volt level is available with the circuit bottom covers for the receiver can not
the local oscillator (02 and Q3). The shown in Fig. 75. be made of the same material by sol.
\
baked for 30 minutes by means of a
heat lamp. A coarse grade of sandpaper
was used to abrade the front panel
before application of the paint. The
technique will prevent the paint from
corning off easily when the panel is
Interior of the unitized receiver. The local oscillator is seen in its compartment at the center. bumped or scratched. Green Dymo tape
A press-fit U-shaped cover is placed over the VFO box when the receiver is operating. The
receiver front end is at the lower right. At the upper left is a miniature speaker, the rim of
labels are used to identify the panel
which is tack soldered to the box wall at four points. The 20-meter converter board mounts on controls.
the rear wall of the box (upper left). There is ample room inside the
cabinet, along the rear inner panel sur-
face, to install the 20-meter crystal-
controlled converter. A switch, SI, is
MIXER
04 located on the front panel to accom-
40673
o 7-7.1 11Hz modate a 20-meter converter, the circuit
for which is given in Fig. 76.
All of the toroidal inductors are
coated several times with Q dope after
J4
they are installed in the circuit. The
20-M I
ANT.~ VFO coil is treated in a like manner.
1!l0-
OHM) The polystyrene VFO capacitors should
be cemented to the pc board after the
SM.-SILVER MICA
circuit is tested and approved. This will
O-plc-Pk V 0 -0(; V help prevent mechanical instability.
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
+13V
Hobby cement or epoxy glue is okay for
VALUES OF CAPAC ITANCE ARE the job. Vse only a drop or two of
IN MICROFARADS I JlF) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR JlJlFI;
cement at each capacitor - just enough
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHIIS; to affix it to the pc board.
k .,000. M-l 000 000 100
Alignment and Operation
G2~G1
The VFO should be aligned first. This
o'\;/s can be done by attaching a frequency
BOTT.
04 counter to pin 2 of VI. Coverage should
be from 3699.5 to 3874.5 kHz for recep-
Fig. 76 - Schematic diagram of the 20-meter converter. Fixed-value capacitors are disk tion from 7.0 to 7.175 MHz. Actual
ceramic unless noted otherwise. Resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-W composition. coverage may be more or less than the
C6, C7 - 40-pF subminiature ceramic 05 - Motorola transistor, MPF102, 2N4416 spread indicated, depending on the
trimmer. or HEP802.
J4 - Single-hole-mount phono jack on
absolute balues of the VFO capacitors
T3 - Toroidal transformer, 10:1 turns ratio.
rear panel of main receiver. QL = 46, BWl = 0.3 MHz, L = 1.85 }JH.
and stray circuit inductance and capac-
l4 - Toroidal inductor, 12 turns No. 26 Pri. has 2 turns No. 26 enam. wire. Sec. itance. Greater coverage can be had by
enam. wire on Amidon FT37-61 core contains 21 turns No. 26 enam. wire on using a larger capacitance value at C5,
QL = 14, BWl = 0.5 MHz, L = 8 }JH. Amidon T-50-6 core. the main tuning control. Those in-
l5 - Toroidal inductor. 24 turns No. 26 Y3 - 21.175-MHz fundamental crystal in
enam. wire on Amidon T-50-6 core. HC-18/U case (International Crystal terested in phone-band coverage (only)
Qu = 200 at 7.9 MHz. L = 2.4 }JH. Co. type GP with 32-pF load capacitance). can align the VFO accordingly and
04 - RCA transistor. change Y2 to 3302.3 kHz.
108 Chapter 5
nummum response on the unwanted only cw reception was intended. Those
Final tweaking is effected by at-
taching an antenna and peaking Cl, C2 side of zero beat. A fairly strong signal wishing to shift the BFO frequency a
and C4 for maximum signal response at will be needed to hear the unwanted few hundred Hz can place a trimmer in
7087 kHz To obtain the selectivity response. series with Y2 rather than use the
characteristics desired (within the capa- For reception of lower sideband it 100-pF capacitor shown.
bility of the circuit), adjust C2 and C3 will be necessary to use a different BFO Because there is no agc in this
experimentally. C2 will provide the frequency - 3298.7 kHz. The crystal receiver, the i.f gain should be set low,
major effect. C3 should be set for indicated in Fig. 75 was used because for corrifortable listening. Too much
gain will cause the audio circuit to be
overdriven. and distortion will result. To
prevent ear-splitting signal levels one can
install a pair of IN34A diodes (back to
back) across the output jack, 12.
Bits and Pieces
The photograph shows some
fancy-looking components on. the
circuit board. Tantalum capacitors are
seen where electrolytics are indicated
on the diagram. Either type will work
nicely. Tantalums were found at a
flea market for 10 cents each, so
they were used. Similarly, the O.I-t.LF
capacitors used are the high-class kind
(Aerovox CK05BX) which sell for
roughly 70 cents each. At the flea
market they sold at $1 for 44 pieces!
Mylar or disk ceramic O.1-t.LF units
will be fine as substitutes.
The polystyrene capacitors were ob-
tained from Radio Shack in an assort-
ment pack. New units are made by
Centralab, and ,they sell for less than 20
cents each in single lots. Since they are
more stable than silver micas, they are
recommended for the VFO circuit. All
of the toroid cores were purchased by
mail from Amidon Associates.
A J. W. Miller 42-series coil is used in
the VFO, but any slug-tuned ceramic
form can be used if it has good high-
frequency core material. The unloaded
Q of the inductor should be at least 150
at 3.5 MHz. L2 in this design has a
l.t.~
. ..".. rr.t C1'
3/8-inch di<;lmeter body. The winding
area is 5/8 inch long.
~ PRJ .
o;u' The metal cases of both crystals
should be connected to ground by means
of short lengths of wire. This will prevent
unwanted radiation from the BFO crys-
tal, and will h~lp keep the filter crystal
from picking up stray energy. A metal
cover should be placed on the VFO
compartment for reasons of isolation.
James Millen encapsulated rf chokes
are used in the receiver. Any sub-
miniature choke of the approximate
5
inductance indicated will be suitable,
and it need not be encapsulated. The
VFO tuning capacitor is also a Millen
part. Ample room exists between the
VFO box and the front panel to allow
making the box longer. That will permit
+12V use of a larger variable capacitor. A
double-bearing capacitor is recom-
Fig. 77 - Foil-side scale pattern of the pc board. Circuit board is double-sided glass-epoxy mended for best mechanical stability of
material. Ground-plane copper should be removed directly opposite 02 and related compo. the VFO.
nents (oscillator) for area of 1-1/2 inches. Remove copper in similar manner on The i-f system and BFO can be
ground-plane side of board opposite L 1, C3 and Y1 (1 X 1-1/4 inch area). Removal of foil tailored to frequencies other than those
will prevent unwanted capacitive effects. The 1OO-kr gate 2 resistor is on etched foil of
board, gate 2 to source. Ground-plane side of board should be electrically common to
indicated. If crystals of other fre-
ground foils on opposite side of board at several points. quencies in the 2-to 3.MHz range are
110 Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Some fundamentals of receiver de- survive in the presence of strong signals. hence, the output) noise power is de-
sign were presented in chapter 5. How- This has a twofold meaning. First, the pendent upon what is hooked to the
ever, there was minimal discussion of gain-control mechanisms in the receiver, input of the amplifier. In order to
receiver front-end design. That infor- manual or automatic, must have a range attach some meaning which will make a
mation forms the basis for most of this that will permit signals with wide noise figure number a standard measure
chapter. strength variations to be received. How- of the "noisiness" of an amplifier or
Conditions in the amateur bands are ever, this can be realized easily - in the receiver, the input noise is assumed to
much differen t than they were even ten extreme case, attenuators in the antenna be the noise power available from a
years ago. The spectrum is crowded. line can be used to decrease the signal resistor at a temperature of 290 degrees
with demands for additional space level to a point where intelligence can Kelvin. Using this value for To, the
arising daily. Furthermore, the power be recovered. noise power is given as Pn = kToB,
levels are increasing. In the past it was The second, and more subtle figure where To = 290 degrees Kelvin, B is
only the occasional amateur that ran the for dynamic range, is a number which bandwidth in Hz, and k is Boltzman's
full legal pCM'er limit. Today kilowatt provides a measure of the range of constant, 1.38 X 10-23 watts/degree. It
amplifiers are common. signals which may be present at the is convenient to use logarithmic units
These conditions call for better re- antenna terminals of a receiver while no and to note that in a bandwidth of 1
ceivers than those used in the past. Not undesired responses are created in the Hz,Pn = -174 dBm.
only must selectivity, sensitivity and output. The various ways that such a Consider a receiver with a bandwidth
stability be maintained, but the receiver range can be defined, and the way it is of 500 Hz. The bandwidth is greater
must meet these specifications while measured, are described in this section. than one Hz by a factor of 500, or 27
operating in the presence of numerous Also, we will show how the concepts dB. Hence, in a 500-Hz bandwidth, the
strong signals. We will present informa- surrounding these measurements may be power available from this resistor would
tion in this chapter that will help the utilized in the design of a receiver. be -174 dBm + 27 dB = -147 dBm."lf
amateur experimenter to meet these Consider a simple amplifier in the rf the noise output from this receiver with
goals. or i-f portion of a receiver. For our the input terminated in a 50-ohm resis-
The critical portion of the receiver is example, we will assume that the ampli- tor corresponds to that output which
the front end, that part which precedes fier uses a bipolar transistor and is would result from a signal of -140
the main selectivity-determining ele- biased for a collector current of 10 mAo dBm, the noise figure of the receiver is
ments. Distortion effects in the front The concepts are applicable to any then the difference, or 7 dB. The MDS,
end will lead to blocking, intermodula- amplifier, mixer or complete receiver. or noise floor of the receiver is -140
tion products and cross modulation. First, we will consider the mea- dBm.
Careful design is necessary if these surement of the noise figure of the One might ask why noise figure is
phenomena are to be minimized. amplifier. By definition, the noise factor even specified. The same essential infor-
of the amplifier is the input signal-to- mation is contained in a specification of
Dynamic Range nOIse ratio divided by the output signal- the MDS of a receiver. However, such is
In the previous chapter, some of the to-noise ratio not 'the case for an amplifier. Here, the
basic specifications of receivers, in- MDS is not specified - it will depend
cluding the idea of noise figure, were _ SinNou1 not only upon the noise contribution of
(Eq. 1)
outlined. Implicit in the noise-figure - SoutNin the amplifier, but on the bandwidth of
concept was the fact that the minimum the system using that amplifier. Noise
discernable signal (MDS) of a receiver is The terms in the equations are noise or figure is independent of bandwidth.
dependent not only upon the amount of signal powers, and the noise factor is an A further asset of noise figure is that
noise generated by the transistors in the algebraic ratio. If we express that ratio it is, at least in principle, measured
receiver, but upon the bandwidth of the in dB, as is often done with other power easily. This is a direct result of the
system. ratios (e.g., gains), the result is the noise bandwidth invariance. The measurement
While sensitivity is of major signifi- figure. is performed by attaching a source to
cance to the amateur with an interest in As presented, the noise figure is a the input of a receiver (or amplifier)
DXing, a receiver must be able to nebulous number, for the input (and that has a noise output which is known
Gs G kBTo
(Eq.3)
= 1 + Teff -40
To
As an example, assume that the
effective noise temperature of an ampli- -50
0
fier is 400 Kelvin. The noise factor is F
= 1 + 4007290 = 2.38. The noise figure INPUT
is 3.76 dB . INTERCEPT
The advantage of the noise- -60 \
temperature concept over that of noise - 60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 +10
figure is that it is an absolute number. It
is not dependent upon the more or less PIN dBm,PER TONE
112 Chapter 6
linearly with changes in the input sig- below the intercept. For example, if the in dBm) of the generator is then the
nals, the dominant distortion products amplifier is operated with outputs of 0 MDS of the receiver.
will vary as the cube of the input dBm, which is 20 dB below the inter- After measuring the receiver MDS,
powers. Hence, if we increase the signals cept, the distortion products will be the two generators are set up for IMD
driving the input to -40 dBm, the three times the 20-dB difference, or 60 measurements. The two generators are
output power of the desired signals will dB below the intercept at -40 dBm. In added in a 6-dB hybrid combiner. The
be -20 dBm for each of the desired our example amplifier, the input inter- output is applied to a step attenuator
input tones. However, while the level of cept is 0 dBm. The same relationships and then to the receiver. The attenua-
the desired frequencies increased by 10 . apply using this figure of merit. tor is adjusted until the responses at the
dB, the output power of the distortion It is generally not viable to specify third order IMD frequencies are the
products will have increased by 30 dB the output intercept of a receiver, for same as that produced by the MDS. The
to -100 dBm. The distortion products this is a function of the gain setting of DR in dB is then the dB difference
are now only 80 dB below the desired the unit. However, such is not always between the power in each tone avail-
results. the case, with an input intercept. This able to the receiver input and the MDS.
Shown in Fig. 2 is a plot for our number may be specified and is an The two-tone dynamic range of a
hypothetical amplifier, showing the extremely useful general parameter. receiver is related to the inpu tin tercept
power of the desired output signals and Suppose, for example, that the input of the receiver by the relationship
the output power of the distortion intercept of a receiver is 0 dBm. (This
products as a function of the level of number is not purely arbitrary, but is Dynamic range (in dB)= 2/3(Pi - MDS)
the input power of each of the two representative of a well-designed com.
identical input signals. Eventually, the munications receiver.) This means that (Eq.4)
level of the input signals will be large if two signals are placed at the antenna
enough so that the desired outputs cease terminals with levels of -40 dBm, the
to follow the input power linearly. This response when the receiver is tuned to where the input intercept, Pi, and MDS
effect is called gain compression, and is the frequencies of the distortion prod- are in dBm.
the phenomenon in a receiver which ucts (2fl - h or 2f2 - fl ) will be three At the time that the receiver is being
ultimately leads to "blocking." It is not times 40 dB below the input intercept, evaluated for intermodulation dis- .
viable to plot the data for the amplifier or the same as an input signal of -120 tortion, blocking measurements are also
much beyond this compression point. dBm. performed easily. This is done by setting
The linear portions of the curves As is usually the case with receivers, one of the generators to provide a
may be extended, or extrapolated to the analysis of performance is compli- medium-strength signal in the receiver.
higher powers even though the amplifier cated by noise. If the two inputs just With the receiver tuned to this output,
is not capable of operating at these mentioned were dropped to -60 dBm the other generator is increased in out.
levels. If this is done, as is shown in a (which is 60 dB below the input inter- put until the desired output is reduced
dotted line in the figure, eventually the cept) the response at the distortion- by 1 dB. This onset of desensitization,
two curves will cross each other. That is product frequencies would be 180 dB when compared with the noise floor of
at some usually unattainable output below the input intercept or at -180 the receiver, might be referred to as a
power, the level of the distortion pro- dBm equivalent input signal. If this "single-tone dynamic range."
ducts equals that of the desired outputs. receiver had an exceptionally low noise The use of blocking, and more
This point is commonly referred to as figure and a bandwidth of a fraction of specifically, in termodulation distortion
the amplifier intercept. More specifi- one Hz, this level of signal could be as the mechanisms to define the strong
cally, the output power where the detected. However, this is not usually signal performance of a receiver, might
curves intersect is called the output the case with communications receivers. appear esoteric and restrictive. However,
intercept of the amplifier. Similarly, the If the receiver had a more typical MDS such is not the case. The blocking
input power corresponding to the point or noise floor of -140 dBm, the dis- measurement will tell the user how well
of intersection is called the input inter- tortion products would not be de- his receiver will survive when subjected
cept. tectable. This brings us to the concept to a strong neighbor. The two-tone
It is important t6 distinguish be- of dynamic range. dynamic range will indicate the level of
tween the input and the output inter- The two-tone dynamic range of a signals which the receiver will tolerate
cepts when specifying a given device. In receiver is defined as the ratio of the while producing essentially no undesired
any useful amplifier (one with power noise floor (MDS) of the receiver to the responses.
gain) the output intercept is always level of one of two identical input The authors have evaluated a num-
greater than the input intercept by an signals which will cause distortion prod- ber of commercially built receivers. The
amount corresponding to the gain of the ucts at the noise floor level. This con- best unit studied at this writing had a
amplifier. But with lossy circuits (such cept is illustrated by considering a two-tone dynamic range of 88 dB with a
as a diode mixer) the input intercept measurement on the receiver described noise figure of 5 dB. The single tone
will exceed the output intercept. In in the foregoing discussion. dynamic range was only 116.5 dB. This
pr ofessional literature the number Firs t, the ins trumentation is unit used tubes in the front end. An
usually given is the output intercept. gathered and interfaced with the re- "average" performer yielded two-tone
However, the input intercept is an ceiver. This includes a pair of signal 'and single-tone dynamic ranges of 80 .
equally important number when dis- generators with means for combining and 109 dB, respectively. On the other
cussing receivers. their outputs while minimizing inter- hand both authors have constructed
The value of knowing the intercept action between them, and an ac volt- solid-state receivers with two-tone dy-
of an amplifier is that it is a general meter to monitor the audio output namic ranges approaching 100 dB,
measure of the distortion properties. It signal. single-tone ranges of over 120 dB and
can be used to describe the distortion The initial measurement uses only a noise figures from 6 to 13 dB. While
for all operating levels. In the case just single signal source. The generator is sophisticated instrumentation was used
depicted the output intercept is +20 adjusted so that the output of the for evaluation, both units were built
dBm. Hence, if the amplifier is operated receiver is 3 dB above the level present using only equipmen t available in many
with an output which is X dB below the when the genera tor is turned off. The amateur shops. Both receivers are de-
intercept, the distortion will be 3X power output (available output power scribed in this book.
Advanced Receiver Concept 113
It is in teresting to consider the effect lent noise floor which is dependent lifier had been set at 30 dB instead of
of cascading two or more amplifiers (or upon noise figure and system band- the 20-dB level chosen, the extra gain
a receiver with a "preamp" or con- wid tho A dynamic range can be specified would drop the noise floor to -143.78
verter) with respect to the effect on only when a bandwidth is given simul- or merely 1.5 dB more sensitive. How-
noise figure and dynamic range. taneously. ever, the input intercept would drop to
Knowing these, we will be able to As an extension of the discussion, let -37 dBm, resulting in a dynamic range
calculate the resulting dynamic range. us consider adding a preamplifier to a of 71.2 dB. Such a compromise would
Consider two cascaded amplifiers. If receiver which is lacking in noise figure. not be acceptable except perhaps in
they have noise factors F1 and F2, and Assume that the receiver has an excep- very rare situations such as moonbounce
gains Gland G2 (b oth are algebraic tionally poor noise factor of 100 (20 work on 144 or 432 MHz where noise
ratios, not dB relationships) the net dB), and a dynamic range of 80 dB. The figure is all! The price to be paid is
noise factor of the combination will be bandwidth of the receiver is 500 Hz. always a severe degradation in dynamic
given by The minimum detectable signal, or noise range.
floor of the receiver will be One final comment should be made
about receiver dynamic range. The com-
m'on "cure" that is suggested for a
(Eq.5) Noise floor = -174 dBm + noise figure receiver plagued with problems of over-
+bandwidth factor load and excessive intermodulation dis-
= -174 dBm + 20 dB tortion is the addition of an attenuator
+27 dB in front of the receiver. Often this is an
For example, assume that each amplifier = -127 dBm excellent thing to do. The attenuator is
has a gain of 20 (13 dB), that the first adjusted until the antenna noise still
one has a noise factor of 2 (3 dB) and (Eq.6)
determines the overall noise output but
the second has a noise factor of 5 (7 is not excessive.
dB). The net noise factor is Fnet = 2 + If this receiver was to be used in the The addition of a 10.dB pad in fron t
(5 - 1) 7 20 = 2.2, which corresponds lO-meter band a much lower noise of a receiver has the effect of increasing
to a noise figure of 3.42 dB. The net figure might be in order. Assume that a the system noise figure and the input
gain is 400, or 26 dB. Note that the net preamplifier with a 3-dB noise figure is intercept by 10 dB. The difference
noise figure is dominated by the first added. Following the earlier argument between the two, and hence the system
stage of the amplifier if the gain of the about noise figure, a preamplifier gain dynamic range, remains constant. A
first stage is large in comparison to the of 20 dB, equal to the receiver basic much better solution would. be to by-
noise figure of the second stage. But, noise figure, is used. The net noise pass the offending amplifier, allowing
excess gain in the first stage beyond this figure becomes smaller signals to impinge upon the
level does little to improve the net noise mixer. While the noise figure will be
figure. compromised, the dynamic range will
Assume that the first stage has an usually be improved.
output intercept of +15 dBm and that F= 2 + 1~~ = 2.99 or 4.76 dB (Eq.7) There is another technique that may
the second stage is stronger, with an be applied to regain some of the system
output intercept of +20 dBm. Since the dynamic range: the application of atten-
gain of the second stage is 13 dB, the The noise floor decreases to uation between the preamplifier and the
input intercept of the second stage will main receiver. Consider the previous
be +20 - 13 = +7 dBm. Noting that this case where a mediocre receiver was
input-intercept amount is less than the Noise floor=-174dBm+4.76+27 preceded by a 30.dB-gain preamplifier,
output intercept of the first stage (a = 142.24 dBm (Eq. 8) causing a net dynamic range of only
margin of 8 dB), the 1Mresponse of the 71'.2 dB. If a l2.dB attenuator was
composite amplifier will probably be The improvement in sensitivity is pro- inserted between the preamplifier and
dominated by the distortion in the found. the receiver, the net system MDS would
second stage. We can estimate the out- Consider now the effect of the pre- increase from -143.8 to -141.5 dBm.
pu t in tercept of the combined amplifier amplifier on the dynamic range of the However, the dynamic range would in.
to still be +20 dBm. Since the overall receiver. Using the formula relating crease to 77.6 dB. This technique could
gain is 26 dB, the input intercept of the dynamic range to noise floor and input be of major significance when building a
cascaded pair will be +20 - 26 = -6 intercept, we deduce that the input dual-conversion system with crystal-
dBm. intercept of the basic receiver is -7 controlled converters ahead of a tunable
It should be men tioned that the 1M dBm. If the preamplifier is even rea- i.f receiver.
distortions from two cascaded stages sonable (from a distortion point of While it is dangerous to generalize, it
will add in a simple manner, with the view), the distortion properties of the is clear that the optimum dynamic-range
output stage usually being the dominant overall system will be dominated by the systems will be those utilizing single
con tribu tor. However, there are some receiver basic input intercept of -7 conversion. However, wide dynamic
situations where the 1M from one stage dBm. The system input intercept will be range is certainly possible in multicon-
will add in a phase-coherent way with a -27 dBm. The overall system dynamic version designs. Great care must be
foil ewing stage: The overall result is 1M range is applied in tailoring the gain distribution
which is much worse than anticipated. properly, in order to optimize the trade-
In rare examples the opposite effect will off between dynamic range and noise
Dynamic range = 2/3 (-27 + 142.24) figure. Careful measurements, as well as
occur, yielding better distortion prop-
= 76.8 dBm (Eq.9)
erties than predicted. These cases do not detailed calculations during the design
lend themselves to easy analysis or phase, are mandatory.
duplication. The dynamic range has been slightly In the following sections, the design
Note that in the foregoing discussion degraded from the original dynamic of mixers, amplifiers and fIlters will be
nothing has been said about dynamic range of 80 dB, which is an acceptable considered in more detail than pre-
range. This is because the dynamic range compromise. sented in chapter 5. The major differ-
is defined while using an input equiva- If, however, the gain in the preamp- ence in this approach will be our inclu-
114 Chapter 6
While this may be adequate to provide livered to RL would be the maximum
RS marginally acceptable image rejection, it available amount that the generator
usually provides a minimum of protec- could deliver. Substitution of the filter
tion from out-of-band signals that might places another resistive element into the
lead to IMD products. We will investi- circuit. This is the loss resistance, Ru'
gate this type of preselector for two associated with Qu of the resonator.
reasons. First, the inadequacy of such a Since a voltage will appear across the
FIRST circuit will be demonstrated. Of more resistor, it must dissipate power. This
STAGE significance, we will use the single-tuned will be subtracted from the maximum
IN
RECEIVER circuit to demonstrate some fundamen- available power from the generator.
tals that are applicable to any preselec- The loaded Q of the resonator is
Fig. 3 - Representation of a receiver input tor. calculated easily by performing a
circuit, coupled capacitively. Consider a receiver with the first straightforward transformation which is
semiconductor device having an input detailed in the filter appendix. It may
impedance of 50 ohms. If a preselector be shown that, at a single frequency, a
is to be designed for this receiver, it given series R-C combination may be
must be a circuit that is terminated on replaced with an equivalent parallel one.
sion of intercept data as well as noise both sides (input and output) with a The input voltage generator is also
performance of the various devices. 50-ohm load. A typical circuit is shown replaced by a current generator. The
in Fig. 3 where capacitive coupling is resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 58.
Preselector Design used at both terminals. The resistance across the resonator is
The previous section outlined the The concept of Q was introduced in now the parallel equivalent of R/. Ru
concepts of dynamic range and de- our discussion of tuned transmitter buf- and RL'. If this circuit is analyzed with
scribed some of the undesired effects fer amplifiers. Q is a number that gives respect to the loaded and unloaded Q of
that arise from excessively strong signals us information about the losses in a the resonator, it may be shown that the
appearing at the input of a receiver. resonator. (The term resonator will be insertion loss of the resonator is given
Much of the key to minimizing these used interchangeably with "tuned cir- by
effects lies in the design of the mixers cuit." The concepts are applicable to
and amplifiers that make up the front microwave resonant circuits just as they
end of a receiver. As much as possible are to low-frequency LC tuned circuits
should be done to ensure that the and even to nonelectrical oscillations.) (Eq.lO)
front-end components are subjected to a While Q tells us the amount of energy
minimum of strong signals. This is rea- that is lost during each cycle of oscilla-
lized with careful filtering at the anten- tion, we can model a real resonator by
na terminal of a receiver. Such a filter is replacing it with an ideal lossless one In order to minimize the insertion loss
called a preselector. with either a parallel or series resistance. of the filter, the loaded Q must be small
The subject of filter synthesis is a This is shown in Fig. 4 along with the in comparison with Qu. Noting the
complicated one. Sophisticated mathe- equations which define the resistances. relation between resonator Q and its 3-
matics are required, making a complete If the resonator exists alone, at- dB bandwidth, this means that the
discussion impractical in this book. tached to no external load, the Q is the bandwidth should be fairly large in
However, some of the basic ideas can be unloaded value, designated Qu. The order to hold the insertion loss down to
presented. An extensive catalog of com- associated resistances model the inher- a reasonable level.
puter-designed filters for the amateur ent losses within the inductor and ca- This characteristic is qualitatively
bands is given in the appendix for use in pacitor. In the high-frequency region true for much more sophisticated filters.
specific projects. inductive losses are predominant in However, the simple relationship of Eq.
most cases. Hence, one will often see a 10 no longer applies with filters of more
The Single Tuned Circuit Qu specification for a coil at a given than one resonator,.
With most receivers in use today, the frequency. Fig. 6 shows a general example of a
preselector consists of nothing more If external resistances are attached multiple-resonator filter. In this case a
than a single tuned circuit preceding the to the resonator, the resulting Q is
rf amplifier (if one is used) or the mixer. termed the loaded value and is repre-
sented by QL' The corresponding resis-
tance is the equivalen t of all of the
loads, including that representing the
8.m.0
inherent resonator losses.
A term that is rarely used but can
occasionally be useful in calculations is
Qe, the external Q. This is merely the Q
associated with the external resistances
attached to the tuned circuit.
Let us now return to the filter
fj'w" ~'1:~
I
I
:
(Al
1
I
I
IDEAL ~
described in Fig, 3 and consider the
REAL LAND eLAND c effect of the finite unloaded Q of the
resonator. This is done by substituting
Q=~ = 2rrfoL the model of Fig. 4 for the tuned
2rrfoL Rs circuit, now shown in Fig. 5. First, there
1 will be loss associated with this filter. If
where F 0 = --- the filter was removed completely, with
2rr.JLC a direct connection between the source (8)
and load resistors (which here are
Fig.4 - Modeling of an ideal resonator with
seriesor parallel resistance. equal), the power that would be de- Fig.5 - Example of a filter which has loss.
1
quencies of 7 .0 and 7.2 MHz. Curves are
plotted for one through five resonators.
The difference in skirt response as the
number of tuned circuits in the fIlter is
increased is profound, but there is a
price to be paid. As the number of
resonators is increased, the insertion loss
will also increase dramatically for filters
Fig. 6 - Example of a multiresonator filter.
with a fixed bandwidth, all using the
same type of resonator (constant Qu)'
This is not the only effect of the loss
elements in a filter. It turns out that the
finite Q of the resonators complicates
3.section filter is shown, although the tion of a Butterworth filter is given by the design. If classic image-parameter
general circuit configuration may be
methods were used for the fIlter design,
extended arbitrarily to any number.
we would find that the filter shape
Capacitors are used in the 3.pole Atten (dB) = 10 log (1 + S2n) would be distorted over that predicted
example of Fig. 6 in order to couple
(Eq.11) when it was built and measured. In
energy between the resonators, and to
order to compensate for this effect,
couple the source and load into and out
so-called pre distorted filter tables (see
of the filter. Inductive coupling could where n is the number of resonators. S the reference by Zverev in the bibliog-
also be used, or a mixture of the two is the ratio given by raphy) were used for the designs.
methods could be employed. Because of the subtlety, a general equa-
The techniques of modern filter
synthesis tell us that a given filter may S= f -fe or
fe-f
S = -------
tion set cannot be specified for the
design. Furthermore, the filters
be realized with resonators of equal Qu F3+ -fe fe -13-
described in the appendix can not be
if we establish the coupling between (Eq. 12) scaled to other frequencies in the simple
sections and control the singly loaded Q way that image-parameter filters can.
of the end sections. By singly loaded Q, where fis the frequency of interest,/e is As mentioned earlier, there is some-
we mean the loaded Q of the end the center frequency of the filter, and times an advantage to the use of capac-
resonator, when terminated, but with f3+ and h _ are the upper and lower itive or inductive coupling over the
no coupling to the rest of the filter. 3-dB attenuation frequencies of the other. When capacitive coupling is used,
Virtually any type of passband shape filter. Which form of the equation is the skirt response tends to be a bit
may be specified. Some of the common used will depend upon whether the steeper on the low frequency side. This
types include the Butterworth, frequency of interest is above or below is because the filter tends to degenerate
Chebyshev and Gaussian responses. the center frequency of the filter. in to a high-pass structure away from the
These names are ones that we often hear As an example of this equation see passband. Similarly, inductive coupling
in connection with filters, but are rarely Fig. 7, where responses for a number of seems to make the high-frequency skirt
explained in the amateur literature. Butterworth filters are given. They are steeper. These effects become signifi-
They are essentially mathematical terms
naming the sometimes fairly compli-
cated polynomials that describe the
position of the poles of the filter in the
complex frequency plane. In more prac-
tical terms, they also lead to different o
filter characteristic shapes. The Butter-
worth filter is one that is relatively flat
across the passband. Indeed, this filter is -10dB
often called a maximally flat response
(mathema tically, the first derivative of
the transfer function vanishes at the -20dB
center of the passband). The Chebyshev
filter is somewhat more complicated.
Some passband ripple may exist, but the -30dB
skirt response close to the edges of the
passband is steeper. The Gaussian
response is not as flat across the pass- -40d B
band as the Butterworth or some
Chebyshev fIlters. However, it has the
advantage that "ringing" is minimal. -50dB
Hence, Gaussian transfer functions are
optimal for very narrow-bandwidth
crystal filters, as an example. -60dB
The filters described in the appendix
are all designed for a Butterworth
response. The main reason for this is -10dB
that a Butterworth filter is among the 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.B 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 8.0
easiest to align without resorting to FREQUENCY. MHz
116 Chapter 6
cant well down on the response curves. (-5dBl lead to the best performance. The out-
For a 3-pole filter the differences 1.8-2.0 MHz put was applied to a spectrum analyzer
become apparent when attenuations of while the input was driven from a pair
more than 50 or 60 dB are achieved. of signal generators which were added in
If a narrow filter is designed so it a hybrid combiner. An attenuator was
may be tuned over a range of fre- used after the combiner in order to
quencies from the front panel of a ensure proper operation of that compo-
receiver, proper coupling techniques nent. (An easily made combiner will be
should be used. If a multisection vari- described later for use in the amateur
able capacitor is used, inductive shop.) A third generator was used as an
cO!Ipling is preferred between resona- LO.
tors. On the other hand, if a number of First, it was found that the gain of
inductors are tuned simultaneously, the mixer was dependent upon the
capacitive coupling is desired. terminating impedances and the level of
Although there are some exceptions, the LO voltage applied to gate 2. There
most filters using a multiplicity of was also some variation when other
Fig. 8 - Tunable Cohn type of filter for
resonators must be terminated properly 1.8 MHz. L5 and L6 are 1.45-,llH bottom- similar device types were used in the
at each end. The filters described in the coupling toroidal inductors. circuit. Of major significance is the fact
appendix have components listed for L1, L4 - 70,llH that the conversion gain was always
L2, L3 - 140 ,llH about 12 dB lower than the gain of the
termination of each end in 50 ohms. It
is possible, however, to terminate them same device when operated as an ampli-
in much different impedances. The fier with the same termination imped-
methods for achieving this are also using devices that operate at high cur- ances. This implies that the conversion
outlined. rent levels, and by the application of transconductance is 1/4 of that dis-
A preselector filter that has become feedback, this linearity can be played when the same device is operated
popular recently is the so-called Cohn emphasized. Similarly, ftlters employ as an amplifier. This optimum gain
filter. This circuit is tunable from the passive elemen ts which tend to be in- occurred with an LO injection of about
front panel over a reasonable frequency herently linear. However, in order to 5 volts pk-pk at gate 2. It was also
range. The unusual characteristic of this achieve mixing action, nonlinear opera- found that the optimum dc bias voltage
circuit is that four resonators are used. tion is desired. We must utilize square- for gate 2 was about 1 volt. This tells us
However, only a three-section variable law characteristics or the switching that the common practice of attaching
capacitor is required to tune it. The action in order to realize mixing. (The gpte 2 to the source of the device
filter, as originally designed, was opti. fundamental mathematics are outlined through a large resistor is a good one.
mized for minimum loss in the pass- in the appendix.) Hence, in a device The intermodulation distortion per-
band, making it ideal for receiver appli- operated purposefully in a nonlinear formance was good. With a 2000-ohm
cations. A representative circuit for the mode, we would expect other responses, termination on the drain (at 9 MHz) the
Cohn filter is given in Fig. 8. Generally, including unwanted ones, to occur. output intercept for third-order 1M was
this circuit may be scaled to other There are a number of devices that + 19 dBm. This same output in tercept
frequencies. The 3-dB bandwidth may will function well as mixers. They all was obtained when the device was oper-
be increased by making the coupling have their assets and problems. Some of ated as an amplifier at 14 MHz (same
inductors (1.45-j.lH units in Fig. 8) these will be presented with some guide- termination impedances). When the
larger in value. The skirt response can be lines for their use. MOSFET was operated as an amplifier
made steeper by increasing the value of or a mixer, gain compression occurred
the shunt capacitors (270-pF units of The Dual-Gate MOSFET just a few dB below this intercept level.
Fig. 8). A popular mixer device in amateur The 5-volt pk-pk LO injection appeared
equipment today, both commercially optimum for both blocking and IMD
Mixer Design manufactured and homemade, is the performance.
At the start of this chapter were dual-gate MOSFET. There are many The nature of the output termina-
concepts to define and measure the varieties available. Unfortunately, ade- tion is critical with this mixer. In the
two-tone dynamic range of a receiver. quate data are not provided by the experiment outlined, the output of the
The effects of adding or subtracting gain venders, making it hard to say which is pi network at the drain was the 50-ohm
in a receiving system were discussed. an optimum choice. Experiments sug- input of a spectrum analyzer. This
However, little was said about the main gest that the variations are not great. termination was quite flat at virtually all
origins of the IMD which limits dynamic There is good reason for the popular- frequencies. This is not typical in the
range. This topic is treated now. ity of the MOSFET. It is a device that usual application. The more common
In the current state of the art we can provide considerable gain (some- termination for the mixer is the input of
fmd that the design of filters and times desired). Furthermore, the noi&e a crystal filter. While the filter may
amplifiers is highly refined. By proper figure is fairly low and the ou tpu t appear to be a clean resistive termina-
choice and application of transistors, intercept is rather high, especially when tion within the passband of the filter,
low noise figure and high-intercept minimuJ:l1 power consumption is con- the input impedance is usually quite
amplifiers are possible. The next section sidered. Finally, the local.oscillator different at other frequencies. The usual
will present some of this information. power required is low, making the de- ladder type of filter looks something
Generally the mixer is the limiting vice easy to apply. like an open circuit at frequencies near
A typical mixer is shown in Fig. 9. (but not exactly in) the passband of the
element in a receiving system. If better
mixers can be built, the amplifiers that In this circuit pi networks are used to filter. If this were applied directly to the
drain of the mixer, the results could be
are needed to accompany them are match both the input (gate 1) and the
output at the drain. This is done to quite compromising. The reason is that
within reach, although still difficult to
realize. establish the impedances seen at the two a signal which can cause undesired
An \~mplifier is a device tha t relies ports of the device. A variable voltage distortion effects is usually not the
upon the linear characteristics of a bias source is used to establish the signal to which the receiver is tuned.
transistor in order to provide gain. By operating conditions at gate 2 which Hence, when this signal is heterodyned
Diode Mixers
Next to the dual-gate MOSFET, the
Fig.9 - Circuit of an active mixer using a dual-gate MOSFET. The pi networks are designed most common mixers in amateur re-
to transform 50 ohms to 2000 ohms. The QL is 10. ceivers are those using diodes. This class
has a number of advantages. The first
one is that they are inherently broad-
in the mixer, the output will not lie higher than the 2000-ohm value for band. Therefore, they are applied eas,ily
within the passband of the filter. This which our network was designed. It may to multiband designs. Another ad-
can result in large voltage excursions at be as high as 100 k!1. If the pi network vantage is the relatively low noise figure.
the drain, leading to blocking or IMD. was designed for a value this high, the Most diode mixers generate very little
The pi netw ork used in Fig. 9 is one conversion gain would be very high, but noise. As a result the noise figure is
of the better choices as a matching the output intercept and blocking level nearly the conversion loss of the mixer.
mechanism to work in to a crystal filter. would be degraded severely. As a result Another asset is that diode mixers dis-
The reason for this is that the pi of the need for filter termination, it is play high intercept points. Finally, most
network has an impedance-inversion common practice to put a resistor diode mixers are balanced. The implica-
property. That is, if the output termina- within the output-matching section. tions here are twofold. First, the bal-
tion is less than that for which it was This resistor will absorb part of the ance has the effect of preventing energy
designed, the input impedance appears available output power, with degrada- applied to the LO port of the mixer
higher than the design center. On the tion of the output intercept as well as from appearing at the i-f or rf ports.
other hand, if the output termination reduced gain. Second, certain types of noise (a-m
appears high in imnedance value, the Detailed noise-figure measurements noise) that would appear at the LO port
input seen at the drain is low. The latter were not performed with the test circuit all attenuated when they reach the i-f
situation is desired. When the input of Fig. 9. However, in testing a number port, even if that noise might actually
impedance of the crystal filter appears of receivers with dual-gate MOSFET be at the i-f. Balance can also improve
to be an open circuit (out of the mixer front ends, with low-loss input IMD immunity.
passband), the load presented to the matching, we found that noise figures of In spite of the virtues, diode mixers
drain approaches that of a short circuit. 8 to 10 dB are common. Careful design have their faults. They require high LO
This prevents large voltage excursions. may improve this. power in order to provide optimum
Sabin suggested the use of another The detailed performance evalua- performance. Proper termination of the
type of impedance inverting network tions just presented may sound pessi- mixers is critical, especially at the i-f
(QST, July, 1970). He used an under- mistic. However, this is not the case. port. Finally, depending upon diode
coupled double-tuned circuit. This kind
of network has the advantage that it
acts as a bandpass filter. This protects
the crystal filter and following circuits
from spurious filter responses that
sometimes occur.
There is another mixer output that
might be investigated as a possible
source of IMD - the image. In the
circuit of Fig. 9, the LO frequency is 23
"'Vii'
'11g"
MHz, and the input is at 14 MHz. The
desired i-f is 9 MHz. However, the mixer
will produce not only difference fre- I-F
r
I
118 Chapter 6
type, many mixers of this kind are close to minimum conversion loss with single-pole bandpass filter. At fre-
prone to harmonic mixing. This phe- as little as one or two milliwatts of LO quencies other than the 9-MHz design
nomenon was discussed in connection power. However, for best 1M perfor. center of the filter, the input impedance
with diode product detectors (chapter mance, it is wise to increase the LO will be capacitive. The out-of-band
5). power to +10 to +13 dBm, or even more energy is handled by RI, C4 and L2.
A double-balanced diode-ring mixer if the diodes will handle the larger The inductor and capacitor are also
is shown in Fig. lOA. The usual mixer currents. resonant at 9 MHz. At the i-f frequency
of this type contains hot-carrier diodes, The measurements of output inter- they appear as a high impedance. Mini-
although high-speed silicon switching cept outlined in the foregoing were mal current flows in Rl. When the
diodes are used sometimes. The most obtained with a test setup like that used frequency departs from 9 MHz con-
critical detail in building a mixer of this for the evaluation of the dual-~te siderably, L2 and C4 appear as a low-
kind is in the winding of the trans- MOSFET, with the i-f port terminated impedance path to ground. Now Rl is
formers. The characteristics of the trans- in the 50.ohm input of a spectrum directly across the mixer output, pro-
formers will be the main factor that analyzer. A common result with simple viding a proper termination.
limits the bandwidth of the mixer. The ring mixers was an output intercept of
balance (the ratio of the power at one +15 dBm with an LO power of +13
port which appears at one of the others) dBm. After the initial measurements
will depend upon the transformer were performed with broadband ter-
quality and upon the uniformity of the minations at all ports, tuned circuits
diodes. were inserted in various lines to the
If a diode-ring mixer is built to cover mixer. These were single.tuned Le cir- MIXER
I-F PORT
C1
the hf spectrum, the transformers cuits. The results were profound! When
should be wound on high permeability a single tuned circuit was put in the i-f
ferrite toroids. A typical transformer port it had the effect of still presenting
would contain 10 trifilar turns of No. a 50-ohm termination at the desired i-f
30 enameled wire on an Amidon of9 MHz. (The rfenergywas at 14 MHz
FT-37- 43 core. It is useful to employ and the LO was at 23 MHz.) However, L2 rLC4
wires of three different colors. If this is at frequencies other than the 9-MHz i-f,
not possible, care should be used to the impedance seen was highly reactive. 9MHz
ensure that the proper windings are This had the effect of decreasing the BANDPASS DIPLEXER
identified: The section in chapter 4 on output intercept from +15 dBm to +5
transformer design should be consulted. dBm in several of the mixers studied.
If a mixer is built to cover the vhf or The conversion loss did not change 455kHz T NETWORK
120 Chapter 6
9MHz
transformed to a single-ended 50-ohm
output with a trifilar transformer. The
LO power requirement for this mixer is
14MHz fairly high, since the sources are driven
rather than the gates. With a +17-dBm
LO drive, an output intercept of +26
dBm was measured. The gain was 2 dB.
Noise figures from 6 to 8 dB are quoted
as typical by the manufacturer.
Doubly balanced mixers using four
,11 +15V
JFETs have also been described. Al-
though the writers have not investigated
~CHOOSE ACCORDING TO
CRITERION IN TEXT them (yet!), they appear to offer great
JFET MIXER promise.
Mixer Comparisons
Fig. 14 - Circuit of a JFET mixer.
Great care should be used when
comparing mixer designs. Many workers
suggest that mixer gain is an advantage.
drive of +17 dBm. should be a little below the pinchoff This is not necessarily true. Compare,
All of the diode mixers discussed voltage of the FET. for example, a dual-gate MOSFET mixer
have been doubly balanced designs. The MOSFET mixer had a high with a simple diode ring. The former
That is, balanced transformers have output impedance. On the other hand, a may have a gain of 20 dB, an output
been used at two of the three ports. JFET has a lower value, typically intercept of + 18 dBm, and a noise figure
. However, it is no~ mandatory that a around 10 kQ for the resistive portion . of 10 dB. If a receiver is built with this
mixer be doubly balanced in order to This makes matching to filters a bit mixer as the front end, driving a filter
assure strong perforl1)ance. Shown in easier. An impedance inverting network directly, the MDS will be -137 dBm. A
Fig. 13 is a singly balanced mixer using should still be used. bandwidth of 500 Hz was assumed. The
only two diodes. This design has the The major advantage of the JFET input intercept of this receiver will be
virtue that large voltages can be estab- mixer over the MOSFET is that the +18 dBm - 20 dB, or -2 dBm. Recall-
lished across the diodes in the off noise figure is lower. Values as low as 4 ing that DR = (2/3) (Pi - MDS), the
condition. The center tap of the LO dB have been reported (Sabin, 1970). dynamic range of the system will be 90
transformer is grounded. This improves The writers have not done intercept dB.
balance. If this configuration is used, measurements on this mixer. Consider now the simple diode ring
the i-f and rf are applied to the connec- Shown in Fig. 15 is a mixer using a with a conversion loss of 6 dB. Assume
tion of the diodes. A diplexer is used to dual JFET (Siliconix E430) which has that the circuit following the ring is
isolate the two frequencies. At the been designed especially for mixer appli- strong, has a noise figure of 3 dB, and
lower frequencies it may be acceptable cations. The input transformers are sim- that a preselector filter with a I-dB loss
to extract the i-ffrom the center tap. ilar to those used in diode mixers. Pi is used ahead of the mixer. The overall
One virtue of mixers of this kind is networks are used at each drain to do system noise figure will again be 10 dB,
that they often have a lower insertion part of the impedance matching as well leading to an identical MDS of -137
loss than is typical of the four-diode as perform impedance inversion. Each pi dBm. The input intercept of the mixer
mixers. Such a mixer has an insertion network is designed to transform from will be the output intercept plus the
loss of 5 dB with an output intercept of 2000 ohms at the drains to 100 ohms. conversion loss. Assume that the output
+15 dBm. These results were obtained The push-pull 100-ohm outputs add to intercept is +15 dBm. The receiver input
with an LO drive of +1 5 dBm. Two- form a 200-ohm balanced source. This is intercept will now be + 15 dBm + 6 dB
diode mixers are popular for vhf and
uhf application.
Mixers Using JFETs
Some JFETs can provide exception-
ally good performance as mixers. They
are, however, more difficult to use than .1
MOSFET mixers. RF >-l
Shown in Fig. 14 is a 2N4416 mixer.
The properties are similar to those
obtained with the dual-gate MOSFET: .1
The input impedance is high and the ~
T'! 100 f---r< LO .
122 Chapter 6
+40 dBm. The feature of this circuit is serves also as a heat sink. the Amperex BFR-94 and A-209 types,
that there was 100 rnA of collector A general equation may be applied the NEC 2SC-1252 as well as the Moto-
current flowing in the transistor. At this to bipolar transistors to estimate their rola 2N5947, are suggested. For ampli-
level, the saturated power output of the output-intercept characteristics. It is fiers with up to 50 rnA, the Amperex
amplifier was over one-half watt! assumed that the collector is terminated A-210, Motorola 2N5943 or RCA
After the initial experiment, the in a 50-ohm load. Under these condi- 2N5109 are suggested. Vhf power tran-
BFR-94 circuit was modified. A 2: 1 tions, the output powers in dBm for 1 sistors are worth consideration. Exam-
turns-ratio transformer was placed in dB of gain compression, and for 1M ples would include the 2N3553 and
the collector circuit, providing a 200- intercept, are given by 2N3866. For strong bipolar amplifiers
ohm collector load resistance. Also, in the vhf and uhf region, the NEe
negative shunt feedback was introduced P(compression) = -16 + 20 10gloIe V021 is recommended. With Ie = 30
by a lOOO-ohm resistor, ac coupled rnA, this device will give an 18-dB gain
from collector to base. With this modifi- Po = 20 logl ole = output intercept and 4-dB noise figure at 432 MHz,
cation the output intercept went up to without careful matching.
+45 dBm. Noise figure was not mea- (Eq.13)
sured. Input matching would be required Preamplifier Design
when using the modified circuit, for where Ie is the collector current in rnA. . The criteria for the design ofampli-
shunt feedback will have the effect of These equations should be regarded as fiers that precede the mixer in a super-
depressing the input impedance well an optimistic rule of thumb rather than heterodyne are somewhat different than
below 50 ohms. as an absolute definition of the perfor- those for post amplifiers. First, the
In general, post amplifiers made mance. The intercept may often be intercept requirements are not as strin-
from bipolar transistors will use negative improved by impedance matching to the gent. Since the usual diode-ring mixer
feedback as well as some impedance collector. This was the case in the will have an input intercept of + 15 to
matching at the output. An amplifier 2 S C -1 252 amplifier. Deriving the +18 dBm, amplifiers only a bit stronger
from one of the writers' receivers is equation for gain compression is than this will suffice. Second, lower
shown in Fig. 18. A Nippon Electric straightforward: The output power is noise figures are usually desired. Both
2SC-1252 transistor is biased to 65 rnA that where the peak signal current is FETs and bipolar transistors may be
of collector current. A 2: 1 turns-ratio equal to the standing dc current. It is used.
ferrite transformer was used at the surprising to the writers that these FETs have some general advantages.
output, presenting a load of 200 ohms' simple relationships are so accurate in Less current is required in order to
to the collector. Emitter degeneration practice. realize an equivalent output intercept.
and shunt feedback were employed. There are some general requiremen ts Their noise figures are quite low in the
This combination has the result of for the choice of transistor types for hf region. Finally, their output powers
controlling stage gain as well as the amplifiers of this kind. From the for gain compression are closer to the
input and output impedances. Without .equations we see that a high output Jutput intercept than is the case for
the 6-dB attenuator in the output, the Intercept will result only from a high bipolar transistors. This means they are
amplifier provided 23 dB of gain and an collector current in the transistor. The less prone to blocking problems.
output intercept of +41 dBm. The noise transistor must be capable of operating In spite of the virtues of FETs,
figure was 6 dB at 10 MHz, and the at high currerits and of dissipating the bipolar transistors may be used quite
input match to 50 ohms was excellent power. However, a reasonably low noise successfully as hf preamplifiers. They
(30-dB return loss over the hf spec- figure is also desired. Usually, feedback come into their own in the vhf and
trum). NEC transistors are available needs to be applied. Because of these microwave regions. The major advantage
from California Eastern Labs of Burlin- criteria, the transistor should have a of the bipolar transistor over the FET is
game, California. very highfr. In the two circuits presented that it has well defined input and
A 6-dB attenuator is included in the the devices have gain-bandwidth prod- output impedances and is much more
output in actual application. This has ucts of well over 1 GHz. For applica- easily used with negative-feedback sys'
the effect of reducing the net gain to 17 tions with Ie of approximately 100 rnA, terns. This can be of profound impor-
dB and dropping the output intercept to tance if a low-loss preselector is used
+35 dBm. However, it has the asset of ahead of such an amplifier. If pre-
keeping the input impedance of the selector performance is to be main-
amplifier relatively constant at all fre- tained, the filter must be terminated
quencies. If it were not there, variations +12V properly. In the hf region this is not
in input impedance of the crystal filter possible with FETs operating in the
that follows the amplifier would reflect .1 common-source configuration .. A clean
back through the amplifier to cause input match is realized with an FET only
variations in the input impedance. This if a resistor is added for termination.
characteristic is typical of amplifiers 910
This has the effect of degrading the gain
with heavy shunt feedback. Additional and noise figure. This compromise may
1.
.1 OUTPUT
information on the design of negative- be altered with the application of ad-
feedback Class A amplifiers.is presented
in connection with our discussion of ssb
methods.
The NEC transistor was a convenient
\ 5.1
IT9150
6d6 PAO
150.
vanced feedback methods.
Although the theory is beyond the
scope of this text, it is possible to apply
advanced feedback methods to bipolar
unit to use. It is mounted in a TO-5 transistors to great advantage. The re-
package. However, unlike most TO-5 sults are that low noise figure and a
devices, the collector is not common to lFROM
OIPLEXER
1',1
16 r+-,
good input and output match may be
the case. There is good in ternal thermal obtained simultaneously. One of our
bonding, nonetheless. In our application colleagues (WA7TZY) has built ampli-
a suitable hole was drilled in the circuit fiers using bipolar transistors with equiv-
board allowing the transistor to be Fig. 18 - A bipolar type of post-mixer ampli- alent noise temperature under 1OOoKat
soldered to the ground foil: The board fier which usesfeedback. 432 MHz, with input and output return
INPUT
IF};; comments on stability analysis). The
spurious oscillations that might occur
with the common-gate circuit are
usually in the vhf or uhf region and are
3d8 PAD
often cured with a small resistor in
* SEE TEXT series with the drain. With clean circuit
layout, instabilities in the hf region are
LOW NOISE FET PREAMPLIFIER rarely a problem. The noise figure of
this circuit can be close to that of the
Fig. 19 - A low-noise preamplifier using a dual-gate MOSFET. Zl and Z2 are pi networks with same device operated in the common-
Q values of 10 or less (seetext).
source configuration. The available
power gain is not as high, with values of
10 to 14 dB being typical. An advantage
of the common-gate circuit'is that the
input impedance is well defined and
losses of better than 20 dB. In general, the advantage that it operates over a fairly low. It is approximated by Rin =
the simple resistive feedback methods wide band of frequencies. The first l/gm, where gm is the common-source
shown for post amplifiers (Fig. 18) have amplifier, which uses a coil from gate to transconductance. For devices like the
the effect of degrading the noise figure. drain, provides cancellation of the effect 2N4416 with gm near 5000 micrornho,
(See the analysis in the appendix.) of the gate-to.drain capacitance only at a 200-ohm input is produced This is
An excellent choice for general- one frequency. Oscillation at fre- easily matched to 50 ohms by means of
purpose bipolar amplifiers in the hf quencies outside the band of operation a 2:1 turns ratio ferrite transformer.
region is the 2N5179, biased to approxi-
mately 20 rnA. The Amprex BFR-91,
biased between 10 and 20 rnA, is
excellent for the 144- and 432-MHz
bands.
In spite of the input-match problem
with FETs, they can have low noise
figures. Shown in Fig. 19 is a preampli-
fier using a 40673 dual-gate MOSFET.
A pi network is used for input
matching, transforming the input 50-
ohm source to an impedance at gate 1
between 2000 and 3000 ohms. The
loaded Q of the network should be as
low as possible if minimum noise figure T.01
is desired. Several hf amplifiers built by ,}, 100
the writers had noise figures under 2 dB.
The MOSFET amplifier should have +12V
careful bypassing at gate 2. The capac-
itor should be effective up to 1 GHz.
LN--CdO AT OPERATING FREQUENCY
Otherwise, drain-voltage variations will
couple back through gate 2 to the input.
That can cause oscillations in the lower
uhf spectrum. In one amplifier buil t for
14 MHz, an oscillation was found at 800
MHz. It was cured by placing a 470-pF
capacitor in parallel with the existing
.01-,uF one, and by reducing the pigtails
of the FET as much as possible. Reisert
(WlJAA) has solved this problem by
placing a ferrite bead on the gate-2 lead.
He reported noise figures of under 1 dB 'T' 200
with circuits like the one of Fig. 19, S. M. - SILVER MICA ,...r-,s:M.
using a 40673 operated at 28 MHz
(Ham Radio, Oct. 1975).
Shown in Fig. 20 is a pair of am.
plifiers using JFETs which are oper-
ated in the common-source configura-
tion. Neutralization is used to stabilize
the amplifier. Bridge neutralization has Fig. 20 - A pair of JFET amplifiers which operate in the common-source mode.
124 Chapter 6
resistive impedance to the input of the
amplifier. A noise power of kTB is thus
available at the input to the amplifier.
I The noise power at the output of the
amplifier will just be kTB multiplied by
~
~ ~;:'"""' the amplifier noise factor and gain. (The
details of these noise calculations were
presented earlier in this chapter.) While
/ this noise will cause problems in a
100
receiver, it is necessary in order to begin
QScillation when power is applied
+12V initially.
The second difference between the
Fig. 21 - Circuit of a common-gate JFET amplifier. Typical gain is 10 dB, and 'output inter- two spectrum-analyzer representations
cept is +26 dBm. Select R to provide a low-input VSWR. T1 contains 10 bifilar turns Of wire is the "noise pedestal" surrounding the
on an FT-37-61 toroid core.
carrier in Fig. 24, which was not present
in Fig. 23. This noise is usually at-
tributed to phase variations in the sys-
This would provide a good broadband instrument is swept, with the tuning tem. The width of the noise pedestal is
termination for a preselector network. knob used to set the frequency of equal to the loaded 3-dB bandwidth of
A good input match here would prob- interest at the center of the CRT screen. the resonator. When the noise breaks
ably degrade noise figure. The spectrum analyzer is a calibrated out of the broadband noise floor, it will
The major point to emphasize when instrument, with the vertical axis repre- increase at a rate of 6 dB per octave as it
considering preamplifiers for hf re- senting the power delivered to the input approaches the carrier of the oscillator.
ceivers is that the gain must be chosen at the frequency corresponding to the Consider an oscillator operating at 5
carefully. Excess gain will do little to horizontal position of the display at MHz with a loaded resonator Q of 10.
improve noise figure beyond the value tha t instan t. The noise pedestal will begin at 4.75
that is needed. However, it can have When we refer to a spectrum ana- MHz, and will drop back into the
disastrous effects on the overall dy- lyzer as being ideal, we mean that it has broadband noise floor at 5.25 MHz. The
namic range of the receiver. an unlimited dynamic range and has no noise will be 6 dB above the noise floor
internally generated noise. Such in- at 4.875 MHz and 12 dB up at 4.938
Oscillators for Receiver Application struments do not exist. We will deal MHz. Eventually, the carrier of the
The problems of oscillator stability with these realities later. oscillator appears within the passband
were covered in chapter 3. A number of A generalized schematic of an oscil- of the analyzer and dominates the dis-
sample circuits were presented, many of lator is presented in Fig. 22. This circuit play.
them offering excellent long-term sta- is the same as that given in the earlier If a very narrow bandwidth is used
bility for use iIi transmitter applications. VFO discussion and is used to examine in the analyzer, with some oscillators, a
For the simpler receivers, these oscil. the criteria necessary for oscillation. point may be reached where the noise
lators are generally adequate. Reviewing the Barkhausen criteria, we increases at a 9 dB per octave rate
Problems appear in the design of recall that a signal at point A will be instead of the 6.dB figure. The addi-
wide-dynamic-range receivers which increased in level in the amplifier. Part tional 3 dB is the result of l/f noise in
make the general criteria in chapter 3 of the output will be matched to the the amplifier.
(for obtaining stability) less than suf- resonator by means of Zl. The signal It is interesting to study further the
ficient, and in some cases even incor- across the resonator will be matched to basic oscillator of Fig. 22. Assume that
rect. The performance parameter we the amplifier inpu t by inclusion of Z2. dc bias has just been applied to the
bypassed was that of oscillator noise. A self-sustained oscillation will result if amplifier. Immediately, noise will result
The phenomenon of noise in an (1) the ainpli tude of the resulting signal at the output. It will be routed through
oscillator output is best understood by at A is larger than the original, and (2) the phase-shift networks and resonator
considering how an oscillator would the phase of the output signal from Z2 where it is applied again to the input.
appear when viewed with an ideal spec- is exactly the same as that initially Some mtering occurs in the resonator,
trum analyzer. The amateur may not be impressed at point A. so the noise spectrum is already con-
familiar with this instrument. A spec- Now, how would this signal appear fined somewhat. The amplified input
trum analyzer is essentially a receiver in our hypothetical ideal spectrum ana- noise is routed through the amplifier
which has been optimized for test pur- lyzer? Our usual image of oscillator and resonator system repeatedly, always
poses. Unlike the receivers used for behavior suggests the analyzer ou tpu t increasing in amplitude with each pass
communications, the output is a display shown in Fig. 23. Here, there is no around the loop.
on the face of a cathode-ray tube. The output at any frequency except that to If we were to extend this analysis,
which the oscillator is tuned. The shape we would predict that the positive
of the response is merely the shape of feedback in the oscillator would cause
the m ter used in the analyzer. A more the level of the signal in the loop to be
realistic picture is that shown in Fig. 24, an ever.increasing function of time. This
which is much different than the one is, of course, impossible. Something
provided by the ideal oscillator. must happen to cause the amplitude of
The first difference noted is that the the loop signal to stop and stabilize at
broadband noise is higher in level. That some finite level. There are two
is, the baseline of the display is not at mechanisms that will cause this to hap-
the bottom of the screen, but is a few pen: agc or limiting.
dB higher. The origin of this noise can As an example of agc, consider the
be understood if we go back to the FET oscillator of Fig. 25. As the voltage
oscillator block diagram of Fig. 22. The across the tank builds up, the voltage
Fig. 22 - Generalized diagram of an oscillator. network, Z2, will reflect some real impressed on diode CRI will increase.
2N4416
E
CD
."
W
o
:::>
I-
::;
Q.
2;
<[
NOISE FLOOR
FREQUENCY-
FREQUENCY _ ~
BWL
Fig. 23 - How a signal would appear on an Fig. 24 - A more realistic example of that Fig. 25 - An FEToscillator.
"ideal" spectrum analyzer display. given in Fig. 23.
Rectification will occur, causing a dc K7HFD circuit will illustrate other fea- of bipolar- transistor oscillators, such as
voltage to build up across capacitor Cl. tures of low-noise oscillators. The col- the K7HFD example, the only limit
'This voltage is applied to the gate of the lector link consists of two turns, while imposed is that the emitter-base break-
FET and will serve as bias. As the the base is tapped only one turn up down of the transistor should not be
magnitude of this bias increases, the from the cold end. Hence, the signal exceeded. Not only will this lead to a
average gate voltage becomes more nega- voltage at the base is quite large - a few degradation of transistor beta in time,
tive, driving the FET toward pinchoff volts pk-pk. This is highly desirable. but will cause extreme amounts of noise
and thereby reducing the gain of the The reader will recall from our dis- to be generated from the Zener-diode
amplifier. Amplitude stabilization oc- cussion of noise in amplifiers, that the action.
curs when the net gain is just enough to degradation in output signal-to-noise The same argument with regard to
sustain oscilla ti on. ratio resulting from internally generated emitter-base breakdown can be applied
Limiting, as a mechanism for ampli- noise decreases as the input signal-to- to buffer amplifiers following an oscil-
tude stabilization, is demonstrated in noise ratio increases. The goal in an lator. Class C operation is quite ac-
the circuit of Fig. 26. This oscillator was oscilla tor design is to maximize the ceptable and will preserve low-noise
designed for low-noise performance by output signal-to-noise ratio. Hence, a performance as long as emitter-base
L. Gumm, K7HFD, and operates at 10 general rule of thumb emerges: The breakdown does not occur.
MHz. The voltage from the resonator, drive at the input to the amplifier It is important in the K7HFD oscil-
which is applied to the base, causes the should be as high as possible. In the case lator that the resonator energy be re-
collector current to change. This
changing collector current is coupled
back into the resonator through a link
which is arranged to yield the proper + lOV REGULATED
phase for positive feedback. The maxi-
mum peak current that can be supplied 10
3:1
to the link is the curren t standing in the
transistor pair. This is defined by the
emitter resistor and the inductor, which
has the effect of making the current
appear to originate from a constant
current source. With the peak collector
current well defined, the voltage across
the tank is also well defined and limi ted.
In general, limiting is preferred over
age as an amplitude-stabilization mech- L1
126 Chapter 6
stricted by current limiting in Ql, and to the product of the two input signals. is present in the receiver La, the right-
not by voltage clipping. Should the If a receiver with a very steep-skirted hand end of the trace will appear fuzzy.
transistor go into saturation, the tank filter is tuned to a strong carrier, a The time base of the oscilloscope should
would be loaded severely by the satura- clean-sounding tone is usually heard. be set to display several cycles of audio.
tion resistance of Ql, and would in- However, as the receiver is tuned (Audio discriminators could be used for
crease the width of the noise pedestal. slowly away from the carrier, a point more exacting measurements.)
In the configuration shown, the reso- will be reached where there is no longer
nator has minimal external loading. This a clean tone coming from the receiver. General Design Criteria
is due to the high output resistance Here, the attenuation of the crystal Using the above analysis it is possible
presented by the collector. The loading filter has suppressed the carrier signal. A to formulate a number of general rules
at the base is also minimal, resulting noise output is, sometimes, still present. for the design of quiet oscillators for
from the extreme turns ratio used and This will be the result of the strong critical receiver applications.
the Class C operation of Q1. Class C carrier at the mixer rf port, mixing with 1) Use as high a loaded resonator Q
operation implies that the base of Ql the noise from the La. as can be obtained. This means not only
extracts energy from the resonator only It should be emphasized that the that the unloaded Q should be high, but
during a small fraction of the oscillation foregoing observation is based upon the that the external loading by the oscilla-
cycle. . assumption that the input strong carrier tor be minimal. Also, the high Qu
The presence of saturation in oscil- applied to the receiver is virtually noise- requirement often dictates the use of
lators using limiting is detected easily free. In a laboratory experiment this toroids which might have compromised
with simple equipment. If the transistor cleanliness is obtained by using a high- temperature properties.
is going into saturation, the output quality signal generator in conjunction 2) Drive the input to the amplifying
power will change significantly as the with a narrow bandwidth (50 Hz or less) device as hard as possible without ex-
operating voltage is varied. This does multipole crystal filter. This will ensure ceeding any breakdown specifications.
not occur with the K7HFD circuit. that the observed noise is a result of the This also implies that the resonator
local oscillator and not the noise output should operate with high amounts of
Measurement of Noise in of the signal generator. stored energy and the attendant large
Local Oscillators On-the-air listening experiments can circulating currents. The high currents
It would be straightforward to along with the first criterion will prob-
measure the level of noise from oscil- ably compromise the long-term stabil-
lators if the "ideal" spectrum analyzer ity, making temperature compensation
were available. Unfortunately, such in- necessa!y.
struments do not exist. The better 3) The transistor or FET should
spectrum analyzers have dynamic ranges have capabilities to operate at fre.
of 80 to 100 dB and are priced well quencies very much higher than the
beyond the reach of an amateur. Any operating frequency. This ensu res not
good oscillator will have a noise floor only that the device will have adequate
which is over 100 dB below the carrier gain, but will exhibit minimum unde-
in a communications bandwidth. Hence, sired phase shift. This keeps the phase
if the sensitivity of the analyzer were Fig. 27 - System for evaluating the oscillator shift in the resonator and impedance
increased to the point that the noise of Fig. 26. matching networks (Fig. 22A) where
could be seen, the analyzer would be they belong. For the same reason, single
overloaded. The answer to the problem be enlightening. In one series of tests at transistor or FET oscillators are pre-
a
is to use an existing analyzer in con- W7ZOI, receiver using an FET oscilla- ferred over those using a multiplicity of
junction with a crystal filter which has a tor was used. With a 4-pole, SOO-Hz- devices. (This does not preclude buffer
center frequency near the oscillator wide crystal fIlter as the main selectivity amplifiers.)
ou tpu t frequency. element, the receiver sounded excep- 4) While good output buffering is
Shown in Fig. 27 is the system used tionally clean. However, when a lO-pole desirable, it is not generally necessary
for evaluation of the K7HFD oscillator. filter with the same bandwidth was for receiver applications that the output
A lO-MHz filter with a 3-kHz band. substituted, the effects of noise modula- be a pure sine wave as was advocated for
width (6 poles) was used in conjunction tion were observed readily. transmitter VFOs. The reason for this is
with a Tektronix 7Ll2 Spectrum Ana- Just as signal-generator noise was that most good mixers - that is mixers
lyzer and a frequency counter. The critical in a laboratory evaluation, the with low IMD - will create harmonics
crystal filter had a skirt response which character of strong received signals is anyway. The undesired effects of these
caused the attenuation 10kHz away observable. As the receiver becomes harmonics must be eliminated with
from the center to be over 80 dB. The . more sophisticated, it is possible to proper choice of receiver i-f amplifier
counter was used to set the oscillator to detect subtleties in signal quality that frequency and proper front-end prese-
10.010 MHz and the output at 10.000 would not be noticed in a more mun- lection. With some diode mixers a
MHz was observed in the analyzer. dane receiver. square-wave La is desired for least
Because of the attenuation of the filter, There is one final experiment that distortion. The La waveform should be
the carrier of the La was not over- can detect the presence of phase or symmetrical, however, since an asymme-
loading the analyzer and the noise could frequency modulation in a receiver La. try can destroy the balance of an
be measured. The result was that the This involves the use of a triggered otherwise well-balanced mixer.
noise was over 120 dB below the output audio -frequency oscilloscope, an instru-
of 50 mW (+17 dBm) in a 3-kHz ment found in some amateur shops. A Practical Examples
bandwidth, 10kHz away from the clean signal, such as might come from a There are a number of oscillators
carrier. crystal oscillator, is tuned with the which will fulfill the foregoing criteria.
. The results of La noise can be receiver, and the audio output is moni- How well they need to perform will
observed readily in some receivers. This tored with the oscilloscope. The left depend upon the nature of the receiver
results from the multiplier nature of side of the trace will always be clean - being designed. Many of the simpler
mixers. That is, a mixer is a device with that's the point where the sweep in the receivers in this book use straight-
an output voltage which is proportional 'scope is triggered. However, if fm noise forward Las. In no case has the receiver
128 Chapter 6
for 28-MHz output, use a 116-MHz
crystal. If a frequency.multiplier chain
is necessary (for example, a 432 conver-
ter), use balanced multipliers and exten-
sive output filtering. All subharmonic
components should be attenuated at
least 60 dB.
~ 2) Use diode mixers. Make sure that
~ they are performing as desired. Provide
diplexers at the i-f port to ensure image
~ termination.
3) Use low-noise methods at the i.f
Fig. 30 - Block diagram of a typical crystal.controlled converter. to provide a reasonably low system-
noise figure at the mixer input.
4) All rf amplifiers should be in
separate, well-shielded containers with
extremely high. As a result, it is point- used one to three stages of rf amplifica- coax cables for interconnection. This
less to strive for a low noise figure. tion, an active mixer, and often a will allow each stage to be matched and
Because of this, no rf amplifier is used, post-mixer amplifier. The local- optimized individually. Use broadband
and the preselector is adjusted for a oscillator injection voltage was devel- techniques so that system stability is
loaded Q of near 200. The output of the oped with a low-frequency crystal and a maintained at all frequencies.
dual-gate MOSFET mixer is at 7 MHz. frequency-multiplier chain. Usually, the 5) Use as much preselection as poss-
Although simple, this converter has per. circuitry was contained on an open ible. The input fIlter should have at least
formed well on "top-band." No spuri- chassis. two poles, and the insertion loss should
ous responses from broadcast stations While converters of that type were not exceed 1 dB. The image-stripping
have been detected, and the dynamic satisfactory once, times have changed. fIlter can have higher loss, but should
range has been adequate for some con- The vhf spectrum has become more have good stopband rejection. Helical
test operations. All continents except heavily used. As a result, dynamic-range resonators are recommended for the
Mrica have been received with this unit considerations are more important to- 2-meter band, while interdigital filters
from Oregon, indicating adequate sensi- day than before. Furthermore, current are suggested for frequencies above 432
tivity. interest in the reception of very weak MHz.
Shown in Fig. 32 is a simple conver- signals, such as those encountered in 6) Use extensive interstage shielding
ter for the 6-meter band. In this case, a moonbounce communications, places a and decoupling of power supplies. Each
diode-ring mixer is preceded by a two- severe constraint on noise figures. The stage should be packaged in its own
pole bandpass filter. The preselector following guidelines are offered for the container. High-quality feedthrough
was adjusted for a bandwidth of 1 MHz design of high-performance vhf conver- capacitors should be used for power
and had an insertion loss of 1 dB. The ters. While each point will not be supply connections.
output of the diode ring is applied to a justified, the reader will see that they The techniques outlined are typical
low-noise 14-MHz amplifier (see Fig. are all consistent with the design infor- of those used in the communications
19), and then to the receiver used as the mation presented for hf receivers. industry. This is especially true for the
tunable i-f. The oscillator operates with 1) Use the highest frequency crystal construction of receivers for deep-space
a 36-MHz third overtone crystal and in the LO that can be purchased. For work, or for high-performance vhf and
delivers + 13 dBm to the diode ring. example, if a 2-meter converter is built microwave instrumentation. Many of
Careful measurements have not been
performed on this converter. However,
the noise figure appears to be about 10
dB. The sensitivity is adequate to hear
background noise when using a 2-
element Vagi antenna. Of major signifi-
cance is that there are no spurious
outputs from channel 2 TV, even 1.8MHZ;]L2 L3
~;;
7 -MHz
INPUT
though the converter is used in a strong I
signal area. The usual level of channel 2
on the 2-element Vagi is 0 dBm. One ~
spurious response resulted from a local
fm broadcast station. Its signal was
converted to the 14-MHz band as a
J.Ol 100
result of third.harmonic conversion in
the diode-ring mixer. This response was
eliminated by adding a low-pass filter.
A similar approach to converter de- ~ +12V
sign is presented in a later example. This
family of converters is used to extend
the coverage of a high-performance
160-meter receiver to the high-
frequency bands.
VHF Converters
Fig.31 - Circuit for a simple 160-meter converter. L 1 has33 turns o~ No. 22 wire, center
A popular application of the crystal- tapped, on a T106-2 toroid. L2 is a 1-turn link. L3 has~O turns of wire on a T50.2 core. L4
controlled converter is for reception in is a 5.turn link. L5 has40 turns of wire on a T50-2 torOid, and L6 IS a 7-turn link. 01 can be
the vhf and uhf bands. Most converters an MPF130 or a 40673.
L1
50.1 MHz ~
I
47
10k
OSC.
Fig. 32 - Circuit of a simple 6-meter converter. L 1 and L2 have 8 turns of No. 18 wire, have an ID of 3/8 inch, and are 1 inch long. Tap at 1
turn. C1 is 0.3 inch of RG-174 coaxial line (C = approx. 0.5 pF).
the suggestions can be ignored for casual is straightforward and construction is 1000. This produces an output of 1
applications. However, spurious re- elementary. kHz. The output of this divider is
sponses may result. The virtues of digital readout do not divided again by 2, yielding a string of
come without a penalty. High-speed pulses which are 1 ms wide. This signal
Digital Frequency Readout digital logic can create a large amount of occurs at point A in the figure.
A problem that has plagued the rf noise. Some of this noise is broad- The I-ms-wide pulse is applied to an
receiver builder was the construction of band in nature, while some is related to AND gate. The other input to the gate is
a frequency-readout mechanism. Not the discrete clock frequencies used in the signal to be counted. Assume that
only were accurate and attractive dials counters. Special precautions must be the incoming frequency to be counted
difficult to build in the home shop, but taken to keep this noise from creating was 1.2 MHz. In a I-ms period this
they often caused the circuit design to spurious responses within the receiver. signal will undergo 1200 complete tran-
be compromised. For example, some We will not attempt to cover in sistions. If the counters that follow the
builders elected to build a dual- depth the theory of digital-logic design. gate are set to 0 prior to application of
conversion receiver instead of a single- There have been innumerable articles the output of the gate, they will count
conversion one - they regarded the and books published on the subject (see up to 1200 during the I-ms "timing
virtues of a linear tuning scale with good bibliography). In this section we will window." One decade counter is
resolution and accuracy to be worth the confme our discussion to those details labelled LSD, standing for least signifi-
resultant degraded dynamic range. Such which are applicable to receivers. The cant digit. The last counter in the string
a compromise is no longer necessary. barest fundamentals will be reviewed. A is the most significant digit (MSD).
A modern approach to frequency receiver using digital readout is pre- The outputs of the decade counters
readout is the use of digital circuitry sented later in the book. are in a binary-coded decimal (BCD)
with electronic display. Additional cir- format. There are four lines which can
cuits are required. However, mechanical Frequency-Counter Fundamentals each take on a digital 0 to 1. The BCD
construction problems are avoided. With Shown in Fig. 33 is a block diagram outputs 'are applied to elements termed
a digital readout there is no need to of a fundamental frequency counter. It "latches." These are memory elements.
couple a dial to the main tuning capaci- consists of two sections: the signal Each IC package is actually a quad latch
tor. Linearity of tuning is of little counter and a time base. with one memory element for each BCD
consequence. Long-term stability re- A time base consists of a crystal- line from the counters. When a "strobe"
quirements may even be relaxed. While controlled oscillator (often at 1 MHz) line on the latches is activated with a
a moderate amount of circuitry is need- and a frequency divider. The circuit of positive voltage, the logic state present
ed to realize a digital readout, the design Fig. 33 employs a division ratio of at the latch input is connected to the
130 Chapter6
RESET
TO COUNTERS
L.S.D. M.S.D.
INPUT
_DECODERI
DRIVERS
SEVEN
.SEGMENT
CODE
RIGHT-HAND LEFT-HAND
DISPLAY OISPLAY
output. When the strobe input again "0000." What has occurred is that the The two frequencies differ by the i-f.
goes low, the information in the latch at MSD counter has changed state 1000 Sometimes this is of no consequence.
that instant is retained. A signal to times during the period, ending up at O. For example, if the i-f is exactly at a
strobe the latches is derived from the If the input frequency departed from frequency that is divisible by 1 MHz,
I-ms time-base pulse. The trailing edge 1.2 MHz by, say, 2 Hz positive, the the LO can be counted directly. The
of the gate timing window is differenti- output would read "0002." digits that represent the MHz part are
ated. This leads to a short pulse that Assume that the time base is 1 ms, as not displayed. This is especially effec-
follows the gate-control pulse. shown, and that the input frequency is tive for a cw receiver.
The output of the strobe pulse is increased to 16.15 MHz. In this instance Even if the i.f lies at an exact
also differentiated. This leads to another the output would read 6150. The lead- multiple of 1 MHz, difficulties arise
short pulse which follows the strobe ing 1, signifying the la-MHz part, would where ssb receivers are concerned. This
action. This pulse is applied to the have overrun the counter. This in no is because the frequency of interest in
counters to reset them to 0, making way decreases its utility. If it were ssb is not that at the center of the
them ready for the next burst of input desirable to read out the 10 MHz and inform~tionbeing transmitted, but that
data. higher frequencies, an additio~,!l~-Of---ule suppressed carrier. This corre-
The latches "remember" the state of counter, latch, decoder and LED-could sponds to the sum or the difference of
the counters at the end of the counting be added. Alj~.rnatively, the time base the receiver LO and BFO. In principle
period. The latch outputs are applied to could be Cllanged to 100 microseconds. these two oscillators could be mixed
ICs called decoder/drivers. They serve a One major problem occurs with the appropriately, and the resultant infor-
dual function. First, they convert the counter shown in Fig. 33. The display is mation counted. This method can work
BCD information supplied from the updated once each 2 milliseconds. The well if excessive shielding is used, which
latches to the appropriate format to human eye can only respond to changes is possible. If the shielding and isolation
drive 7.segment light-emitting diode that occur within about 100 ms. Be. are not nearly perfect, the receiver will
(LED) displays. Second, they provide cause of this, the display will appear to respond to the mixed product which is
enough output power to drive the LED flicker in the LSD position. This will precisely at the frequency being re-
displays. occur even if the stability of all signals ceived.
In the example described in Fig. 33, was uncompromised in stability, so long A cleaner approach is through the
four digits were displayed, and a I-ms as they were not coherent. Additional application of additional gates. Assume,
timing window was used. The display circuitry will allow the display update for example, that the frequency to be
was updated once in each 2-ms period. period to be extended. counted corresponded to the sum of the
If the 1.2-MHz input was measured, the BFO and the LO. A suitable display
display would read "1200." The read- Receiver Applications could be achieved by first counting one
out is in kHz. The counter just described is suitable oscillator and then the other. The coun-
If the timing window was extended for general-purpose applications. How- ters would not be reset after switching
to 1 second, the results would be quite ever, it is not sufficient for receiver use. between the first and the second. The
different. (This is realized by adding There are a number of reasons for this. result would correspond to the sum of
another divide-by-1oo0 chain to the The main one is that the frequency to the frequencies.
time base.) The counter would then be counted is not the incoming fre- If the desired output was the differ-
read out in Hz. The display would read quency but that of the local oscillator. ence of the BFO and the LO, additional
Advanced Receiver Concepts 131
difficulty -would be enountered.' This tion. The decoder/drivers used in the range, leading to a 500-Hz change in the
may be, circumvented by use of up- circuit of Fig. 33 all operate in parallel. readout while still copying an arriving
,down counters as well as with appro- The signals sent to the LED displays are signal.
priate gating. As pulses arrive at the dc ones that change only when the There is a method that may be
input to a normal decade counter, the display is updated.In contrast, there are employed to extend the accuracy of a
output follows the following sequence: many displays and matching decoder/ digital readout. Auxiliary equipment is
0, 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9,0 and so drivers that operate in a sequential required, which is constructed easily or
forth. That is ,the unit counts up, manner. This allows the outputs of integrated into an existing receiver.
starting at O. Some more-elegant ICs several sets of latches to be applied to a Assume that the .receiver counter has a
have two inputs. One is the count-up single decoder/driver at one time. Simi- time base with a I-second counting win-
input described. The other is a count- larly, a' fewer number of output lines dow. The resulting resolution is 1 Hz.
down input. Starting at 0, arriving are re,quired to attach to a collection of The first extra piece of equipment is
pulses would cause it to read sequen- LED ,segments. The various digits are a I-MHz standard. This unit is set
tially: 0,9; 8, 7 and so forth. By using scanned at a high rate and pulsed on for carefully against WWV or some other
each of the inputs in a properly con- short periods. The eye perceives all of standard of known accuracy. After the
trolled way, one can obtain a result that the digits as being on, simultaneously. transfer standard is calibrated, an har~
corresponds to the difference of two Most digital clocks and pocket cal- monic is tuned with the receiver. Once
frequencies. Multi-conversion' systems culators use multiplexed displays. The in the passband, the receiver is tuned
may also be accommodated with these fact that high-speed digital circuits are until the readout displays an exact
methods. changing state continually leads to large multiple of the I-MHz standard. For
Another method that may be used noise outputs. example, on the 20-meter band, the
to read frequency more accurately is by The crystal oscillator used as the readout would read 14.000000 MHz.
use of presettable counters. In the fun- clock for the time base should not be With the receiver so tuned,' an external
damental system of Fig. 33, the coun- related directly to the receiver i-f. For audio oscillator is adjusted to produce
ters were reset to 0 at the end of each example, a receiver built by one onhe exactly the same audio frequency. The
counting period, after the information writers uses a 9-MHz i-f and a digital comparison may be done with an oscil-
had been strobed into the latches. Pre- readout. When the counter was first loscope (in the X-V mode using Lis-
settable counters are more flexible. With' constructed, a I-MHz clock was used. sajous patterns), with a digital phase-
the application of the proper pro- The ninth harmonic could be heard frequency detector, with the counter, or
gramming signals, the "reset" pulse will faintly in the i-f (at a very low level even by ear.
set them to any desired output. Count- corresponding to an input signal of Once the pitch calibration is per-
ing then commences from that point. -138 dBm). The clock was moved to 2 formed, an unknown signal may be
By choosing the proper preset input, the MHz, thereby solving the problem. The tuned to produce exactly the same pitch.
offsets resulting from the i-f may be seventh harmonic can be heard at 14 When this is realized, the precise fre-
accommodated. MHz only when an antenna is connected quency is read directly. On several
The use of presettable counters is to the receiver. occasions one of the writers achieved
generally more direct. However,.,it is A final precaution is to time- I-Hz accuracy in WIAW Frequency
subject to any errors that may occur in sequence the time base. This is realized Measuring Tests with this technique.
the BFO frequency. The up-down coun- in the counter of Fig. 33 by placing a -', It should be mentioned that this
ter method automatically accommo- gate between the crystal oscillator and method appears to be more accurate
dates these drift and aging effects. the divide-by-lOOO counter. The oscilla- than those using a "Zero-beat" compari-
tor is allowed to run continuously. son. Also, the receiver used for these
Counter Noise Considerations However, the divider circuit is on only tests had sufficient i-f selectivity that
If a frequency counter is to be used when it is needed. If the display up-date zero beat could not be detected. The
with a receiver, there are several pre- rate is made slow (1/2 second), there is ultimate limitation of this approach to
cautions. that must be taken. If they are no digital circuitry operating during frequency measurement is the short-
not, the noise from the counter may most of the listening time. In the term stability of the oscillators used and
dominate the receiver output. Some of extreme, provision could be made to the inaccuracies related to Doppler shift
the problems are outlined below. completely shut the counter circuits off during WWV calibration.
The interface between the oscillators by means of a front-panel switch. A I-Hz frequency accuracy is rarely
being counted and the digital circuits needed for an amateur receiver. A ques-
should be exceptionally clean. FET buf- High-Resolution Frequency Readout tion of more practical nature concerned
fers are suggested. The oscillators may The use of a counter as the fre- the general usefulness of a digital read-
be attenuated significantly and then quency display in a receiver has a out during routine communications.
reamplified to further enhance the isola- number of advantages. Many have been Would an analogue dial be missed? The
tion. outlined. One is the high resolution of writers'answer to this query is an
Extensive shielding should be used. the counter ,which allows the receiver uncategorical no! The digital readout
Ideally, the counter circuitry should be to be reset precisely to a previously was found remarkably easy to adapt to.
in an' rf-tight box. High quality feed- logged frequency. The limit is the inter- The ability to set the receiver on a
through capacitors should be used for val used for the time-base and the known frequency for monitoring pur-
power supply lines. The 5-volt power short-term'stability of the oscillators. poses has been immensely useful.
supply often used for the digital circuits While reset ability may be high,
should be decoupled well from the similar accuracy in readout is not im- A High-Performance Receiver
receiver power supply. Often, some of plicit. First, there may be some drift in for 160 Meters
the shielding recommendations may be the clock oscillator used in the time A high order of dynamic range is
relaxed if the rest of the receiver is well base. Of greater significance is the band- important to good reception in areas of
shielded. This would be required for width of the receiver. For example, if a high signal density. Operation on 160
other reasons in a high-performance 500-Hz-bandwidth receiver is used with meters requires a better than average
receiver. a digital readout, the accuracy of a communicatibns receiver, particularly in
Multiplexed, displays' should be received signal is, at best, 500 Hz. The situations where commercial a-m broad-
avoided. This' requires some explana- receiver may be tuned over a 500-Hz cast stations are nearby, and when the
132 Chapter 6
1.8-2.0 MHz
ATTENUATORS
-6dB -12dB
538
HF
COIN ~
~150 S!82
~
5.M.-SlLVER MICA
TO 100-kHz
CALIBRATOR .H2 IWl.
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, OECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
5.'" 5.'"
II MICROFARADSI JlF I ; OTHERS 1500 1500
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR JlJlFI;
RESlSTAHCES ARE IN OHMS;
5.'" '5.ii
, ",000.101-1000 000
RF AMP. MIXER
1.1-2DMHz 1.8-2.0 MHz
t}
500
.002
U! 56
Fig. 34 - Schematic diagram of the receiver front end. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise noted. Resistors are 1/2-W com-
position. All slug-tuned inductors are contained in individual shield cans which are grounded.
C1 - Three.section variable, 100 pF per L7, L9 - 13-JJHslug-tuned inductor (J. W. L 15 - 1.3. to 3.0-mH, slug.tuned inductor
section. Model used here obtained as Miller 9052). (J. W. Miller 9059).
surplus. "L8 - 380'JJH slug.tuned inductor (J. W. Q1, 02, 03 - Motorola JFET.
J1 - 50-239. Miller 9057). RFC1 - 2.7'mH miniature choke (J. W.
J2 - Phono jack. L10 - 16 turns No. 30 enam. wire over L 11 Miller 70F273AIl. .
L1, L4 - 38 to 68 JJH, au of 175 at 1.8 winding. RFC2 - 10-mH miniature choke (J. W.
MHz, slug-tuned (J. W. Miller 43A685CBI L 11 - 45 turns No. 30 enam. wire on Miller 70F102AIl.
in Miller S.74 shield can). Amidon T.50.2 toroid, 8.5 JJH. 51 - Three-pole, two-position phenolic
L2, L3 - 95 to 187 JJH,au of 175 at 1.8 L12 - 42-JJHslue-tuned ~nductor, Qu of 50 wafer switch.
MHz, slug tuned (J. W:Milier 43A154CBI at 1.8 MHz (J. W. Miller 9054). 52, 53 - Two-pole, double.throw miniature
in 5.74 shield can). L13 - 8.7-JJHtoroidal inductor. 12 turns toggle.
L5, L6 - 1.45'JJH toroid inductor, au
of No. 26 enam. wire on Amidon FT -37-61 U1 - Mini-Circuits Labs. 5RA.1-1 doubly
250 at 1.8 MHz. 15 turns No. 26 ferrite core. balanced diode mixer (2913 Quentin Rd.,
anam. wire on Amidon T-5(}.2 L14 - 120. to 280'JJH, slug-tuned inductor Brooklyn, NY 112291.
toroid. (J. W. Miller 90561.
operator lives near other l60-meter en- bution of the receiver circuitry to assure of this receiver. That is, the two systems
thusiasts who are active on the band. the performance specified here, but are compatible by design intent. IMD of
The effects of blocking, cross modula- construction of such a receiver should the main-frame receiver (tested at 1.9
tion, and IMD can render a poorly be no more exacting than would be the MHz) is -95 dB. Noise floor is -135
designed receiver useless in the fore- case when building a mediocre one. dBm, and blocking of 1 dB occurs at
going situation, making weak-signal Although this is a single-band re- some point in excess of 123 dB above
work an impossible task. ceiver, coverage of 80 through 15 the noise floor. With the mating 20-
Some ordinary design procedures meters can be accomplished with good meter converter attached the IMD = 88
can be followed when building a re- dynamic-range traits by employing the dB, noise floor is -133 dBm, and
ceiver with above average dynamic.range converters described later in this chap- blocking is in excess of 123 dB. The
parameters, and the construction job is ter. They were designed for high perfor. 20.meter tests were performed with the
not a difficult one. Special care must go mance also, and the desired chacteristics fixed-tuned l60-meter front-end ftlter
into the front-end design and gain distri. were based on the dynamic-range profile in the circuit. Tests for dynamic range
Advanced Receiver Concepts 133
mixer (UI) was chosen for its excellent
-0 '0 reputation in handling high signal levels,
-5 having superbport-to-port signal isola-
-10
tion, and because of its good IMD
performance. The module used in this
-15
design is a commercial one which con-
-20 tains two broadband transformers and
four hot-carrier diodes with matched
lD -25
'D
I
characteristics. The amateur can build
-30 his own mixer assembly in the interest
-35 of reduced expense. At the frequencies
involved in this example, it should not
-40
be difficult to obtain performance equal
-45 to that of a commercial mixer.
The receiver is built in a homemade alumi-
-so A diplexer is included at the mixer num cabinet. A two-tone gray and flat-
l.75 1.8 1.85
MHz
1.9 1.95 2.0 2.05 output (Ll3 and the related .002 capa- black paint job has been applied. Black
citors). The addition was worthwhile, as Dymo tape labels are used for identifying
the controls in the black area, and gray labels
Fig. 35 - Response curve of the tunable
it provided an improvement in the noise are affixed to the gray portion of the front
front-end filter, centered on 1.9 MHz. floor and IMD characteristics of the panel. A cut-down Jackson Brothers vernier
receiver. The diplexer works in combin- dial mechanism (two-speed) is used for fre-
ation with matching network Ll4, a quency readout.
low-pass L-type circuit. The diplexer is a
on 160 meters were performed with the high-pass network which permits the amplifier to a diode-switched pair of
tunable Cohn fllter in the circuit. This 56-ohm terminating resistor to be seen Collins mechanical filters which have a
receiver was described first in QST for by the mixer without degrading' the characteristic impedance of 2000 ohms.
June and July, 1976. 455-kHz i-f. The low-pass portion of the The terminations are built into the
diplexer helps reject all frequencies filters.
Front-End Circuit
above 455 kHz so that the post-mixer Gain distribution to the mixer is
Fig. 34 shows the rf amplifier, amplifier receives only the desired infor- held to near unity in the interest of
mixer, and post-mixer amplifier. What mation. The high-pass section of the good IMD performance. The preampli-
may seem like excessive elaboration in diplexer starts rolling off at 1.2 MHz. A fier gain is approximately 25 dB. The
design is a matter of personal whim, but reactance of 66 ohms (Xc and XL) was choice was made to compensate for the
the features are useful, nevertheless. For chosen to permit use of standard-value high insertion" loss of the mechanical
example, the two front-end attenuators capacitors in the low-Q network. filters - 10 dB. Without the high gain of
aren't essential to good performance, A pair of source-coupled JFETs is Q2 and Q3 there would be a deteriora-
but are useful in making accurate mea- used in the post-mixer i-f preamplifier. tion in noise figure.
surements (6, 12 of 18 dB) of signal The 1O,000-ohm gate resistor of Q2 sets
levels during on-the-air experiments the transformation ratio of the L net- Local Oscillator
with other stations (antennas, ampli- work at 200: I (50 ohms to 10 k!1). An A low noise floor and good stability
fiers and such). Also, FL2, a fixed- L network is used to couple the pre- are essential traits of the local oscillator
tuned 1.8- to 2-MHz bandpass filter,
need not be included if the operator is
willing to repeak the three-pole tracking
filter (FLl) when tuning about in the Fig. 36 - Circuit diagram of the local oscillator. Capacitors.are disk ceramic unless specified
band. The fixed-tuned filter is con- differently. Resistors are 1/2-W composition. Entire assembly is enclosed in a shield box
venient when the down converters are in made from pc-board sections.
C2 - Double-bearing variable capacitor, 50 Miller 8.74 shield can).
use. pF. L19 - 10. to 18.7-/LH slug-tuned pc-board
The benefits obtained from a highly C3 - Miniature 30'pF air variable. inductor (J. W. Miller 23A155RPC).
selective tunable fllter like FLI are seen CR 1 - High-speed switching diode, silicon RFC13, R FC14 - Miniature 1-mH rf choke
when strong signals are in or near the type 1N914A. (J. W. Miller 70F103AI).
L 18 - 17- to 41-/LH slug-tuned inductor, VR2 - 8.6-V, 1W Zener diode.
160-meter band. The rejection charac- Qu of 175 (J. W. Miller 43A335CBI in
teristics can be seen in Fig. 35. Insertion
loss was set at 5 dB in order to narrow
OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER
the filter response. In this example the 2255-2455 kHz
high-Q slug-tuned inductors are isolated 100 lS0 .001
-10 dB
455kHz
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VAWES OF
.;~. BWO:"'kfi
10mH
CR3 120 CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I jlF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR jljlFI;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k'IOOO. M'IOOO 000.
~01f-oTO U2
~ H'AMP.
TO
Q2,Q3
R7 +6.5V
+l2V
10k
GAIN leWI
EQUALIZER
Fig. 37 - Schematic diagram of the filter and i-f post-filter amplifier. Capacitors are disk ceramic. Resistors are 1/2.w composition.
CR2-CR5, incl. - High-speed silicon switch- RFC3-RFGJO, inc\. - 10-mH 'miniature rf 54 - Double-pole, double-throw toggle or
ing diode, 1N914A. choke (J. W. Miller 70F102A11. wafer.
Fl3 - Collins mechanical filter F455FD'{)4. R7 - Pc-board control, 10,000 ohms, linear T1 - Miniature 455-kHz i-f transformer
Fl4 - Collins mechanical filter F455FD-25. taper. (J. W. Miller 2067,30,000 to 500 ohms).
/
I-F AMP. I-F AMP. PROD. DET.
TO AGC AMP.
TO
TI
r-----T3-------------~O(0I0)
60:1
r----..,
4SS kHz
1 CR7
I I
CR6
1200
2200
1200'
3300
1000
560
270
+12V
AGC
(TOU4
.7V RMS
BFO
+12V
Fig. 38 - Circuit of the i-f amplifier, BFO, and product detector. Capacitors are disk ceramic unless noted differently. Fixed-value resistors are
1/2-W composition. Dashed lines show shield enclosures. The BFO and i-f circuits are installed in separate shield boxes. The RoCactive filter
and af preamplifier are on a common circuit board, which is not shielded.
CR6-CR9, incl. - High-speed silicon, inductor lJ.W. Miller 9054). T2, T3 - 455-kHz i-f transformer. See
1N914A or equiv. R1 - 100,OOO-ohmlinear-taper text. (J. W. Miller 2067).
CR10 - Motorola MV-104 Varicap composition control (panel mount). T4 - Trifilar broadband transformer. 15
tuning diode. RFC11 - 2.5-mH miniature choke (J. W. trifilar turns of No. 26 enam. wire on
U6 - Nominal 640-jlH slug-tuned Miller 70F253A 1). Amidon T'SQ-61 toroid core.
inductor (J. W. Miller 9057). RFC12 - 10-mH miniature choke (J. W. U2, U3 - RCA IC.
L17 - Nominal 60-jlH slug-tuned Miller 70F1 02A1). VR1 - 9.1-V, 1-W Zener diode.
poor agc (dicky, pumping, or inade. of T2 and T3 were chosen to force an operating voltage to +9. This aids stabil-
quate range ) 'and insufficient i-f gain. impedance transformation which the ity and reduces i-f system noise. The
A pair of RCA CA3028A ICs is used transformers can't by themselves pro. amplifier strip operates with uncondi-
in the i-f strip. Somewhat greater gain vide: Available Miller transformers with tional stability.
and agc range is possible with MCl590G a 30,000-ohm primary to 500.ohm
ICs, and they are the choice of many secondary characteristic are used. U2 Product Detector
builders. However, the CA3028As, con- and U3 have 10- and 22.ohm series A quad of IN914A diodes is used in
figured as differential amplifiers, will resistors in the signal lines. These were the product detector. Hot-earrier diodes
provide approximately 70 dB of gai~ added to discourage vhf parasitic oscil- may be preferred by some, and they
per pair when operated at 455 kHz. This lations. may lead to slightly better performance
gives an ag<\ characteristic from maxi- Agc is applied to pin 7 of each IC. than the silicon units. A trifilar broad-
mum gain to\ full cutoff which is en- Maximum gain occurs at +9 V, and band toroidal transformer, T4, couples
tirely acceptable for most amateur minimum gain results when the agc the i-f amplifier to the detector at a
work. voltage drops to its low value, +2 V. The 50-ohm impedance level. BFO injection
Fig. 38 shows the i-f amplifiers, agc is rf-derived, with i-f sampling for is,supplied at 0.7 V rms.
product detector, and Varicap.tuned the agcamplifier being done at pin 6 of
BFO. Transformer coupling is used be. U3 through a 100-pF blocking capac- BFO Circuit
tween U2 and U3, and also between U3 itor. In the interest of lowering the cost
and the product detector. The 6800- The lOOO-ohm decoupling resistors of this project, a Varicap (CRlO of Fig.
ohm resistors used across the primaries in the 12-V feed to U2 and U3 drop the 38) is used to control the BFO fre-
136 Chapter 6
the QIO/QII gain is determined as:
100
5!l
Cf
AGC
ON
SOURCE
FOLL.
AGC
DIFf:.
AMP.
AGC TO
U2,U3
Gain (dB) = 20 log Rc -;- Rs Control R2
has been included as part of Rs to
permit adjustment of the agc loop gain.
TO
10k 10k
-+9V TO+2V
Each operator may have a preference in
this regard. The agc is set so it is fully
actuated at a signal-input level of 10 p.Y.
Agc action commences at 0.2 p.Y (1 dB
of gain compression).
T3 G
PIlI.
Agc disabling is effected by remov.
ing the operating voltage from QIO and
Qll by means of S5. Manual i-f gain
control is made possible by adjusting R3
of Fig. 39. Agc delay is approximately 1
second. Longer or shorter delay periods
l00,uF+ can be established by altering the values
l!lv'T
TO PROVIDE +9V AT r-M of the Q14 gate resistor and capacitor.
PIN 6 OF 741 (NO 5IG.) Agc amplifier gain is variable from 6 to
.R
40 dB by adjusting R2. Agc action is
smooth., and there is no evidence of
+12V clicks on the attack during strong-signal
I-F GAIN
periods. At no time has agc "pumping"
011 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VAWE5 OF been observed.
/
c; B E
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (jlF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR jljlF);
RESISTANCES
k'l000,
ARE IN OHMS;
M'lOOO000.
Audio System
A major failing of many receivers is
poor-quality audio. For the most part
this malady is manifest as cross-over
Fig. 39 - Schematic diagram of the agc system. Capacitors are disk ceramic except when distortion in the af-output amplifier.
polarity is indicated, which signifies electrolytic. Fixed-value resistors are 1/2-W composition.
This module is not enclosed in a shield compartment. Moreover, some receivers have marginal
CR12, CR13 - High-speedsilicon. 1N914A mounted. audio-power capability for normal room
orequiv. RFC15 - 2.5-mH miniature choke (J. W. volume when a loudspeaker is used.
Ql 0, Ql1, Q14 - Motorola transistor. Miller 70F253A 1l. Some transformerless single-chip audio
R2, R4, R5 - Linear-taper composition pc- 55 - Single-pole, single-throw toggle.
board mount control. U4 - Dual-in-line 8 pin 741 op amp. ICs (0.25- to 2.W class) exhibit a prohib-
R3 - 10,OOO-ohmlinear-taper control, panel Ml - 0- to l-mA meter. itive distortion characteristic, and this is
DRIVER 3.5-W
470 AF OUTPUT
08
2N58801
57003
lDOI!
AF ~5~ 1000 10k
PREAMP.
TO
PROO0-.-4
DET.
~illY
.1. ..
+
1000
1000
1000
l~:;u.L~~
2ooo,.F
.-----.-----v PHONES
OR
-OHM
SPKR.
,Ll
470
t .01
HOk e4
+12Y EllCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VAWES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I JlF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS pF OR .II.11FI;
ell RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k. 1000. M'IOOO 000.
POLY. POLYSTYRENE
ill
"1,
+ FL5
1OV;h
100pF
RC ACTIVE
750-Hz CW
FILTER
+12Y
Fig. 40 - Diagram of the audio amplifier and R-C active filter. Capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise noted. Polarized capacitors are
electrolytic or tantalum. Fixed-value resistors are 1/2-W composition. This circuit is not contained in a shield box. Heat sinks are used with
08 and 09.
C4.C7, incl. - Seetext. J3 - Phone jack. S6 - Double-throw, double-pole toggle.
CR11 - High-speed silicon, 1N914A or R6 - 1O,OOO-ohmaudio-taper composition U4 - National Semiconductor LM.301 A IC.
equiv. control, panel mounted. U5 - Signetics N5558 dual op-amp IC.
138 Chapter 6
Exterior view of the high-performance con-
verter assembly. A gray and black spray-paint Fig.41 - Block diagram of the CER-verters.
finish is applied to the homemade aluminum
cabinet. Lettering is by means of a Dymo
tape labeler.
Summary Comments
The photographs illustrate a modular
construction technique. Ail rf-circuit
assemblies are isolated from one
<:2
11
s:F
another, and from outside energy influ-
ences, by means of shield compart-
ments. Signal points are joined (module
to module) with RG-l74/U subminia-
6S~:1.H[::~
~1 u '''.'''', ~'"'' ,"w::'
CAPACITANCEARE IN MICROFARADS (.lIF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR .lI.lIFI;
100
Table 2
BAND C4, C6 C5, C20 Cl C8 CS, C12 C10 Cl1 C13 C14 C16 Cll, C31 CT8, C32 C21
(MHz) CT9 (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) CT5 (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) . (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF)
140 Chapter 6
21-21.2I1H.
C24 e27 (;30 TO DIOOE-
f--6--<> RING
~. ~ RF PORT
II
~10
IIG
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHIIS;
k'l 000, 11.1000 000.
TO DIODE - RING
~O PORT
Fig. 44 - Diagram of the 15-meter front-end circuit. Numbered fixed-value capacitors are silver micas. Resistors are 1/2-W composition. See
Tables 1 and 2 for other parts values.
frequency of the fIlter and the variable 35 to 32 turns, keeping all capacitor by halving the inductance and capaci-
capacitors are adjusted for a maximum values the same. A S.8.MHz crystal tance values used in the diplexer circuit.
response. Experimentally, it was not would be required for tuning the range The broadband output circuit in the
found necessary to readjust the fIlters from 4.0 to 3.8 MHz. drain of QI should work equally well at
when the swept instrumentation was 3.5 MHz. The 15- and 20-meter band-
available. Additional Design Notes pass fIlters were designed with enough
The converter for the IS-meter band The reader should note that the bandwidth to cover the total band. This
was built using the circuit in Fig. 44. On tuning will be "backward" for the was done in order to keep the insertion
this band it was felt that a better noise 80-meter band. This was done because a losses at a reasonable level. A slightly
figure might be useful. This was pro- strong 1.7.MHz local.oscillator signal wider fIlter would be required for the
vided by inserting an rf amplifier be. would have appeared at the input to the total40.meter band.
tween the low.pass ftlter and the band. post-mixer amplifier. This could have The converters are built on large
pass circuit. The low-pass circuit was resulted in IMD products. Furthermore, circuit boards. This was done in order to
modified. The input section is a symme. for the 7S-meter band the crystal would
trical pi network with a Q of 1. This is have been at 2.0 MHz if low-side injec-
followed by a pi network with a Q of 10 tion were used. This would have placed
and an impedance transformation from a strong signal within the tuning range
50 to 2000 ohms. A 3300-ohm resistor of the main receiver. If it is desirable
is used in the drain circuit to ensure that all hf bands tune in the same
proper termination of the bandpass direction, the builder should pick high-
ftlter. In the unit built, the drain was side crystals for all of the bands.
attached directly to the "hot" end of The approach used for the IS-meter
the resonator (u 0). However, it would converter in order to obtain low.noise
be desirable to reduce the gain some. performance could also be applied to
what. This would be realized easily by the 10- and 6-meter bands. Filter de-
tapping the drain down on the tuned signs for these bands can be extracted
circuit as shown. The terminating resis- from the appendix. The image rejection
tor should remain across UO. might be a little poor with such a low i-f
Those building the converter for 80 frequency in the 6-meter case.
meters may wish to also cover the Another revision would be the con.
7S-meter phone band. While the ftlter struction of a high-performance 80-
shown could probably be realigned for a meter receiver with converters for the
range about 100 kHz higher, the shape higher bands. The converters described
of the fIlter would no doubt deteriorate would be suitable for this situation. The Interior view of the converter unit. The
if it were moved farther. A better crystal frequencies would change ac- boards are mounted edgewise. The mixer
module is seen at dead center. A multi-
approach would be to change the value cordingly. The diplexer between the section wafer switch. with shield partitions
of the inductors. Proper results should diode mixer and the "post amp" should between wafers. should be used in place of
be obtained by reducing the coils from be redesigned. This could be done easily the one seen in this photograph (seetext).
142 Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Measurements are the key to ob- surement is still better than no measure- levels are useful to the experimenter.
taining good results in amateur experi- ment at all! They are beneficial when it is necessary
mentation. This form of test procedure From the foregoing commentary to effect a high degree of power supply
will help assure proper equipment per- emerges a primary rule which the isolation. Also, a variable-voltage regu-
formance while enabling the builder to writers have adopted: Keep the test lated dc supply is extremely useful in
establish a log of normal operating equipment simple! Another principle the amateur laboratory. The circuit
voltages and parameters. A laboratory they have embraced is that of not which illustrates the use of an LM317K
logbook which contains such data will planning so far ahead that every applica- IC (Fig. 48) is suggested.
be useful when it becomes necessary to tion conceivable shall be handled by the Those who desire a high-current,
troubleshoot the homemade equipment. assortment of homemade test equip- ripple-free dc power supply may wish to
The information will be valuable when ment. The more esoteric pieces oflabo- consider inclusion of a 12-volt auto-
designing new circuits which employ ratory gear can be built on an as-needed motive battery in the shop. It can be
some of the stages and devices used in basis. "topped off' by means of a trickle
earlier assemblies. charger when it is not being used. The
Some amateurs have concluded that Some Basic Recommendations life span of such a battery can be
sophisticated and costly test equipment The number of power supplies increased by periodic high-current
is needed to obtain high quality results. needed in the workshop always seems to loading and recharging, say, two or
Certainly, this can be true if experi- exceed the quantity available. For this three times a week.
mentation is taking place well within reason it is best to utilize power supplies
the state of the art. But, a lot of good which are outboard from the test equip- DC Voltage Measurements
work can be done with only a YOM. A ment. The exception might be in the' Ordinary VOMs (volt-ohm-milliam-
great deal more can be achieved if the case of weak-signal sources which re- meter) are suitable for much of the
amateur is willing to construct some quire superb isolation to minimize un- routine work done in the amateur lab.
simple test equipment for his personal wanted leakage. Some of the small imported instruments
laboratory: A less than optimum mea- Dry-battery packs of various voltage can be purchased for less money than
one would spend to build a comparable
tester from scratch. The primary limita-
tion of most VOMs is, however, that of
DC VOLTMETER
+2V loading the circuit under test. A typical
R4 YOM will exhibit a characteristic of
R1
10M
1M
R2
10M
R5
lOOk
,L0lC2
1000 to perhaps 5000 ohms per volt
when applied to a circuit test point.
+20V Loading of this variety will sometimes
cause incorrect readings (lower than
normal). A more practical voltmeter is
one which has a high input resistance,
-GND,~
such as a VTVM (vacuum-tube volt-
R9
330 BT1 meter) or a solid-state equivalent. The
9V
-III~+__ c0N latter can often be built at a cost lower
than that of a factory-assembled unit or
01
R10 commercial kit. The complexity of a
10k
homemade instrument will depend upon
G
U
S 0
the accuracy desired. Some practical
examples follow.
Low-Cost FET Voltmeter
Fig. 1 shows a simple voltmeter
Fig. 1 - Circuit for the FET voltmeter. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-W composition. C1
and C2 are disk ceramic. M1 is a 1OO-j.jAdc meter. Q1 is a Motorola MPF102 or HEP802. R7 which uses one active device - a JFET.
and R8 are pc-board-mount composition controls. It is designed to accommoda te two
I
TO SCALE TO Op-Amp Voltmeter
Sl R7
(LOW) R7 Shown in Fig. 4 is a simple voltmeter
IHIGHI
that uses a pair of op-amp Ies and a 0-1
L/
rnA meter. Type 741 op amps may be
~~1 l'~-:"MINU"
used. A better choice would be the
J!"ARMI LM-30SN. This unit has the advantage
of requiring low power from the battery
and has low bias currents, leading to
better accuracy. If the LM-30SN is used,
a IOOO-pF capacitor should be con-
Rl\ R'4---
nected between pins I and S of the chip
IN'U7
(HIGH) in order to provide stable frequency
20-V compensation.
In this circuit UI serves as a fed-back
current amplifier. Two input resistors
are selected with a slide switch to
provide full-scale readings of 2 and 20
2-V
144 Chapter 7
20V
1N914
47k
on I"ON
.=.. 9V
10M
47k
1M 500k
47k
1N914
.02
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPAC ITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (.lJF I ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR .lJ.lJFl;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; 1M
k -1000. M' I 000 000
con troIs in the circuit serve to calib rate powered from a low-voltage supply. The resistive divider was designed specifi-
the meter movement and to zero the required 6 volts are provided by means cally to be compatible with these scales,
output when there is no input signal. of four D-type dry ,cells. Since the with a circuit sensitivity of 0.35 volt full
This meter functions like a YOM current consumption is only a few mA, scale. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5, the
with a sensitivity of 500 kfl per volt. Pen-light cells would serve as well. The basic sensitivity is assumed to be 0.5-
The input resistance changes for the circuit is a full differential amplifier. volt full scale, and the resistive divider
different ranges .. Because of this, the Each side consists of the FET and a pnp has been designed to yield full-scale
circuit cannot be used with the usual rf transistor arranged as a noninverting sensitivities of 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50,
probe. Most rf probes are built to work amplifier with feedback to produce a 100, 200 and 500 volts. The sensitivity
with a YTVM or FET voltmeter that has voltage gain of 2. The output of this is controlled with the range switch, Sl.
a constant input resistance of 10 meg- amplifier is applied to an emitter fol- A double-pole, double-throw slide
ohms. As in Fig. 3, they usually contain lower to drive the meter. switch, S2, is used for polarity reversal,
a 4.7 megohm resistor. Such a probe The dual JFET used in the schematic while S3 serves to switch power to the
could be used with good accuracy on may be a difficult item to obtain. meter. Although not shown in the
the 20-volt range of the meter in Fig. 4, However, if the voltage is increased in schematic, a second set of contacts on
but errors would occur on the 2-volt the circuit, almost any dual FET will S3 is arranged to short out the meter
scale. work. If a dual FET cannot be located, movement when the unit is off. This is a
Shown in Fig. 5 is another FET the modified amplifier shown in Fig. 6 good practice with high quality meter
voltmeter. This circuit is the semicon- is recommended, where individual FETs movements to prevent damage during
ductor equivalent of some popular of the same type are used. Two units of transit.
VTVMs. A dual FET is used in this similar characteristics should be chosen. In the modified circuit of Fig. 6, the
circuit, resulting in exceptionally low They should be matched for Idss and pair of FETs are used as source followers
drift characteristics with temperature pinchoff voltage. to drive a pair of 741 op amps. The
changes. Also, the FET chosen is a unit The unit utilizes a meter with a 0-1 741 s then drive the meter. This circuit
with a low pinchoff voltage. This has mA movement, but with three scales could use either a 747 or a 5558 dual op
the asset that the meter may be labeled 0-70, 0-140 and 0-350. The amp in place of the two 741s. While the
10'
1M
'1-
+
6V
S3
.01
ZERO
Fig.5 - A semiconductor eQuivalent of some of the popular VTVMs used by amateurs. The circuit exhibits low-drift characteristics respective to
temperature changes. 01 = Dual N-channel JFET, Vp "" 1.5V.
DC
INPUT
+
""
1M
.01
G
01*
MPF102
1M
.01
S1
ONI
+
15V'="
*MATCHED
PAIR
R2
10k ZERO
Fig. 6 - Alternative to the circuit of Fig. 5 for those who cannot obtain a d,ual FET.
drift of this circuit is certain to be The diode serves as a peak detector. requires about 0.6 to 0.7 volt across it
greater than when a dual JFET is used, That is, the largest positive voltage before significant current flows. Hence,
it should still be better than those appearing across the 50-ohm termina- with rf powers corresponding to a peak
circuits which con tain a single FET. tion is the value that the capacitor voltage of 0.6 volt, no detected output
attains, and is measured by the volt- will appear. (Actually, there may be
RF Power Measurement meter. For a sine-wave input, which is some, but the accuracy of the measure-
One of the most frequent measure- the usual waveform of interest, the ment will be poor.)
ments performed by the amateur experi- power is given as P = V2 de ..,. 2R where The first step toward better sensi-
menter is that of rf power. The most R is the termination, in this case equal tivity is to substitute a more sensitive
common application is during the to 50 ohms. diode type. Either a germanium or a
testing of transmitters. The receiver As higher powers are to be mea- hot-carrier silicon diode would be a
builder needs to know the power avail- sured, simple techniques like those much better choice, since they tum on
able from his LO and BFO.Also, if he is shown in Fig. 7 may not be suitable. at much lower voltages. Values for
to evaluate the dynamic range of his The reason is that the peak reverse diode turn-on voltage down to 0.1
receiver, he must have signal generators voltage appearing across the diode may to 0.2 volts are common. For best
with known output powers. These are exceed the diode breakdown specifica- accuracy the voltmeter should draw
obtained with low-power oscillators fol- tion. One simple way of circumventing minimal current from the detector.
lowed by a step attenuator. The output this problem is shown in Fig. 8 where a Hence, a VTVM or FET voltmeter is
power must be measured before applica- voltage divider is placed across the preferred over a simple voltmeter.
tion of the attenuator. termination. The net termination should Shown in Fig. 9 is a power meter
For hf transmitter work, rf power is still equal 50 ohms. The measured volt- that is built on the back of a 500-tLA
most easily measured with a high-level age must be multiplied by the appro- meter. This unit uses a hot-carrier diode
diode detector and a dummy load or priate division factor in order to calculate detector and will yield an indication for
termination. A circuit suitable for the power with the previous equation. input powers as low as + 1 or +2 dBm.
,powers of 10 or 15 watts for short time With voltage-divider techniques, the The resistor was chosen for a full-scale
periods is shown in Fig. 7. Six 300-ohm, power-measuring capability is easily ex- reading of + 17 dBm (50 milliwatts).
2-W resistors have been paralleled to tended to the l-kW level. A meter of this type cannot be used
serve as the termination, RI. Detection Significant errors appear when the to determine power with a simple for-
is performed with a IN914 diode, and methods of Fig. 7 are extended to low mula. The reason is that the value of the
the dc voltage 'is monitored with a powers. The major source of error is the diode offset voltage is too close to the
voltmeter; Any VOM is suitable at the V-I characteristic of the diode. Recall peak rf voltages being measured, leading
higher p'ower levels. that a silicon diode like the 1N914 to excessive errors. However, meters of
Rl. SEETEXT
Fig. 7 - A high-level diode detector for rf Fig. 8 - A voltage divider can be employed to
power measurements into a dummy load. increase the power measuring capability ,of the
Solid,state voltmeter which uses FETs. See text for information concerning Rl. circuit shown in Fig. 7. " i:. '.
146 Chapter 7
10k
RF~
lN~
1000
1000
Fig.9 - Circuit of an rf power meter which
+12V 1M
can be built on the back of a 500-jlA meter. 2000
330k
HP2800 3300
300k
50
this kind are easily calibrated by noting better approach, however, is to increase + 10 dBm output. This- power is easily
that the circuit is still a peak-reading the basic detector sensitivity before measured with the peak detector de-
detector. This allows a dc calibration to adding amplifiers. The simplest way to scribed earlier. The oscillator output is
be done. do this is by biasing the diode detector applied toa step attenuator with up to a
Imagine that a power of 10 mW was with dc. 4O-dB range. The available output
to be measured. This power would Shown in Fig. 10 is a small-signal powers are now suitable for the square-
correspond to I-volt peak across a waveform applied to a diode detector law detector, and are well defined
50-ohm resistor. To calibrate the meter and the resulting output. Note that an within the errors of the collection of
for 10 mW, place I-volt dc across the input voltage as small as that shown instruments.
termination and note the meter re- (about OJ-volt peak) would produce no The diode square-law detector is
sponse. Similarly, 2-volts dc would current in a diode with zero bias. quite flat from about 1 MHz up through
correspond to 40 mW. Using this However, when the voltage is applied to the vhf spectrum. Either hot-carrier
method, a calibration curve can be the biased diode, we see a definite diodes or small-signal silicon switching
generated for the power neter. In the current flow. The cu(rent that flows is diodes can be used. If better op amps
unit shown, such a calibration was not what we would expect if the diode were used with lower drift specification,
found to correspond within 1 dB of were replaced with a resistor. Instead,
that from industrial instrumentation. we see that the positive-going half of the
While a sensitivity near 1 mW is input voltage yields a much larger +12V
adequate for most situations, it is often current flow than the negative part. The
useful to be able to measure powers result is that if the diode current is 91
which are much lower. One approach to monitored, a dc component is present.
this would be to precede the diode This form of detection' is usually re-
T1
ferred to as "square law" detection. The
rL
1
detector with a broadband amplifier. A
mathematics are outlined in the ap-
pendix under a discussion of distortion
phenomena.
.1
II
In order to achieve square-law
action, a diode must be biased carefully.
510 2N5179
Specifically, it should be biased at a
.1
constant current level from a low im- o---j
pedance dc source. While this could be INPUT
RFC
1~H
.1
3300 3300
240
Q4 .1
2N5179 ~OUTPUT
~(500HMS)
SIG.~.l
IN I
(50
OHMS)
.1 .1 .1
Fig. 13 - A four-stage broadband rf amplifier. Gain = 40 dB and the upper 3-dB point of the amplifier is 65 MHz.
the system could be operated with pedances. The 3-dB points in this circuit levels by using an rf bridge circuit of the
higher dc gain, yielding even better were about 2 MHz and 175 MHz. type illustrated in Fig. 15. The basic
sensitivity. Some manufacturers make The 50-ohm transducer gain was 19 circuit was described by Bruene in QST
diodes which will detect signals down to dB, the noise figure 6.5 dB (at 10 MHz), for April, 1959. The concept was
-50 dBm. and the output intercept +24 dBm. Gain treated in a practical manner by DeMaw
The best way to extend sensitivity to compression starts near +10 dBm. in QSTfor Dec., 1969.
lower power levels is with a broadband Shown in Fig. 13 is a four-stage The principle of operation is that the
amplifier. Shown in Fig. 12 is a single- amplifier. The upper 3-dB point in this inner conductor of a coaxial trans-
stage amplifier using a 2N 5179. Heavy amplifier was about 65 MHz and the mission line passes through the center of
feedback is used to stabilize gain and to gain was 40 dB. Noise figure was not toroidal transformer II to function as
provide 50-ohm input and output im- measured. the transformer primary. A multi turn
These amplifiers are useful acces- secondary winding is placed on the core.
sories for applications other than Rf current through the primary induces
power measurements. For example, a voltage in the secondary, causing
they may be used as preamplifiers for a current to flow through Rl and R2. The
frequency counter, or even a receiver. voltage drops across these resistors are
Shown in Fig. 14 is a block diagram equal in amplitude, but are 180 degrees
of a useful general-purpose instrument. out of phase with respect to common,
An attenuator, amplifier and sensitive or ground. Practically speaking, they are
detector are combined for a wide sensi. in and out of phase, respectively, with
tivity range. If the input is driven from the line current. Capacitive voltage divid.
an outboard tuned circuit, a wave meter ers, ClfC3 and C2fC4, are connected
of spectacular sensitivity would result. across the line to secure equal-amplitude
voltages in phase with the line voltage.
In.Line RF Power Measurement The division ratio is adjusted so that
Rf power measurements can be these voltages match the voltage drops
Exterior of the broadband, 50-ohm amplifier. made accurately at, specified impedance across Rl and R2 in amplitude. These
SQUARE-LAW +
DETECTOR
INPUT
Fig. 14 - This block diagram illustrates a test instrument which contains an attenuator,
Interior layout of the broadband amplifier. amplifier and sensitive detector.
148 Chapter 7
conditions exist at only a specified load tional to the forward component of a calibrated for various full-scale power
impedance - usually 50 or 75 ohms to traveling wave of the variety that occurs levels by observing the rms output
match the characteristics of the trans- on a transmission line, and the differ- voltage from the bridge with an rf
mission line. Initial adjustment of the ence is proportional to the reflected probe, or the pk-pk value by means of a
bridge is done while using a resistive component. scope. The voltage is measured across a
load standard of the value desired. Fig~ 15A shows the main portion of resistive termination which matches the
Under the foregoing conditions, the the power bridge as being contained in a characteristic impedance of the bridge
voltages rectified by CR1 and CR2 shielded enclosure, as indicated by the unit. A 10-turn Helipot and mating dial
represent, in one case, vector sum of the dashed lines. External to the shield are mechanism will allow greater reset ac-
voltages caused by the line current and the components needed to meter the curacy than will a simple control-and.
voltage. In the other case, the vector forward and reflected components. In knob arrangement.
difference is represented. With respect the example at A, a single potentio- Fig. 15B shows an alternative tech-
to the resistance for which the circuit meter is used to set the full-scale power nique for presetting the instrument for a
has been adjusted, the sum is propor- indication of Ml. In this case R3 can be specific full-scale power level. Trimpots
can be mounted inside the instrument
case and adjusted for a particular power
sensitivity; e.g., 10, 50, 100, 500 or
r------------------
I
i
I
1000 watts. If more than one power
T1 range is desired, ail assortment of con-
I I trols can be used, then switch.selected
SIG. TO for the power ranges required.
INPUT LOAD It is important to maintain good
I isolation between the through-line
I
I I ports, and between the line and the
I I remainder of the bridge circuit. It is
I good practice to use an isolating divider
I i7h such as that seen in the photograph of
I Fig. 16. Some manufacturers who fol-
I low this general design, utilize a Faraday
I I
I I screen between the primary and second-
___ J
L
.001
_
~------J .001
ary windings of Tl. This helps prevent
unwanted capacitive coupling, thereby
aiding the nulling of the bridge circuit.
The bridge is balanced by connecting
S.M.' SILVER MICA a 50-ohm signal source to the input
port, and terminating the output port in
50 ohms, resistive. With the instrument
set to read reflected energy, C 1 is
adjusted for a zero reading at Ml. The
load and source cables are reversed next,
and the procedure repeated while
(A) adjusting C2 for a zero meter reading.
Following the null adjustments the
builder can calibrate the instrument for
a specific full-scale power level, as dis-
cussed earlier in this treatment. Bridges
of this general type are suitable for use
R2
25k
SENS.
(8)
Fig. 15 - Schematic diagram of an rf power bridge. T1 has 60 turns of no. 30 enameled wire Fig. 16 - Photograph which shows a shield
and usesan Amidon T68-2 toroid core. C1 and C2 should be piston or air trimmers to assure divider between the rf and dc portions of the
a low minimum capacitance. CR1 and CR2 can be 1N34A or 1N914A diodes (matched pair bridge (double-sided pc-board strip across
recommended). Seetellt for a discussion of the circuits at A and B. center of box).
~
50 OHM
LOAD
150 Chapter7
RO __
?(TYPE
R
Table 1
RO 1T T L
A, dB r R r R r R
1 910 6.2 2.7 390 5.6 390
2 430 12 5.6 220 10 200 Fig. 22 - A 1O-dB pi type of attenuator.
3 300 18 9.1 150 15 120
6 150 39 16 62 24 51
A = attenuation in dB 10 91 68 27 36 33 24
20 62 240 39 10 43 5.1
pates 5.19 watts, the 71.2-ohm resistor
r = Ro 1 + e consumes 3.29 watts, while the output
l-e
resistor consumes only 0.52 watt. A
good choice for the input resistor would
R _ 2rRi be a parallel combination of two 300-
conditions, the equations may be set up
r2 - Ri so that, when solved, they yield the ohm ones and a nO-ohm unit, all with a
design equations shown. 2-watt dissipation rating. The connect-
When using the equations in Fig. 20, ing arm could be another parallel pair of
T TYPE A is the attenuation ratio in dB. The 2-watt units with resistances of 150 and
voltage attenuation ratio, "e," is related 130 ohms. The output could be a
RO--+ to A with the equation given in the I-watt, 91-ohm resistor. If such an
RO figure. attenuator was built for rf power mea-
Care should be used in the construc- surement, the input should be clearly
tion of attenuators with slide switches. marked.
If I-percent tolerance resistors are avail- The attenuators discussed here have
r=R l-e able, they should be used. However, the been dissipative devices, with some of
o 1 +e results are often quite suitable with 5- the input power applied to them being
percent resistors. Every effort should be absorbed within the circuit. However,
R
Ri - r2 made to keep the lead lengths as short other methods are useful for measure-
2r as possible. This will help to extend the ment applications that are not dissipa-
upper frequency of usefulness. Shields tive. Shown in Fig. 23 is one example, a
are beneficial if the unit is to be used at 20-dB coupler. This is a high-
L TYPE vhf. This is especially significant for permeability ferrite toroid core set up as
single sections of 20 dB or more. a current transformer. The primary of
Ro- Three types of attenuator are the transformer is a single wire passing
shown: a pi, a T and an L circuit. The through the core while the secondary is
pi and the T are symmetrical, and are, a lO-turn winding. If the secondary is
thus, the more useful types. The L terminated in a 50-ohm load, such as a
circuit has the problem that the output low-level power meter, this termination
resistance of the section may be much will reflect back through the trans-
r = Ro (l - e)
former according to the square of the
different than the input resistance of
the circuit. In some cases, this presents turns ratio. Hence, the core will appear
no obstacle. For switchable attenuators, as a 0.5-ohm resistor in series with the line.
R
the pi circuit offers the best compatibil- If the main line is also terminated in 50
ity with the slide switches. A circuit for ohms, the net resistance presented to
Fig. 20 - Three circuits for forming resistive a step attenuator is shown in Fig. 21. the source is 50.5 ohms (essentially
attenuators. The photograph shows a unit that offers unchan~ed). Noting that the ratio of the
good accuracy up through the vhf spec- two resistances is 100, or 20 dB, the
trum. power delivered to the power meter will
Shown in Table 1 is a list of values be attenuated from that delivered to the
of common 5-percent resistors that may main load by 20 dB. Techniques of this
be used for various amounts of attenua- kind can be applied to the evaluation of
tion. Half- or quarter-watt resistors are higher power sources (such as trans-
suitable for small-signal work. For high-
er power units, the specific circuit must
be evaluated carefully to ascertain the
power specifications of the resistors. As
T1
an example, consider the lO-dB pi atten- )1
W ,<
uator shown in Fig. 22, and assume that I I
Fig. 21 - Circuit for a step attenuator which
[1
it is to be designed for a resistance of 50
is useful into the vhf spectrum.
ohms. Assume that the maximum input ~ ~
power, when properly terminated, will
be 10 watts, which corresponds to a
voltage of 22.4 across 50 ohms. I
Solving the equations given earlier,
the resistor values are 96.3 ohms at the ~
ends and 71.2 ohms for the connecting
arm. If we solve for the voltages, which Fig. 23 - An example of a 20-dB coupler. Tl
usesa single wire through the toroid core as
are shown in circles in Fig. 22, we may the primary. The secondary is a 1O.turn wind-
calculate the powers dissipated in the ing of enameled wire. An FT-23.43 core is
Outside view of the step attenuator. three resistors. The input resistor dissi- used.
~
A
E INPUT
R2
B 50
RX
mitters) when being evaluated with low. point B will also be E/2. The bridge is Consider now the case where a laO-ohm
power instrumentation. Note that this now balanced and there is no voltage resistor is placed across the Rx port.
unit is not a directional coupler - it difference between point A and B. The voltage at B will be higher than that
makes no difference which way the Thus, there will be no indication in the at A. This voltage difference will appear
current is flowing. detector. across the detector diode and will
What will happen in the more typical charge the capacitor to some dc voltage.
Bridges for RF Measurements case where Rs and Rx are not equal? This will cause a current to flow
A useful instrument is an rf bridge. Since the voltage at point B is no longer through the 10-kn resistor and the
While the classic application of such a E/2, a potential difference exists be. meter, giving an indication. A similar
device is for antenna and transmitter tween points A and B and a current will result would occur if a 25-ohm resistor
evaluation and tuning, there are a num- flow in the detector. We could calibrate were placed on the unknown terminal.
ber of other applications. Most of the the meter to tell us the level of un- Consider now the case where the
measurements done with bridges occur balance, and thus infer the value of the unknown impedance had a magnitude
at relatively high-power levels. However, unknown resistance, Rx. However, a of 50 ohms, but was reactive. For
often one wants to determine the im- better approach would be to make the example, the unknown load could be a
pedance of low-power active circuits. If standard, Rs, a calibrated variable resis- 35-ohm resistor in series with an induc-
the usual high-level bridges were used in tor. It could then be varied until a null tor that had 35 ohms of reactance at the
measuring such circuits, the results is indicated with no response in the input frequency. The bridge would not
would be inaccurate. In the extreme, detector. Then knowing Rs, and observ- be balanced. While the magnitudes of
the circuit being studied could be dam. ing that the bridge is balanced, we know the impedances are proper to balance
aged. the value of Rx. the bridge, the fact that the unknown
Consider the Wheatstone bridge that Shown in Fig. 25 is another termination is reactive means that the
is used for dc resistance measurements. approach. Here, we have replaced RI voltages at points A and B are not in
This is shown in Fig. 24. Assume that and R2 with a potentiometer. Rs now phase with each other. An analysis will
voltage E is applied to the bridge, and has a fixed value. The control is varied show that this leads to a detector
that resistors RI and R2 are equal in until a null is again achieved. A bridge output. In order for the bridge to be
value. This being true, the voltage at of this kind is calibrated by placing balanced, the unknown load must be 50
point A will be E/2. The other two various known values in the Rx posi- ohms and be purely resistive.
resistors in the bridge are Rs, a "stan- tion. The dial on the control is then
dard," and Rx, the unknown resistance. marked accordingly.
The voltage at point B will be deter- The foregoing examples occurred at
mined by the ratio of the two resistors. dc, so the detector would be a meter
If Rs and Rx are equal, the voltage at with a capability for deflection in either
direction (zero center). However, the
same principles will apply if a different
kind of detector is used and the input
E IN I
driving voltage, E, is an rf sine wave.
Such a bridge is shown in Fig. 26. The
~ resistors are all 50 ohms. However, for
the bridge to operate properly, this is
not necessary. The only requirement is
that RI and R2 be equal, and Rs is the
same as the load the bridge is designed
to measure. The typical values for Rs
are 50 or 75 ohms.
The detector in the rf bridge is a
diode in series with a capacitor. Assume
that the unknown impedance is a 50-
ohm resistor. In this case the bridge will
be balanced because the rf voltages at
Fig. 27 - A bridge circuit which has a sensi- points A and B are equal. There is no Exterior view of the bridge. The small unit is
tivity control. potential difference across the detector. the return-loss bridge of Fig. 36.
152 Chapter 7
bridge. This unit is useful for experi-
mental work since a wide variety of
resistances can be measured, ranging
from, say, 10 to 1000 ohms. In a bridge
of this kind the exact value of the
"standard" resistor is not critical, for
this will merely determine the Rx value
for which the control will be in the
center. The bridge is calibrated by sub-
stitution of known resistances at the Rx
port. The major limitation of this instru-
ment is its upper frequency limit. This
arises from the capacitance of the arm
of the control to ground. The reactance
will be constant (more or less), but the
resistance above the arm of the control
will vary, le~ding to a variable phase for
the reference voltage of the bridge.
Fig. 29 - A variable-capacitance voltage
The problem of errors from stray divider is used in this circuit to replace a
capacitances can be circumvented by resistive divider.
replacing the variable resistance arm
with a variable capacitance voltage divid-
er (Fig. 29). It may be shown that such
a divider produces a voltage that is in
RESISTANCE
BRIDGE
( I
I
(JJ'"'() Ar' I
I
<
ZL
phase with the driving signal. Sevick,
W2FMI, has described several bridges of ~ ~
this kind (see the bibliography). The Fig. 30 - An outboard adapter for use in
advantage is that stray capacitances are measuring reactive impedances.
absorbed in the variable element and do
not lead to frequency-dependent errors.
Inside view of the bridge. Note short leads in
All of the bridges described have the TRANSMITTER
154 Chapter 7
Tabla 2
the other. This modulation leads to 50
YSWR =
1 + r sidebands at the same frequencies where
1 r IMD products appear and can cause
RETURN f,
LOSS, REFLECTION
errors in the IMD measurements.
dB COEF. VSWR
1 0.891 17.4 Solid.State Power Supplies
2 0.794 8.72 Nearly all of the equipment in this
3 0.707 5.85
4 0.631 4.42
book requires an external dc power
5 0.562 3.57 source. Although some battery-powered
6 0.501 3.01 gear is described for field use, the
7
8
0.447
0.398
2.61
2.32
subject of batteries shall not be treated
9
here. Rather, we will focus attention on
0.355 2.10
P9wer supplies and voltage regulators
10
12
0.316
0.251
1.92
1.67 which operate from the ac power line. II @
14 0.199 1.50 Some rules of thumb are offered for
16 0.158 1.38 those who wish to design and build their
18 0.126 1.29
own power supplies and regulators. A
20
25
0.100
0.056
1.22
1.12 more concise treatment of the general '~~
30 0.032 1.07 subject can be found in The Radio
35 0.D18 1.04
40
Amateur's Handbook, and in the refer-
0.01 -3 1.02
45 5.6 X 10 -3 1.011 ences given in the bibliography section.
Fig. 37 - A 6-dB hybrid combiner can be used
50 3.16 X lQ 1.006
3 A Basic Power Supply to connect two signal generators to a test cir-
60 1.0 X 10 1.002 cuit for measuring, as one example, receiver
Fig. 38 shows a typical unregulated dynamic range.
dc power supply. A quad of silicon
rectifier diodes is used in a full-wave
hookup. Since full-wave bridge rectifica- percent, and the load regulation will be
(Z - Zo) -:- (Z + Zo)' All of these tion is the most efficient of the com- 5 percent.
parameters are of significance when mon types, we shall deal with that The rms secondary voltage for Tl of
using a Smith chart for impedance circuit in this chapter. Fig. 38 must be the desired Vo plus the
representations. An advantage of a bridge rectifier is voltage drops across CR2 and CR4 (""
One major advantage of a return-loss that it delivers full-wave output without IAV) divided by 1.41. Thus, Tl Vue =
bridge is that the measurement of imp ed- the need for a transformer with a 13 + 1.4/1.41 = 10.2 volts. The nearest
ance can be done at low-power levels. secondary center tap. Another feature standard transformer would be a lO-volt
For example, a low-level signal genera- of the full-wave rectifier is that the one, which would be close enough in
tor could be used as the rf source, and ripple frequency at the output is twice value. Alternatively, the builder could
one of the sensitive rf detector systems the line frequency, thereby making fil- wind his own transformer, or remove
described earlier could be used as the tering less difficult. Thus, the capaci- secondary turns from a 12-volt trans-
detector. In fact, a receiver could be tance of the filter capacitor for a speci- former to obtain the desired rms second-
used in conjunction with a step attenua- fied percentage of output ripple will be ary voltage.
tor as the detector. The simple detec- considerably lower than with a half. A 3-percent ripple referenced to 13
tors described will provide only infor- wave rectifier. volts is 0.39 V rms. Therefore, the
mation about the magnitude of the pk-pk value is found from: VyiP = 0.39
reflection coefficient. To measure the A Design Example X 2.82 = 1.09 V. This figure is necessary
angle, a vector voltmeter would be Let's assume we need a simple power to calculate the required capacitance for
needed. supply that is able to provide a voltage CI.
Another application of the return- output of 13. Maximum current taken Also needed for determining the
loss bridge would be as a simple 6-dB by the external load will be 500 mA value of Cl is the time interval (t)
hybrid combiner. A typical application (0.5 A). Maximum ripple will be 3 between the full-wave rectifier pulses,
would be to combine the outputs of
two signal generators for the purpose of
measuring intermodulation distortion
and gain compression in, for example, a F1 tR2
receiver. One generator is applied to the
source port while the other is connected tR1
Il
to the detector port. Shown in Fig. 37 is
117 Po
such an application. Assuming that each VAt VSEC
generator is set to deliver 10m V to a
50-ohm load, the resulting voltages are Rl
shown. Note that generator A delivers 5
mV to the output load, hence the 6-dB
loss. However, note that 5 mV appears
at both of the detector points in the
bridge as a result of drive from genera-
tor A. There is no voltage difference,
and none of the signal from generator A Vo (no load) "" Vsee X 1.41 Cl (Vmin) = Vsec x 1.41
appears at generator B. The converse is Po = Vo X h Fl (A) = 2I/N (N = turns ratio)
also true. This is needed in IMD mea- RL = Vo-:-h Vsee"" Vo -:- 1.41
surements. If one generator is allowed to
"talk to the other," the result may be
that one generator will phase modulate Fig. 38 - A circuit which illustrates the configuration of a basic unregulated dc power supply.,
PD (V R 1) = [Vin(maX) R - Vz
s
- h
J V
z
in Fig. 38. The next standard value is
suggested - a 25-volt capacitor.
Designing with Zener Diodes
There are three sets of conditions
common to regulator circuits: variable
Regulated Voltages load current and constant supply volt-
fi4-9.1
PD(VRl)=[ 173
1
-.0IJ9.1 When the need arises to regulate age, constant load current and variable
small amounts of current, say, up to supply voltage, and variable load current
100 rnA, Zener diodes offer a low-cost and variable supply voltage. A slightly
= .028 - .01 X 9.1 = 0.167W approach. Even though higher amounts different equation applies in each case,
of current are handled sometimes by Figs. 39 and 40.
(B) Zener diodes, the practice is not a A rule of thumb can be used with
common one in amateur work. Our respect to the ratio of minimum Zener.
treatment will be confined to the lower diode current (f Zm in) and the load
PD(RS) = (V;n(max) - VZ)2 7 RJ(ahmJ) current amounts. current (h). For best regulation the ratio
Most Zener diodes are known als'\ as should be 10: 1. That is, the load current
= (14 - 9.1)27173 = 0.138W avalanche diodes. They are similar 1)1 should be roughly 10 percent of the
construction to junction rectifiers, but Zener diode current.
(C) the primary characteristic for their in- Fig. 39 shows a shunt type of
tended purpose is the reverse- Zener-diode regulator. It provides 9.1
Fig. 39 - Zener diodes are effective as simple breakdown profile. In simple terms, volts regulated to a VFO which has a
voltage regulators. positive voltage is applied to the cath- constant load current of 10 rnA (.01 A).
ode of the diode rather than to the The 10: 1 current ratio does not result
anode. As this reverse voltage is made from the values given, but the figure is
whiCh for that circuit is 8.3 milliseconds higher the leakage current in the diode close enough for most amateur work.
(ms). Therefore, Cl is calculated from stays fairly constant until a critical Had a lower value of Vz been chosen,
plateau is reached. This point is known
_ ht as the breakdown voltage. There is a
CI CJLF) - v,.iP marked contrast between the end result Il-10T015mA
3
of the breakdown point of a Zener VIN
= fO.5A X 8.3 X 10- ] 106 diode and a conventional rectifier diode. +12V
of electrolytic capacitors is rather loose, low amount and, therefore, the current Vin - Vz
a 5000-IJ.F unit will probably assure that increases rapidly. The amount of cur- R = -------- ohms
J h(max) + 0.1 h(max) (A)
the design requirements are met. rent is, however, limited by the series
Diodes CRI-CR4, inclusive, should resistance (RJ of Fig. 39) between the Vin - Variable
have a PRV rating of at least two times diode and the voltage source. The rated h - Variable
Vue peak, which means with our ex- breakdown value of a Zener diode is PD(VRl) =
ample we have 14.4 volts. Therefore the that level for which the semiconductor
J
PRV should be 28.8 or greater. Four
50-V diodes will work nicely. Similarly,
the forward current of the diodes (f/wd)
should be at least twice the load cur-
was designed. Typically, the plateaus
range from 3.9 to as high as 200 volts.
The amount of safe sustained Zener
current is determined by the wattage
r
R
Vin(max) -
=
R
J
Vz
Vin(min)
-h(min)
- Vz
Vz
rent, h. So for a 500-mA h the diodes rating of the component. These values J h(max) + 0.1 h(max) (B)
should be rated at I A or greater. run from 150 mW to 50 watts at
The load resistance, RL, is deter- present.
mined by Va /h, which in this example Because of the characteristics we Fig. 40 - Zener-diode application for circu(ts
is 13/0.5 = 26 ohms. This factor must have just described it can be seen that a which have changes in load current.
156 Chapter 7
F1 20 mAo The transistor beta can be
CR2 2S.3V'
Po found in the manufacturer's data sheet,
CR1
13V
(REG.)
or measured with simple test equipment
+ + (beta = lei/b)' Since the beta spread for
II CR3
CR4
(
OHMS
RL
26
a particular type of transistor - 2N3055
for example, where it is specified as 20
to 70 - is a fairly unknown quantity,
C1
4000",F more precise calculations for Fig. 41
SOV will result if the transistor beta is tested
before the calculations are done. A
Vsee (rms) ~ 1.4 Vo C2 (J.tF)~ 0.5 C1 (J.LF) v' = V(see)(rms) X 1.41
'suitable, conservative approach is to
Cl (J.LF)- See Eq. 1 15 ~ Vo X 80 Po = Vo X h design for beta minimum of the transis-
C1(V)~2V' VR1 = Vo +0.7 RL = Vo +-h tor used.
C2' (Vmin) > Vz Vo ~ - Vz - 0.7 F1 =h X 2 As we learned earlier, in order for
VRI to regulate properly it is necessary
Fig. 41 -Illustration of a power supply with regulation.'A pass transistor. Q1. is used to extend that a fair portion of the current flow,
the range of the Zener-diode regulator. ing through Rs should be drawn by
VRI. Therefore, let us set a rough rule
of 30 mA for IRS' Knowing this figure,
the ratio would have been closer to the this situation VRI is required to supply plus the Ib of .02 A just computed, the
suggested one. only the base current of Ql. The net Zener-diode currept (Iz) will be .03 A -
In the equation of Fig. 39A a series result is that the load regulation and .02 A = .01 A, or J mAo From this we
resistance of 173 ohms is derived. The ripple characteristics are improved by a can learn that: RsCohms) = (V' -
nearest standard value is 180 ohms. factor of beta. Addition of C2 reduces Vz)/lRs = (25.3 - 14)/.03 = 376 ohms.
That will be entirely suitable for Rs' the ripple even more, although many The nearest standard ohmic value for Rs
The equation at Fig. 39B determines simple regulated power supplies of the is 390, so it shall be used. The wattage
that the maximum Zener-diode power type seen in Fig. 41 do not have C2 as a ratings of Rs and VRI can be obtained
dissipation is 0.167 W. A good rule of part of the.circuit. from the formulas given earlier for
thumb for choosing a wattage rating for The primary limitation of this type Zener-diode regulators.
the diode is a times-5 factor. This will of circuit is that Ql can be destroyed A safe power rating must be pro-
allow ample safety margin for diode almost immediately if a severe overload vided for Q1. In this context it should
internal heating. Since we determined occurs at RL. The fuse, F1, cannot blow be known that the dissipation in Ql will
that VR1 will dissipate 0.167 W, a fast enough to protect Q1. Further- be equal to the emitter current times.
5-times value will be 0.8 W. The nearest more, if a low-current fuse was used at the collector-to-emitter voltage. Thus,
standard power value is 1 W, so a diode Vo it would be subject to the same for our circuit of Fig. 41 PQi = IE X
of that type will suffice. limitations. In order to assure longevity V C E, where V CE equals the desired V'
Fig. 39C gives an equation for com- of Ql it is necessary to include a - (V~ - VBE). Therefore, PQi = 0.5 A
puting the wattage dissipated in Rs at current-limiting circuit of the kind X 12 V = 6 watts. VBE for a silicon
Vin(max)! which i~ 0.138 W: To st.ay on shown in Fig. 42. Modern three-terminal transistor is approximately 0.7 V. A
tM safe Side of thmgs we Will agam use regulators have replaced the circuit of good rule of thumb in this example is to
the 5-times rule. This gives us a wattage Fig. 42, and that subject will be dis- choose a transistor at Q1 which has a
rating for Rs of 0.69. In practice, a cussed later in the chapter. PD(max) of at least twice PQi. There-
.1/2-watt resistor will suffice - that It should be mentioned that the fore, Ql should be rated at 12 watts or
being the nearest standard value. greater the value of Vue at Tl, the more. Since the cost of power transis-
When high-wattage Zener diodes higher the power dissipation in Q1. This tors is quite low, a 25-, 50-, or 100-watt
must be used (10- to 50-W types, in not only reduces the overall efficiency unit will allow considerable safety fac-
general), they will be of the stud-mount of the power supply, but requires strin- tor if heat-sinked properly, and would
variety. Heat sinking is done in the same gent heat sinking at Ql. The circuit of represent a good choice.
manner as with power transistors and Fig. 41 could be made to operate with a Load regulation with the power
power-type rectifier diodes. The general Vsec as great as 25 volts~ but a more supply of Fig. 41 will be approximately
rules for this have been given earlier in suitable voltage level for a 13-volt out- 2 percent, and the output ripple will be
the book. A more complete discussion put at Vo would be 18 volts rms. In this low. Line regula tion will be on the order
of Zener-diode applications was given in regard it is not difficult to remove the of 7 percent, assuming the 117 -V line
QST for April, 1976. required number of secondary turns has variations.
from a 24-volt transformer. The .01-J.LF capacitors at the primary
Extending Zener-Diode Range
of Tl serve two functions. They act as
The foregoing section outlines some A Design Example transient suppressors and help prevent rf
of the limitations when using Zener We desire a regulated, well-filtered energy from entering the power-supply
diodes as regulators. Greater current de voltage of 13. h maximum shall regulator. C3 serves in a similar manner.
amounts can be accommodated if the be 0.5 A. The circuit of Fig. 41 will be Rp is used as a minimum-load resistance
Zener diode is used as a reference at low the one used in this example. The ratings for periods when the power supply has
current, permitting the bulk of the h to for TI, CRI-CR4, and Cl can be deter- no external load.
flow through a series pass transistor (Ql mined by using the formulas given for
of Fig. 41). An additional benefit in the circuit of Fig. 38. Vsec shall be 18 Current Limiting
using a pass transistor is that of reduced V rms .. Damage to Ql of Fig. 41 can occur
Vo ripple. This technique is sometimes In order to calculate the value of Rs when the _Ip exceeds the safe amount,
referred to as "electronic filtering." in Fig. 41 we must learn what Ib (base or when V becomes excessive. Fig. 42
Q1 of Fig. 41 can be thought of as a current) for Q1 will be. The base cur- illustrates a simple current-limiter cir-
simple emitter-follower dc amplifier. It rent is approximately equal to the cuit which will protect Q1. All of the h
increases the load resistance seen by the emitter current of Q1 in amperes passes through R2. Therefore a voltage
Zener diode by a factor of beta ((3). In divided by j)eta: Ib = 0.5/25 = .02A, or difference will exist across R2, the
158 Chapter 7
reasonably low. The low value ensures The current limiting still functions. technique is called fold-back current
that the current flowing in the resistors If the output current becomes high limiting. The advantage is that the
is large in comparison with the base enough that 0.7 volt is developed across supply components need not be capable
current in Q2. Since the resistors are of the sensing resistor, Q3 will turn on. of handling such high currents during
equal value, the voltage at the junction This will then rob base current from Ql, short.circuit conditions.
of the two resistors must equal 0.5 the the pass transistor. The output voltage The price to be paid for this
output voltage. But, because of the will then decrease accordingly, with no extreme protection is that the unregu-
Zener diode and the e-b drop of Q2, the more than 0.5 A flowing in the external lated voltage must be higher. This is
base voltage at Q2 must be 6.9. Hence, load. When the power supply is short because there will be higher voltage
the output must be equal to twice this circuited (crowbarred), the current will drop across the sampling resistor, Rl
value, or 13.8 volts. remain at 0.5 A. pri()r. to the point where limiting occurs.
The foregoing analysis was carried Shown in Fig. 45 is a regulator that Another feature of the regulator of
out for no external load on the power demonstrates some refined techniques Fig. 45 is the nature of the reference
supply. What happens if a resistive load that might be used in a regulated power diode biasing. The reference is a 6-volt
is now placed on the supply? This supply. In looking back at the regulator Zener diode which is biased to a current
would tend to drop the output voltage. of Fig. 44, we see that Q2 functioned as , of about 13 rnA. The diode establishes
However, when this begins to occur, the an inverting amplifier. It can be shown the bias on the noninverting input of
voltage on the base of Q2 will decrease. that the regulation of the circuit is the error amplifier. The output voltage
As this happens, the collector current in directly dependent upon the gain in this is established by adjusting R2. The asset
Q2 will decrease also. This will cause a amplifier. In the supply of Fig. 45, we of biasing the Zener diode as shown is
reduced voltage drop across R,. This have replaced the single, discrete transis- that virtually all of the current in the
means that the voltage on the base of tor amplifier with a high-gain opera- Zener comes from the regulated output.
QI will increase, causing the output tional amplifier. A 741 will function In earlier supplies, such as that shown in
voltage to again increase until it reaches well in circuits of this kind. However, a Fig. 43, the Zener diode is biased from
13.8. The voltage drop across the 1.4- 741 has a maximum output current of the unregulated supply which has high
ohm current-limit sensing resistor has no around 10 rnA. This would not have ripple. Measures of this kind will help
effect upon the output voltage. been enough to drive the base of Ql immensely in removing the last traces of
This voltage regulator utilizes an directly if high output currents were hum from a power supply output.
amplifier in a negative feedback loop. desired. Hence, another transistor, Q2, If a builder is constructing power
The fact that the output voltage was not is added to form a Darlington-connected supplies using the techniques outlined in
affected by the drop across the l.4-ohm pass transistor. The effective beta of Fig. 45, care must be exercised to
sensing resistor was the result of the such a configuration is approximately ensure that device specifications are not
feedback signal being obtained after the the square of the beta of a single exceeded. Specifically, the maximum
curren t limiting circuitry. The limiting transistor. It is reasonable to assume an supply voltage rating of a 741 op-amp is
circuit (Q3) was within the feedback effective beta for the combination of 30 volts between pins 7 and 4. Since pin
loop. 500 to 1000. Because of this high beta 7 is connected to the unregulated
If the desired output was not 13.8 value, the op amp needs to deliver only supply, this value should not exceed 30
volts, but 13 volts as before, it could be a few rnA of current to the base of Q2 volts.
obtained by changing the ratio of RI to for an emitter current in Ql of 1 Sometimes it is desirable to build,
R2: If Rl were 470 ohms, the output ampere. variable voltage supplies that will go all
voltage would be 13.0 volts when R2 The current limiting is different in the way down to 0 volts. This can be
was 415.5 ohms. The best way to design this circuit than it was in Fig. 44. Note done with a modification of the circuit of
this power supply would be to make R2 that the emitter of Q3 is tied to the Fig. 45. A negative power supply is
a 500-ohm variable resistor. Then the output directly. However, the base of first built and is well regulated. A
output could be adjusted from 6.9 to Q3 is biased from a voltage divider from typical value might be -6 volts. This
14.2 volts. the current sensing resistor. This divider supply is used to provide operating
has a ratio of 5/6. That is, the voltage voltage for pin 4 of the 741. Pin 3 of
on the base of Q3 is (5/6)Te 1, where the 741 is grounded directly. The end of
01 RI.3,2 Ve 1 is the voltage on the emitter of Ql. Rl, which is presently grounded, is
vo Let's assume that the regulator is to go returned to the negative supply.
+12V
into current limiting when the load
200 Three-Terminal Regulators
current reaches 1 A. With the emitter of
1000
Q3 at the output voltage of 12, the base Power supply design has been simpli-
voltage must be equal to 12.7 at this fied in recent years by the appearance
instan t. Due to the divider action, the of the three-terminal regulator IC. These
voltage on the emitter of Ql, the pass units contain all of the essential com-
transistor must be (6/5)12.7 = 15.2 ponents for voltage regulation and cur-
volt: We choose a sensing resistor of 3.2 rent limiting. These include a high-gain '
ohms. error amplifier, sensing resistors and
This circuit has tremendous implica- transistors for current limiting, a
tions when we consider the behavior of temperature-compensated voltage refer-
the supply under a crowbar condition. ence, and suitable pass transistors. These
With the output shorted, the emitter of ICs are available in a number of fixed-
Q3 is at 0 volts, and the base will be at voltage ratings from 5 to 24. They may
0.7 volt. Following the earlier analysis, be obtained for load currents up to 3
the emitter of the pass transistor will be amperes, and come in various package
at 1.2 times this level, or 0.84 volt. The styles.
current in the supply is then 0.84/3.2 These ICs have a number of advan-
ohms = 0.26 amperes. This is much less tages. The main one is the simplicity of
Fig. 45 - Example of some refined tech. than the current that the supply will application. The three terminals are for
niques for use in a regulated power supply. deliver prior to going into limiting. This a ground reference, an input for the
Test Eq~ipment and Accessories 159
F1
unregulated voltage and an output. The
REGULATOR ground reference is usually connected to
the mounting surface. Because of this, it
117 is not necessary that the IC be electri-
VAC +
cally insulated from ground. This eases
1000
VO'12
IL".M
the heat-sinking problem. Another typi-
.1
cal feature is that of "thermal shut.
SI ON
down." If the chip should become
excessively warm due to insufficient
Ul
heat sinking, the temperature rise that
(A)
accompanies the excessive power causes
lTf
~~EVELEO
EDGE the current to decrease. Some of the
newer three-terminal regulators even
, 23
have a rather "heroic," fail-safe mode
built into them. They are designed such
that should excessive power dissipation
VIN +12V occur (which would cause destruction
(VO)
of the IC) they fail as a short circuit.
The result is a blown fuse farther back
in the power supply. However, the
140
circuit that is powered by the IC is
tw never subjected to excessive, potentially
(8)
destructive voltage.
Since most of the design work is
done by the manufacturer, our dis-
Fig. 46 - The illustration at A is that of a 12-V, O.5-A supply which employs an LM341-12 reg-
ulator IC. Shown at B is a resistive divider which permits elevating the IC output voltage above
cussion will deal mainly with practical
the value it is designed to handle (see text). applications of these components. The
first consideration is to ensure that
sufficient heat sinking is provided. The
power dissipation will be determined by
Ql the current in the ou tpu t and the
R2 2N439S
+ voltage difference between the regulated.
19.:1-2:1 "E"
VOC
.2S
10W
output and the unregulated input.
Another precaution that should be
1 10
+
lSV
SA followed is proper bypassing. Under
normal power supply construction this
R1 CR1 ,! is of minimal significance. Only a O.l-MF
1
2w 12SV
+~ capacitor is required at the output. If,
however, the regulator is to be located
some distance from the unregulated
"S' supply, it is recommended that an elec.
trolytic capacitor be placed across the
(A) (B) input port. Usually, a value of S MF is
sufficien t.
Fig. 46A illustrates a 12-volt, O.S.A
Fig. 47 - Method of extending the current range of a regulator IC. Here we see 01, a pass regulated power supply which employs
transistor, "wrapped around" Ul to increase the current capability of the power supply. a National Semiconductor LM-341-12
IC. Ul should be affixed to a heat sink
if heavy continuous currents are antici-
pated. If only intermittent current loads
are expected such as might be encoun-
3A CR2 tered with a low power cw transmitter,
the chassis will usually offer adequate
heat sinking. Available also for the type
117
VAC of circuit shown are 3-A regulator ICs.
They are contained in a TO-3 type of
case.
One virtue of most of the three.
terminal regula tors availab Ie is that very
little current flows in the ground leg of
the devices. Assume that an MC-780S is
TO-3 available. This IC provides an output of
S volts, but is otherwise similar to the
U'~ LM-341-12. This regulator could be
employed in the 12-volt supply by using
BOTTOM VIEW
a resistive divider connected to the
common pin of the IC. This variation is
shown in Fig. 46B. In this application,
Fig. 48 - Circuit of a continuously variable regulated supply which utilizes the LM317K
the case of the MC-780S must be
regulator IC. CRl through CR4 are 1 OO-PRV, 3-A diodes. Line regulation is .01 percent/V and insulated electrically from ground.
load regulation is 0.1 percent. When it is desirable to extend the
160 Chapter 7
,----------
, .~ "~
. this circuit. Output current limiting
occurs at approximately 2.3 A. This
much current could not be obtained at
the higher output voltages. This is
" .' because of the relatively small value of
filter capacitance used. The design rules
for the unregulated power supplies
which feed the regulators in Figs. 46
through 48 are as given earlier in this
section.
A Low-Cost B.V Supply
Fig. 49 shows a practical circuit for a
13-volt, O.5-A regulated dc supply. It is
housed in an aluminum Minibox, and
some of the components are mounted
on a homemade pc board in an effort to
enhance compactness.
There is no temperature compensa-
tion or short-circuit protection circuitry
included. The operator should exercise
care by preventing crowbar conditions
Inside layout of the 500-mA supply. The passtransistor is seenon an L-shaped homemade heat
sink. to exist at the power-supply output.
Short-term overloads other than a dead
short can be withstood for a few
seconds without damage occurring to
Q I, the pass transistor. Loads in excess
of 500 rnA will degrade regulation and
cause excessive ripple in the output
voltage.
Output voltage amounts other than
+ 13 can be obtained by substituting
13V suitable component values at RI and
1000 ~CASE VRI (Fig. 12). Necessary information
for the design changes was given earlier
in this chapter.
The 51O-ohm value listed for RI was
based on a minimum dc beta of 15 for
QI - the value given in RCA's data
sheet for the 40251. The calculated
value was 488 ohms, so the nearest,
higher, standard resistance value was
used, 510 ohms. The photographs show
Fig. 49 - Schematic diagram of a 13-V, O.5-A regulated supply. No overload protection is the general layout of the power supply.
included, making it mandatory that the operator avoid dead shorts or heavy overloading at The container measured 3 X 4 X 5
the output of the supply. T1 is rated at 1 A and has a 25-V secondary. CR1 through CR4 inches. The positive and negative termi-
are 50-PRV, 1-A diodes. VR1 is a 14-V, 1-W Zener diode. 01 should be mounted on a large
heat sink, at least 3 X 3 inches in size.
nals at the output are above chassis
ground, thereby permitting the operator
a choice of power-supply polarity. A
current range of a regulated power current limiting characteristics of the IC third terminal is common to the case. It
supply beyond that of the regulator IC, are transferred directly to the composite can be wired to the polarized terminal
the circuit of Fig. 47 A can be used. In circuit. which will be employed as the common
this example a series pass transistor. 01 Sometimes a power pnp transistor is
is ''wrapped around" the IC to boost not available in the home stock. Npn
the current capability of the circuit. The power transistors are much more cpm-
operation of this circuit can be under- mono Fig. 47B shows a scheme for
stood by noting the values of RI and building a "synthetic" pnp power tran-
R2. Assume that the beta of QI is high. sistor. This variation uses an npn power
Most of the three-terminal regulator device with a smaller pnp transistor.
current will flow through the I-ohm A continuously variable 1.5-A regu-
resistor and the diode, CRI. The offset lated supply can be built as shown in
voltage in CRI is approximately the Fig. 48. The LM317K IC can be used at
same as the emitter-base voltage of QI. any fixed output-voltage level by setting
Because of this, the voltage drop across RI to provide the desired output, Vo'
the I-ohm resistor, RI, will be the same Alternatively, RI can be panel mounted
as that across R2. Since the ohmic value to enable the builder to have a supply
of R2 is 0.25 of Rl, four times as much which can be varied from 1.2 to as
current will flow in QI as appears in the mllch as 37 volts output. VI of Fig. 48
input terminal of VI. The net result is has built-in current and temperature
that the current capability of the overall limiting (thermal shutdown). A ripple External view of the 12-V. 500-mA regulated
circuit is increased by a factor of 5. The rejection ratio of 80 dB is possible with dc supply.
22
iW
CR1-CR4
R2
.22
+
+ to-15V
2.2A
vp+
MAX.
(
L OFF tOOO}lF
.1
-- Rl
50V 10k
VOLTAGE
SET
Fig. 50 - Circuit details fdr a variable-voltage (10 to 15) 2-A regulated power supply which has
bus for the equipment used with the overload protection. Resistors are 1/2-W composition unless noted differently. CR1 through
regulated supply. CR4 are 1OO-PRV,6-A diodes. DS1 is a 117.V neon lamp assembly. Q1 should be affixed to a
large heat sink (3 X 4 inches or greater), and is a Motorola HEP248 or equivalent. R1 is a pc-
A 2-A Regulated Power Supply mount control. R2 can be formed by winding a suitable amount of magnet wire on a short
length of 1/4-inch diameter insulating rod (seewire table in Handbook or ARRL electronics
Shown in Fig. 50 is a 2-A regulated data book for wire resistance per foot). T1 should have an 18-V secondary with a 3-A or
dc power supply which can be adjusted greater rating. A 24-V transformer can be used by removing a few secondary turns. Noise
to deliver 10 to 15 V. It is protected output is 10 mV under a 2-A load. U1 is a Motorola regulator IC.
against overloads and short circuits.
Output ripple is low, amounting to 10
mV when a 2-A resistive load is con-
nected across the output terminals. Reg-
ulation and filtering remain good up to
I ~-
load conditions of 2.2 A. ,...--+-
An 18-V, 3-A transformer was used
for T1 in the example shown. It was
obtained as a surplus item - brand and
number unknown. However, it should
be a simple matter to modify a 24-V
transformer of suitable current rating,
thereby obtaining an rms secondary
voltage of 18. At the expense of overall
efficiency, a 24-V transformer can be
i
used with this circuit.
The power supply is contained in a
homemade aluminum case (see photo-
graphs), which measures 3 X 5 X 6
inches (HWD). A perforated top cover is
used to permit the egress of heat from f
.~
I J
the transformer, regulator Ie, and pass
transis tor. .- ,
Ql is mounted on a 3 X 4.inch heat
sink. The latter is affixed to insulating "". ~
hardware, as all three terminals of Q 1 _I _L ..
must be above ground.
Rl is adjusted for the desired dc Interior view of the 2-A power supply. The pass-transistor heat sink is below the regulator
board.
output voltage. R2 is fashioned from
No. 30 enameled wire. The required
number of wire inches to provide 0.22 windings in parallel. The secondaries are assure reasonable compactness. The case
ohm of resistance are scramble wound series-connected in the proper phase to is homemade, 'and measures 3-3/4 X 6 X
on a 10,000-ohm, 2-W resistor body. provide a combined rms output of 18.9 10 inches (HWD).
The resistor pigtails are used as termi- V. This causes a dc output potential Q2 is mounted on a home-built heat
nals for the winding. Ul and some of from the bridge rectifier of 26.6 volts. sink which was fashioned from 1/32-
the small components are installed on a There is nothing critical about the inch thick aluminum. It measures 3 X
homemade pc board. packaging format of this power supply. 1-1/2 inches. Similarly, the rectifier
The important consideration is, how- diodes (stud mount) are located on a
A Husky l2-V Power Supply
ever, one of using heavy-gauge conduc- homemade sink, 2 X 3 inches. Both
Fig. 51 shows the schema tic diagram tors for point-to-point wiring in those handmade sinks have mounting feet
of a 10-A regulated power supply which circuits which carry the full voltage and formed by bending the stock at 90
can deliver 11 to 14 volts of output. It current of the unit: No. 14 or heavier degrees to form an L bracket. The small
was designed and built by WIGQO. hookup wire is recommended. The part of each L is 3/4 inch deep. Q3, the
Three 6.3-V, lO-A filament trans- accompanying photograph shows how main pass transistor, is placed on a
formers are used with their primary the power supply can be assembled to finned heat sink purchased from Radio
162 Chapter 7
CR1 R1
+
+
47
160
n.t.
+
T 5,uF
CR4 ~50V
2A
,L.01
ON
S1A S1 B
117
VAC
~
e. PHASING
Fig. 51 - Schematic diagram of an 11- to 14-volt power supply with regulation, overload protection, and a 10-A rating. This circuit appeared
first in QSTfor August, 1976, p. 26. CRl through CR4 are 50-PRV, 12-A diodes. 01 is a 2N2905, 02 is a 2N3445, and 03 is a 2N3772. Ul
is a National Semiconductor LM305 IC. Tl through T3 are 6.3-V, 10-A filament transformers connected so that the secondaries are in series
(observe proper phasing). See text for data on R 1 and R2.
Shack. It is 3-inches long and 2-inches Because amateur transmitters and be matched at the feed point to the
wide. All of the hea t sinks are b 01ted to receivers are designed to operate at a type of transmission line used, thereby
the main chassis as an aid to heat particular antenna-impedance level, a eliminating the need for a matching
transfer. Silicone grease is used between matching network is used sometimes to network at the equipment end of the
the sinks and the chassis, and between effect maximum power transfer be- circuit, a matcher at the shack end of
the transistor bodies and the heat sinks. tween the antenna and the equipment - the system has some virtues. (1) A
Diodes CRI through CR4 are treated in the purpose for creating a matched Transma tch (transmission -line matcher)
a similar manner. condition. Although many antennas can enables the operator to maintain an
Rl is made by winding 9.7 feet of
No. 22 enameled wire on the body of a
I O-k.Q,2-W resistor. The desired output
voltage is set by means of R2. The
power supply has low ripple and is
protected against overloads and short
circuiting.
Antenna Matching Techniques
Most solid-state transmitting and re-
ceiving equipment is designed to inter-
face with a specific load impedance,
respective to the antenna system. In
most applications that impedance is
between 50 and 75 ohms, assuming that
unbalanced coaxial feed lines are used.
Generally, coaxial feeders are used with
single-band dipoles or gain types of
antennas (beams). Multiband trap di-
poles, beams, and verticals also dictate
the use of coaxial feeders in most
examples, although it is possible and
practical to employ balanced two-wire
feed systems with most of the antennas
just mentioned. View showing the interior of the 1Q-A regulated supply.
L
Rl
presented by the transmission line is
purely resistive at only that frequency
in the amateur band for which the
XCI ~ 130
XC2 ~ 300
XLI ~ 130
XL2 ~ 550
C1B
antenna is constructed and matched to
its feeder. Therefore, as the operating
frequency is moved above or below that
at which an SWR of 1 exists, the load
(C)
HIGH-PASS
(0)
"ULTIMATE - TRANSMATCH" becomes reactive. Should the reactance
L1 RIN
,50 OHMS
T-NETWORK MODIFIED T-NETWORK C2 BAL.
become great enough in magnitude to FEEOER
result. in a high SWR, say, 2: 1 or greater, ~
the transmitter may not load into the
antenna system effectively, thereby en- (B)
dangering the output transistors (if SWR BALANCED BANDPASS
protection is not included in the PA
stage). A high SWR will also reduce the XCI (each section) ~ 300
(A) XC2 ~ 300
power transfer to the load. Similarly, if
the receiver front end has a fllter which XLI ~ 130
was designed for the characteristic im- XL2 ~ 1100
pedance of the transmission line (usually
50 ohms), the mismatch will degrade Fig. 53 - Bandpass types of matching net-
the fllter performance. Because of the works. These are used frequently in Trans-
(B) foregoing considerations it is necessary ~atches. They offer harmonic rejection.
to make the Land C elements of the
"
network variable to permit matching to
loads which exhibit unknown reac- tant consideration, for makeshift an-
XCl =Rin
tances. These reactances are reflected to tennas are often used during portable
the equipmen t end of the feed line by operations. The equations given are
XC2 =QLRL the antenna when a mismatch is present based on a loaded Q of 5, which is an
at the feed point. As the mismatch at arbitrary figure picked by the writers.
XL = RL(QL 2 + 1) X 1 the antenna increases so does the loss in Other values of Q would be acceptable,
. QL the feeder: The higher the operating bu t the low figure of 5 has proved to be
1+ x Cl ~ frequency, the more pronounced the practical in the interest of matching-
~QLRin loss condition becomes. In situations network bandwidth. More specifically,
(D) where a high SWR must be accepted, as the higher Qs require that the Trans-
may be the case in some portable or match be readjusted even when small
emergency operations, high-quality changes in operating frequency are
Fig. 52 - Examples of Land T types of
(low-loss) feed line should be used. If made. The higher the network Q, the
matching networks.
the feeder length is less than 50 feet at more critical the adjustment procedure
frequencies in the hf and mf spectrum, ~ another consideration. A Q of 5 is a
SWR of 1, or nearly so, over an en tire RG-58/U and RG-59/U should be suit- practical ball-park figure, and yields
amateur band without a need to re- able with respect to losses versus SWR. practical Land Cvalues for a wide range
adjust the match at the antenna feed Subminia ture coaxial cable (RG-174/U of impedance conditions.
point. Having a Transmatch at the type) is not recommended except when T-network Transmatches of the type
equipment end of the circuit does not, other types of cable are too heavy. For shown have the advantage of rejecting
of course, correct the mismatch at the feed-line runs greater than approxi- frequencies below the one to which
antenna: It merely disguises the condi- mately 50 feet, RG-8/U or RG-ll/U they are tuned. Therefore, the high-pass
tion so that the equipment sees the cable is a better choice, even when the characteristic can be used to advantage
desired load impedance. (2) Depending SWR is not high. Open-wire feeders will in rejecting bc-band energy which could
upon the kind of Transmatch used, have the lowest loss factor of the affect the performance of a receiver.
harmonic energy from the transmitter numerous kinds of transmission lines Those who live near bc stations often
can be attenuated by .30 dB or more as because the dielectric material is air, experience problems with receiver over-
the signal passes through the matching principally. Feeder losses and impedance loading and IMD when operating on 160
system. This requires a low-pass or matching are especially significant when or 80 meters.
~;
bandpass type of network. High-pass QRP equipmen t is being used - every dB
networks of the kind found in the counts! Other Matching Networks
Ultimate Transmatch, popularized by The T networks at C and D of Fig. , Operators who wish to take ad-
WlICP in QST for July, 1970, are of 52 are capable of accommodating a vantage of the harmonic-suppression
less value in this regard, despite the wide much greater range of impedances than characteristics of a bandpass type of
range of impedances they are capable of would be possible with L or pi net- Transmatch may elect to use one of the
matching. Fig. 52C shows the basic works. F~r field work this is an impor- circuits shown in Fig. 53. A bandpass
164 Chapter 7
levels from 5 to 1000 watts. There are
J3 SINGLE-
WIRE
two distinct advantages otfered by the
ANTENNA Bruene circuit over that of the so-called
3.5-30MHz
Monimatch SWR meter described by
McCoy in the 1950s (QST). The latter
COAX-
LINE exhibits extreme frequency sensitivity,
ANT.
with declining sensitivity as the opera-
J1
ting frequency is lowered. Instruments
of that kind are not suitable for QRP
TR~~S. I work unless a meter amplifier is used.
Additionally, it is difficult to employ
the Monimatch circuit as a calibrated
wattmeter because of its frequency
sensitivity. The Bruene circuit, however,
is suited to the purpose in an ideal
manner. An SWR indicator of this
variety can be used for Transmatch
adjustment and for measuring rf power.
Fig. 15 shows a practical circuit for a
10- to 1000.W version of the bridge.
Fig. 17 shows the schematic diagram of
another version of the instrument -
capable of full-scale deflection at 1
Fig. 54 - Transmatch which features a modified T network. C1 is a ganged pair of Millen
19140 variable capacitors. C2 is a 20o-pF variable taken from a surplus Command transmitter.
watt. Each of the examples are suitable
L1 has a 1/2-inch diameter, is 2 inches long, and contains 8 turns of No. 18 wire 3002 Mini- for use when adjusting Transmatches.
ductor!. L2 is 4 inches long, has a diameter of 1-3/4 inches, has 32 turns of No. 14 wire, and In a practical situation, the SWR
is tapped every 4 turns (3022 Miniductorl. L3 is a toroid inductor with 35 turns of No. 20 indicator is placed between the trans-
enam. wire on an Amidon T130-2 core. 81 is a single-pole, 10-position rotary ceramic wafer
switch with the shaft and collar insulated from ground. Z1 is the circuit of Fig. 15.
mitter and the Transmatch. The indica-
tor is set for maximum sensitivity in the
reflected-power position. Transmitter
power is advanced to obtain a few
divisions of meter deflection. The Trans-
network will also aid reception through should be placed on Ll. Respective to match controls are adjusted to cause a
rejection of frequencies above and be- all of the matching circuits shown here, meter reading of zero. The transmitter is
low the one to which the network is the wire size of the inductors and the retuned for maximum PA output with-
tuned. plate spacing of the variable capacitors out increasing the drive. Next, the SWR
At Fig. 53A is an unbalanced band- must be adequate for the power level indicator is set for a forward-power
pass matching network that can be used employed. The wire size should be great reading and the sensitivity control is
between the station equipment and the enough to minimize IR losses and heat- adjusted for a full-scale meter reading.
coaxial feeder. Alternatively, it can be ing. Capacitor plate spacing sho~ld be Then, the operator returns the bridge to
placed between a single-wire antenna such that arcing does not occur during the reflected-power mode and makes
(resonant or random length) and a periods of high SWR - as encountered final adjustments with the Transmatch
coaxial feed cable to the amateur during system adjustment. to secure zero meter deflection. Normal
station. Reactance values are given to operating power can be established now,
penni t calculation of the Land C values Transmatch Adjustment setting the sensitivity control of the
for a given band of operation. For Precise adjustment of a Transmatch bridge for full-scale indication on the
multiband use, C and L should be is done best by applying transmitter meter (forward-power mode). Bridges
chosen for the lowest operating fre- power and observing an SWR indicator which are intended for rf-power reading
quency anticipated. In such an event, while adjusting the network. Tuning do not necessarily have sensitivity con-
taps should be placed on Ll to permit should be done at the lowest power- trols on the instrument panel. There.
matching at the high end of the Trans. output level practicable, thereby mini-
match frequency range. Ll and Cl must mizing damage to the PA stage and
be able to form a resonant circuit at the lessening the chance of causing QRM to
operating frequency. Likewise with L2 those who may be using the frequency.
and C2. The tap on L2 is moved Various kinds of SWR indicators are
experimentally, along with adjustment suitable for use with Transmatches, but
of C 1 and C2, to ob tain an SWR of 1. for on.the-nose adjustments the instru-
The operating principle and adjust- ment should have high sensitivity: Full-
.ment procedures are the same for the scale deflection of the indicating meter
circuit of Fig. 53B. In this example the should be possible at the low-power
Transmatch is designed to accommodate level used during initial setup of the
balanced feeders, such as would be used Transmatch. In this regard the circuit
with an end- or center.fed Zepp an. treated by Bruene in QST for April,
tenna. The ARRL Antenna Book con- 1959 is excellent. He described the
tains in-depth descriptions of various design features of a directional watt-
antennas that can be used with these meter which used a toroidal current-
Transmatch circuits. sampling transformer in an rf bridge
For multiband use of the network in circuit. Practical examples of that type
Fig. 53B, it will be necessary to tap C 1 of instrument were given earlier in this Fig. 55 - Exterior view of the Transmatch as
toward the center of L2 as the opetating chapter and in QST for December, seen in its homemade aluminum case. The
frequency is increased. Similarly, taps 1969. Circuits were described for power control at the upper right is not used.
fully the Transmatch is adjusted, it will The latter will lessen the need of re- ~I
CIS
be likely that the transmitter is putting adjusting the Transmatch when small l1S
out considerable harmonic energy. Even changes in operating frequency are
GNO
though a perfect match has been made. It should be noted that an SWR
effected at the desired operating fre- of 1 can be obtained at various settings
quency, the harmonic energy is being of the controls, but always use as much
reflected back to the bridge, causing a capacitance at C2 as is possible, consis-
false indication that high SWR exists. A tent with an SWR of I. Figs. 55 and 56 (AI
remaining cause of imperfect meter show how the Transmatch is built. A
zeroing can be brought about by a Bruene type ofrf bridge is included in
bridge that was 110t nulled properly at the box to permit monitoring of the
the operating frequency. Tha t is, al. SWR. The assembled unit measures
though it had a characteristic impedance (HWD) 4-1/2 X 8 X 7 inches, and has a Clio
of 50 ohms at some frequencies in the homemade aluminum cabinet. 365
INPUT
hf spectrum, internal unwanted reac- Fig. 57 A illustrates a QRP Trans-
tances in the bridge circuit could make match which is suitable for power levels
the instrument other than 50 ohms at up to 25 watts. Because of its small size
some specified frequency. The effect is it is ideal for field applications. An
one of not getting a reading of zero external SWR indicator is needed with
when an SWR of 1 exists in a 50-ohm this unit. A homemade variable induc-
feeder system. tor, designed and built by Kl KLO, is
Fig. 54 shows the circuit of a modi- the heart of the matcher. It contains
fied T-network Transmatch of the kind one half of a powdered-iron toroid core
illustrated in Fig. 52D. It is designed to (I-inch diameter core, NO.2 iron mix,
operate from 80 through 10 meters at wall height and thickness of 3/16 inch). (8)
power levels up to 150 watts contin- The core material moves in and out of a
uous. Although Cl is a dual-section hand-wound coil which contains 32
capacitor assembly, configured as a turns of No. 22 enamel wire, 7/16-inch Fig. 57 - The diagram at A is for the 40-
dual-differential variable, a single capac- OD. A detailed description of this through 10-meter Transmatch. At B, a
suggestedcircuit for coverage from 80
itor can be used to form the circuit of Transmatch was published in QST for through 10 meters.
Fig. 52C. The dual-differential capacitor February, 1976. Fig 57B shows a C1 - Dual-section air variable (Miller 2109,
arrangement of this circuit was em- method for adding 80-meter coverage. J. W. Miller Co., 19070 Reyes Ave.,
ployed for experimental purposes. In A slug-tuned coil (Ll of Fig. 57 A) is Compton, CA 90224). Seetext.
C2 - Calectro or Archer single-section minia-
practice there is little difference in the switched in parallel with the half-toroid ture 365-pF variable.
matching ranges of the three circuits. A one (L2) to lower the inductance during Jl-J3, inc!. - Phono jack.
rotary inductor can be used in place of operation on 20, IS, and 10 meters. The L 1 - 3.1. to 4.8'JJH slug-tuned inductor
the tapped coil and switch shown, and former has an inductance range of 3 to (Miller 4504 with red core).
L2 - See text. Contains 32 turns of no. 22
will ensure a greater impedance- 9 J.lH. The slug.tuned inductor has a 3.1- enam. wire, air wound, 7/16-inch DO.
matching range than the tapped coil to 4.8-pH range. L3 - 5.5- to 8.6'JJH slug-tuned inductor
will. Transmatches of this type should Simplification of the circuit will (Miller 4504 with red core).
always be adjusted so that the maxi- result if C 1 is replaced by a single Sl, S2 - Spdt slide or toggle switch.
365-pF unit of the type used at C2. The
resulting circuit would be similar to that
of Fig. 52C. This TransmC'.tch is housed
il). a 1.1/2 X 2.3/4 X 4-inch plastic
meter case. Phono connectors are used
for the input, output and ground ter-
minals. Alligator clips have been sol-
dered to phono plugs to facilitate con-
nections to earth ground and a single-
wire antenna, if the latter is used. Figs.
58 and 59 show how the unit is built.
A 40-Meter Transmatch
Fig. 60 shows the circuit of a QRP
Transmatch for use on 40 meters. The
input circuit is arranged for switching a
resistive bridge in series with the
matching network during adjustment
Fig. 56 - Interior of the Transmatch. C1A for an SWR of 1. CI, C2 and Ll
and C1B are joined by means of a right-angle comprise a high-pass network for
drive. Insulated shaft couplings are used at Sl, matching a wide range of impedances to
C1 and C2 (Millen 39016). Sl is mounted on
a phenolic plate (center of picture). An unused
a 50-ohm source.
Fig. 58 - Exterior view of the QRP
coaxial connector is visible at the lower center. During normal operation SI is Transmatch. J1, J2 and J3 are seenat the
21 is at the upper right. placed in the operate mode, bypassing far right.
166 Chapter 7
details are not presented, because they
will depend upon the characteristics of
the parts used by the builder. The junk
box and surplus market can provide
many of the needed components.
Noise Generator
Shown in Fig. 62 is a circuit for a
noise generator. This unit was inspired
by an investigation of the effects of
Zener doides on the noise performance
of amplifiers. The experiments sug-
gested that Zener diodes were not opti-
mum for biasing very low-noise ampli-
fiers. This was due primarily to noise-
modulation effects when strong signals Fig.61 - Interior view of the 40-meter
Fig. 59 - Interior view of the Transmatch were present, rather than actual degra- Transmatch.
showing the K1 KLO variable inductor at dation of noise figure.
the lower center.
There is an expression among design
engineers when a problem is encoun-
tered: "If you can't lick the problem, robust, reaching levels of 80 dB higher
the bridge. Any meter with a sensitivity feature it." This was the policy that was than the noise output from a room-
of 50 to 500 p.A will be suitable at MI. followed in the noise generator shown. temperature resistor. The noise output
0
The instrument used in this example The major noise source is CRl, a 5.1- is still 20 dB above a 290 K resistor at
was borrowed from a junked tape volt Zener diode that is used to bias the 432 MHz.
recorder. CRI is a germanium diode of first amplifier. Since no bypassing of the The builder should not attempt to
the IN34A variety. Zener is used at the base, and the estimate noise figure with a device as
13, a single-terminal binding post, is current in the diode is small, the exces- crude as this one. It may be used,
connected in parallel with coax connec- sive noise currents in the diode will flow however, as a source for tuning receivers
tor J2 to permit attachment of a single- through the base of the transistor. The or amplifiers. If one were to build a
wire antenna. The assembled unit is amplified output is applied to a second free-running multivibrator, using a 555
con tained in a small aluminum chassis stage of gain. The second amplifier has a timer, with a total period of 1 to 2
(5 X 3 X 1 inches). A smaller case can 51.ohm resistor in the collector to seconds, it could be used to auto-
be used if a more compact assembly is provide a controlled output impedance. matically turn the generator on and off.
desired. Fig. 61 shows how the compo- The noise output of this circuit has The system could then be used in
nents are arranged in the box. been measured on a spectrum analyzer. conjunction with a step attenuator to
The detailed distribution of noise with adjust a vhf preamplifier for low noise
Assorted Test Equipment frequency will not be presented since it figure. The output detector would be
This section contains a collection of will vary considerably with Zener diode the operator's ears, although refined
circuits that have been built by the and transistor characteristics. Generally, circuitry could be built for the purpose.
writers for their own use. Many of the the noise in the hf region was quite
Audio Voltmeter
Shown in Fig. 63 is a circuit for an
uncalibrated audio voltmeter. Two 741
J3
operational amplifiers are used. The first
SINGLE-
WIRE one is an amplifier with a voltage gain of
ANTENNA
RF 11. The ou tpu t of this stage has a pair
INPUT
50 OHMS
of attenuators that may be switched
into the system. The second amplifier
contains a meter within a bridge recti.
fier. Since the rectifier is in the feed-
back loop of the op amp, diode charac-
15
teristics are not critical. The diodes
should all be of the same type, though.
Calibration of the attenuators is
15 straightforward, although unusual for
audip applications. First, a 50-ohm resis-
tor is placed temporarily across the
input. Then, an audio generator is ob-
tained and set for a sine-wave output of
several volts. A 50-ohm resistor is placed
in series with the audio generator out-
S.M.-SILVER MICA put, if the output impedance is as low as
would be the case with an op amp
EXCEPT AS INDICATED. DECIMAL VALUES OF output. Then, a 50-ohm step attenuator
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I.I'F I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR .I'.I'Fl;
is set for 30 dB of attenuation and
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; placed between the two units. Power is
k -I 000. M'IOOO 000. applied to each, and the input control is
set for a full.scale meter reading. The
Fig. 60 - Schematic diagram of the 40-meter Transmatch. Resistors are 1/2-W composition. L 1
attenuator controlled by SI is set to the
contains 30 turns of No. 22 enam. wire on a T68-2 toroid core. S1 is a dpdt slide switch. -3 dB position, and the 50-ohm step
10k
1000
0-500
+~
,.+:, 111V
+ 22j!F
~15V
Fig. 62 - Circuit details of a noise generator. Fig. 63 - Details of the audio voltmeter. CRl through CR4 are 1 N914s. M1 is a 500-/lA meter,
Excess-noise output is greater than 70 dB at and Sl is a center-<lff spst toggle switch.
14 MHz, and is detectable at 432 MHz.
attenuator is adjusted to increase the the electrolytic capacitor connected to carrier. The audio input signalis applied
power to the audio voltmeter by 3 dB. SI. This will keep the de potential on to a transformer, n. The secondary of
The SOOO-ohm control is then adjusted the capacitor equal to that at the output this transformer is allowed float with
for a full-scale reading on the meter. of Ul, preven ting a large transient when respect to ground. However a SO-kn
The same procedure is used for calibra- SI is thrown into one of the attenuation control is placed acrOss the secondary
ting the -10 dB position of Sl. positions. with the arm attached to ground. The
Typically, this meter is used for "unknown" capacitor is' placed in series
receiver testing. It can be used without Capacitance Bridge
with a capacitor of known value to form
the attenuators for alignment. If a A simple capacitance bridge is shown a bridge configuration. This is empha-
measurement of MDS is to be per- in Fig. 64A. This unit is useful for sized in the circuit of Fig. 64B.
formed, the gain in the receiver and the determining the value of unmarked The junction of the two capacitors is
level control in the voltmeter are set for capacitors, such as those of the "dog connected to a high input inpedance
a full-scale reading from the noise out- bone" ceramic variety. The audio source JFET audio amplifier. Nearly any avail-
put of the receiver. Then, a signal may be from an audio oscillator, a able FET should be suitable for this
generator is applied to the input of the square-wave oscillator, or even the sta- application. In use, the control is tuned
receiver, and SI is thrown to the -3 dB tion receiver which is tuned to a steady until minimum output is noted in the
position. The rf signal generator is set to
again yield a full-scale reading. The
output power available from the rf
genera tor is then the MDS of the receiv- 470
er. The signal required to obtain a 10-dB AUDIO
signal plus noise-to-noise ratio can be INPUT~
+~
10,AJF
15V
~n
~
1M
+ 22,AJF
;sv-
(A)
168 Chapter 7
can use is a low-level signal source .
001
~---- - - ---0---0- - -- - -- - -- --- - - --, While there are signal generators avail-
:
I
t12V able that will do the job nicely, they are
I
I expensive. The less expensive kit genera'
I
I
I
tors are not too suitable for precise
I
I receiver work, since they have too much
I
I
I
leakage to allow the measurement of
weak signals. If one ever has the chance
to observe the level of shielding and
decoupling that is used in a high -quality
90 !_jSHIELO signal generator, he will realize why
inexpensive genera tors are so leaky.
All is not lost - meaningful weak-
1,1~~904
I
.. i- ---.--"1-----.------,
: ! ! l :
signal measurements can be made in the
home shop. Shown in Fig. 65 is the
: I 1000 : 56 J 1000 ! 56 1 circuit of a 14-MHz source. The key to
I
L I
good performance is the shielding. The
rh generator is built in a box made from
double-sided pc-board material. A high
quality feedthrough capacitor is used to
get power into the box, and thorough
fOig.65 - Circuit of the weak-signal 14-MHz generator. L 1 has 24 turns of No. 26 enam. wire on
an Amidon T5Q-6 toroid core. The link consists of a single turn of wire. power supply decoupling is applied
within the unit. Extensive attenuation is
used within the oscillator housing with
shield partitions between the sections of
headphones. The depth of the null is The bridge will operate over a wide the attenuator. A battery is used to
quite large in our unit. range of capacitance. Using a 10-pF power the unit, thereby avoiding signals
In order for this bridge to be useful, standard, very small values are easily tha t could leak along signal ground
it is necessary that the 50-k.Q control be determined. An example would be the paths in the power lines.
linear and calibrated. In our unit, a parallel capacitance of a quartz crystal. The best way to calibrate this source
.10-turn control is used with a turns- Values of up to O.l-,uF have been is by using a better generator in con'
counting dial. If the output of the dial is measured as well. The best accuracy will junction with a receiver. The agc in the
interpreted as a ratio between 0 and 1, always be obtained when the standard receiver is defeated and an audio volt'
the unknown capacitor is related to the capacitor is close in value to the capac- meter is used to monitor the receiver
standard capacitor with the equations itor being measured. A group of output. The resistors. in the attenuator
shown in Fig. 64. If the two capacitors known-value capacitors with I-percent are picked to provide an output that
are equal, the bridge will be balanced tolerance are kept on hand. Three corresponds to a reasonably weak signal
,when the control is set at midrange, binding posts are provided on the instru- (S5 or thereabouts). The box is soldered
where R = 0.5. If the builder does not ment for easy insertion. . . shut with the crystal inside the shielded
h:i've a 10-turn control with a turns- enclosure. The level in the receiver is
:counting dial, a more mundane system Low-Level RF Source carefully noted on the audio voltmeter:
could be calibrated with a handful of When working on receivers, one of Then, the signal generator is substituted
Icapacitors of known value. the most useful pieces of test gear one in place of the crystal-controlled source,
; and is adjusted for an identical output
response. The output is noted, then
marked on the outside of the box.
This source is now usable in the shop
100
in conjunction with step attenuators for
.05
the measurement of receiver MDS. We
T
rf-? 470 have been able to duplicate laboratory
results within I dB with these methods.
It should be mentioned that even if
calibration is not possible, a source of
10k the type described can be useful for
comparative measurements. Further-
more, since the calibration may be done
Rl with a generator that might be too leaky
II
to be useful at really low levels, the
techniques may be applied to extend
the measurement capabilities of a
moderately equipped home shop.
II SEE TEXT
Fig. 66 - Diagram of a signal generator with greater.power-output capability than the example
in Fig. 65. T1 contains 10 bifilar turns of No. 28 enam. wire on an Amidon FT-37-61 toroid Exterior of the signal generator. It provides
core. low-level output for 7 and 14 MHz.
+6V REG.
+
S3 6.2V
T_20PF
400riiW rJ-,15V
01
2N4416
+12V
+12V c
10M
...f.l 100
~ OUTPUT
+12V
* SEE TEXT
170 Chapter 7
would range from antenna evaluation
and impedance measurement with a
return-loss bridge, to measurement of
the resonant frequencies of tuned cir-
cuits. Shcmn in Fig. 67 is an FET
oscillator that is capable of operation
over a wide range of frequencies. The
Colpitts configuration is used with a
split stator variable capacitor. With most
capacitors used for tuning, a frequency
range of over 3: I may be covered with a
single toroid coil. If ~e capacitor has a
reasonable low minimum capacitance
(10 pF or so, including strays) the
oscillator will operate at frequencies up
to about 250 MHz. Toroidal coils or
air-wound inductors may be used. A
6-volt lantern battery is suitable for
power.
This oscillator may be used for Fig. 70 - Exterior view of the test unit. A
evaluating tuned circuits by placing a 6- small Minibox serves as a case.
or lO-dB attenuator at the output. The
ou tpu t of the pad is then applied to a
Outside view of the wide-range test oscillator. link on the unknown resonator. A sensi-
tive rf detector is loosely coupled to the lower frequencies by switching in the
resonator, and the oscillator is tuned for parallel combination of the other two
6-dB hybrid combiner (described in this a peak response. capacitor sections. To move the oscil-
chapter as a return -loss bridge). The Band-switching versions of this oscil- lator to higher frequencies, additional
output of the "hybrid" is applied to a lator may be built. However, it is inductors are paralleled with the main
50-ohm step attenuator and then to the important that all three of the hot leads one.
receiver being tested. The reason for of coils be switched. If they are not the The gear-drive mechanism built into
using the "hybrid" and the extremes of stray resonances in the larger coils used the surplus tuning capacitor provides
buffering is to prevent one generator for the lower frequencies may cause the more than adequate bandspread. How-
from being phase modulated by the output level to vary on the higher ever, for special situations, even finer
other. This effect is detected easily as a ranges. tuning is desirable. This is realized with
difference in the IMD levels at the tw 0 A more elaborate oscillator is shown a back-to-back pair of varactor diodes.
distortion frequencies. A good precau- in Fig. 68. This unit is band-switched to In the circuit shown, a Motorola MVI 04
tion (besides those outlined) would be cover a range of 1.7 to 15 MHz, hitting dual is used, with both diodes in the
to use separate battery packs for power the four lowest amateur bands. Ql is a same package. The diodes are tapped
of each of the generators. FET tha t serves as a simple Hartley well down on the tuned circuit in order
oscillator. It is normally tuned over the to provide high tuning resolution. The
Tunable RF Generators range of 3 to 6.5 MHz, using a single varactors may be controlled from one of
section of a BC455 surplus receiver two separate sources, which are selected
For many measurements a tunable
capacitor. The oscillator is moved to by a switch. One is a 10.turn SO.kQ
source of rf is desired. Applications
control that is biased with the 6-volt
regulated supply used for the oscillator.
The other is a swept voltage source
consisting of a large electrolytic capaci-
tor, a charging resistor to the 12-volt
l
yJ1
yPF
SHORT
WHIP
10
7-29MHz
O~BT1
-9V
supply, and a push-button to initiate the
sweep. The tuning range of the Varicaps
is very restricted, covering only about 7
kHz on the 80-meter band. The main
application for this absurd level of
resolution was for the evaluation of
CI
365pF
C2
45pF
10pF rL homemade crystal filters.
Output buffering is handled with a
MI
ZERO
h ~OUTPUTJ2 two-5tage amplifier. Q2 serves as a
0-100
1000
L1 source follower to drive Q3 which is a
1.5jJH fed-back power stage. A separate atten-
uated output is provided on the panel of
the generator to drive a frequency coun-
ter.
Exact component values are not
(Al (8l
given for the tuned circuits. They will
F.S. METER 100-kHz CAL depend upon the parts the builder has
on hand. All of the coils are wound on
Amidon toroids. The main resonator is
Fig. 69 - The circuit at A is the field-strength meter. L 1 has 20 turns of No. 26 enam. wire on wound on a T68-2, with T50-6 cores
an Amidon T5(}-6 toroid core. The tap is located 5 turns above ground. C1 is a subminiature
transistor-radio tYpe of variable. At 8 is the 1 OO-kHz standard. C2 is a 45-pF mica or ceramic
being used for the higll-frequency coils.
trimmer. Y1 is an International Crystal Mfg. Co. type GP crystal. The tap on the main resona'tor coil
< 'ED', :~
tween 12 and the input terminal of the
station receiver to provide 1DO-kHz
--t
22
13
markers. C2, a 45-pF mica trimmer, is
used to zero beat the oscillator with
WWV. RFt 1
2.5mH
Contained in the same 1-1/4 X 2-1/4
X 4.l/4-inch Minibox is the circuit of BIPOL. .01000
+12V
(KEYED)
D-13-T
10k
CR1
(Al
PUT
G
S3A
ON
PLUS BTl +
GND. 9V'="
~
C
S38
(Bl
Fig. 72 - Schematic diagram of the crystal and bipolar-transistor tester. S2 is part of R1. 01
is a vhf or uhf npn transistor (2N2222A or equivalent). CR1 and CR2 are 1N34A diodes. 51
is a single-pole th ree-position phenolic rotary wafer switch. Fig. 74 - Circuit of a PUT audio oscillator.
not available. Good choices for the is an oscillating variation of a type of 10k
devices are the 2N3904 and 2N3906 for low -pass audio filter. If the resistor 3900
the npn and pnp, respectively. values were chosen carefully, it migh t be
Shown in Fig. 75 is another sidetone possible to obtain a fairly clean sine
oscilla tor consisting of a free-running wave from the circuit, although it might
multivibrator which uses two bipolar then be sluggish in starting. The circuit
transistors. This circuit will operate with of Fig. 78 utilized the 741 as a differen-
virtually any common silicon transistor tial comparitor with positive feedback. .05
type, and does a good job of generating It is generally more predictable than the
a sidetone. The output is a square wave other circuit.
at approximately I kHz. The diodes in The oscillator of Fig. 79 uses a 555
the base are necessary in order to timer IC. These ICs are useful in timing
prevent damage to the emitter-base applications, and will be discussed later.
junctions of the transistors from break-
down. If the oscillator is run from lower T-R Relay-Control Systems Fig. 77 - An op-amp sidetone oscillator.
voltage supplies (5 volts or less on the In the construction of cw and ssb
collector resistors) the diodes may be transmitters (or transceivers), one useful
eliminated. accessory is a key (or VOX) con trolled +12V (KEYED) 4700
derived from the rf output of a QRP the relay used for transferring the an ten-
transmitter in order to provide part of na from the receiver to the transmitter
the operating voltage for the circuit. is activated automatically. Furthermore, 10k
This circuit has the characteristic that the transmitter circuit is activated and
when the transmitter is keyed, the the receiver is muted. In the case ofssb
output tone occurs. This tells the oper- operation, these same functions are 22k
ator that the transmitter is delivering rf. realized with a VOX, or "voice-operated
Moreover, the pitch of the oscillator is switch." In this case, some audio from ,.+;' NI./\
proportional to the rf output voltage. the speech amplifier is rectified to pro- SQUARE WAVE 741 osc
This means that the transmitter may be vide a dc voltage that will activate the
tuned in the field without having a relay -con trol circuitry. In either the cw Fig. 78 - An improved version of the circuit
meter built into the equipment. This or the ssb situation, it is desirable that in Fig. 77.
can be handy when ruggedness and the antenna changeover occur quickly,
minimal weight are design criteria. and that after the key is released, or the
Sho.vn in Figs. 77 and 78 are a pair voice ceases, the relay stay closed for a
short period. The length of the hold-in
time will depend upon the application.
+12V
(KEYED)
For contest work, periods around 0.5
47k 2200 47k second are suitable. For ragchewing,
longer periods may be desired. More
SOUARE-
than I to 2 seconds is generally avoided.
WAVE Shown in Fig. 80 is a circuit used in
OUTPUT
many stations. This system is com-
patible with a keying mode that keys a
positive voltage to ground, the usual
case with solid-state gear. When the key
is depressed, the pnp transistor is satu-
rated immediately. This sends current
Fig. 75 - Sidetone oscillator using a multi- through the base of the npn, which Fig. 79 - An audio oscillator which employs
vibrator. activa tes the relay. The usual practice is an NE555 timer Ie.
174 Chapter 7
could be eliminated. A multipole relay
+12V
is used with one set of contacts shifting
the voltages to the transmitter, as reo
10k
K1 quired. This ensures that the transmitter
270 does not come on until the antenna is
connected to the transmitter. .
100k
+ It is important in many cases that
2200 15VX
10,uF
the antenna relay be in the transmit
position before rf is applied. If this is
not done, the relay is required to switch
1N914
when large rf voltages are present. This
places severe requirements on the relay.
Furthermore, the transmitter fmal
amplifier may be operating for a short
period with no termination on the
output. This can lead to instabilities and
Fig. 80 - A relay-driver circuit for T-R applications. can, in some cases, destroy the trans-
mi tter output transistor. Receiver
front-end damage is also common.
to use a multipole relay. One set of circumvented by using more precise Shown in Fig. 83 is a modified
contacts transfers the antenna while the timing circuits. One of the easier ap- system that is designed to circumvent
remaining contacts apply dc voltages to proaches to such design is through the these problems. The main relay control
the transmitter circuits. When the pnp use of a differential comparitor circuit. circuit is identical with that shown in
transistor comes on, part of the output Such a circuit is shown using a 741 the previous schematic. However, when
current flows into the capacitor through op.amp in Fig. 81. Vy is a reference the key is depressed and the ou tpu t of
the nO-ohm resistor. This causes the voltage that is derived from the power U1 goes high, a current will flow
capaci tor to charge quickly to + 12 volts. supply through a voltage divider. through the 220-k.Q resistor that con-
When the key is released, the pnp device Typically Vy will be about 0.5 Vcc' The nects to U2. The O.l-~F capacitor at the
is immediately cut off. However, the input voltage of the comparitor is in- input to U2 will cause a delay of about
timing capacitor is now charged to a creased from zero toward the positive 20 milliseconds before the output ofU2
high potential. The capacitor will dis- supply. As it approaches the reference goes high. The high output at U2 can be
charge through the potentiometer, voltage, the output of the 741 will start used to turn on a switch (QI) that
determining the hold-in time. A diode is to increase. Since the dc gain of the 741 grounds the oscillator control. Alterna.
placed across the relay coil. It protects is high, the transistion from the low to tively, the output of the switch can be
the npn transistor. If the diode was not the high state will occur over a range of used to control a pnp switch (Q2) that
there, a high positive collector-voltage input voltage of a millivolt, or there- applies a positive voltage to the oscilla-
spike would occur at the instant the abouts. A curve of this response is tor in the transmitter.
relay turned off. Depending upon the presented in Fig. 81. At the end of a timing cycle when
inductance and resistance of the relay In the example shown, the reference U1 returns to an off condition, the
coil, and the stray capacitances, this voltage is applied to the inverting input oscillator voltage is terminated quickly.
potential could reach several hundred of the op amp while the control voltage This is realized with the diode across the
volts. The diode clamps this positive is placed on the noninverting input. If 220-k.Q resistor. Receiver muting signals
voltage spike to the positive power the reverse circuit was used with the should be derived from the output of
supply line. The current that flows in input signal applied to the noninverting U1. This will ensure that the receiver is
the diode will have the effect of ex- input, the output would be high for low muted before any rf is generated.
tending the hold.in time of the circuit values of input. With 741 op amps the The 20-ms delay introduced by the
slightly. output voltage will approach the posi- U2 timing circuit presents a minor
The circuit of Fig. 80 has some tive supply within a volt or two. Similar- problem: The first dot of a cw trans.
deficiencies. The main one is that the ly, in the low state, the output can drop mission is a bit shorter than the signal
capacitor must be almost completely down to about 2 volts. The character- generated by the key. This problem is
discharged before the relay will drop istic that the output does not come
out. The exact time of relay dropout closer to ground is sometimes a problem
will depend on the beta of the npn that makes additional components
transistor. Beta variations among transis- necessary. Some of the newer op amps +12V +12V
tors of a given type are often large, and will allow their outputs to approach the +12V
may be temperature-dependent. supply voltages more closely. An excel- ,Ok
The deficiencies outlined may be lent choice for circuits of this kind
would be the LM.324, which is a quad
op amp (four op amps in a single
package, each with characteristics simi.
lar to the 741).
"o-;r
A simple T.R control system using a
741 as a differential comparitor is
,,[['2V shown schematically in Fig. 82. The
reference is obtained from a divider, and KEY TERMINAL
hold-in time is determined by the 1+ TO GROUND)
VI"~ 10k
100-H~ and the 5-~F capacitor. AS-volt
IO{MAX}- 10mA VR VIN Zener diode in the output of the op
amp assures an output that drops to
Fig. 81 - A differential comparator which ground potential. If one section of an Fig. 82 - A T-R circuit which uses an op-amp
uses a 741 op amp. LM-324 was used, the Zener diode differential comparator.
+12V
lOOk +12V
KI
+12V
IN914
KEY LINE
not severe, however, since the length of board power amplifier as an accessory the relay would be used to apply dc
a dot at 20 wpm is about 50 ms. It is to a low-power transmitter. The best voltage to the outboard amplifier.
better to suffer this slight inconvenience way to switch the antenna would be to
than it is to burn out a final amplifier, run appropriate dc control voltages to Circuit Description
or to create a tremendous key click on the outboard final. However, this would RI of Fig. 85 serves as an rf voltage
the air when the relay switches while make the accessory less convenient to divider to permit the circuit to be used
"hot" with rf. This characteristic is use. An alternative approach is that of wi th transmitters of various power-
noticeable with some commercial trans- using detected rf energy from the ex- output amounts. Rf energy is routed
mitters. The 20-ms period was chosen citer to control a suitable relay in the through C I to the base of broadband
because most relays take approximately outboard amplifier. Shown in Fig. 85 is amplifier Q 1. The amplified hf-band
10 ms to pull in. This includes dc- a circuit that was developed for this energy is supplied to a voltage-doubler
con trolled coaxial relays. The cautious purpose. The user should be sure his (CRI and CR2) through a broadband
experimenter should measure the pull-in exciter is capable of operation (tempo- toroidal step-down transformer, n. The
characteristics of his relay with a trig- rarily) without a load without self- rectified rfvoltage at the output ofCRI
gered oscilloscope, then tailor the time destruction. Ideally, a set of contacts on and CR2 is filtered by means of RFC2.
constants accordingly.
While op-amp ICs have been used in
the previous circuits, they are not the
only way to handle the relay driver I.B- 30MHz AMPLIFIER
+12V
100k
Kl
.1
100
+ K1A ~
CR4
,LS}lF 1N914
T/R TIMING
Fig. 85 - Circuit of an rf-actuated relay driver. This unit was first described in QST for Aug.,
1976, p. 21, inclusive of a pc-board layout. K1 isa 12-V relay with a field coil dc resistance be-
Fig. 84 - Example of a relay driver which tween 500 to 1,000 ohms. T1 primary has 25 turns of No. 28 enam. wire on an Amidon FT-5Q-
uses two transistors and a Zener diode as the 43 toroid core. The secondary consists of 5 turns of No. 28 wire wound over the pri mary. R FC1
main elements. and RFC2 contain 42 turns of No. 28 enam. wire on FT-5Q-43 toroid cOres.
176 Chapter 7
VI, Q2 is cut off because of the high
vee
positive base voltage it receives from TO RELAY
RF
VI, and the relay contacts to the INPUT
1000
transmitter are opef\.
THRESHOLD 6 3
Q
RESET
2 7
DISCHARGE
The NE555 Timer
TRIGGER
LOW WHEN Q An lC that is useful for timer appli- 1000
1 5 LOW OR WHEN
,f PIN 4 LOW cations is the NE-555. Several com-
[,:1'.01 panies manufacture versions of this
213V~ chip. The Motorola part number is the
555 TIMING MC-1555. The principles that are
applied in this chip are similar to those Fig. 88 - An rf-derived circuit for operating
described. The chip contains a set-reset the system shown in Fig. 87.
Fig. 86 - Block presentation of an NE555
timer IC.
flip-flop (RSFF), an output buffer that
will supply or sink up to 200 rnA of
current, two differential comparitors for reset, which is labeled "threshold," re-
C5, and C6. This prevents unwanted rf control of the RSFF, as well as some sets the RSFF when the terminal
from reaching VI and affecting its other control functions. The typical becomes more positive than 2/3 of the
performance. package is an 8-pin mini-DIP. The cir- supply voltage. Pin 5 is the 2/3 Vee
C6, R7, and R6 comprise a timing cuit also has a built-in resistive divider reference voltage and should normally
network (variable) which governs the that provides two reference voltages at be bypassed for high frequencies. In
hold-in time of the relay, KI. The 1/3 and 2/3 of the supply voltage. The situations where several 555 timers are
smaller the resistance amount at R6, the chip will operate with supplies from 5 linked for complex timing functions, all
shorter will be the time delay. to 18 volts. of these reference voltages may be tied
VI functions as an inverting ampli- Shown in Fig. 86 is a block presenta- together to ensure accuracy.
fier. When the input dc voltage at pin 2 tion of the 555 timer chip. The output Shown in Fig. 87 is a break-in delay
increases, the output dc voltage at pin 6 appears at pin 3. Pin 7 can also be used circuit using the 555 timer. Vnder nor-
decreases. The output voltage causes the as an output. It is an open collector of a mal key-up conditions, the FF will have
base of relay driver Q2 to be forward transistor with a grounded emitter. been reset and Q (pin 3) will be low.
biased negatively when it drops below Vnder most conditions this transistor is When the key is pressed, the RSFF is set
approximately 1.4 volts. Diodes CR5 in an "on" condition when the output, into a high condition. This results from
and CR6, by virtue of their combined Q, at pin 3, is low. The chip is triggered pin 2 going low. The circuit is inhibited
barrier voltages (0.7 Veach), established into an on condition (Q high) by pulling from "timing out" by the clamping
the 1.4-V fixed bias level. Without the pin 2 below 1/3 of the supply voltage. action of CRI. If this diode were not
diodes, Q2 would conduct sufficiently Pin 4, which is labeled in the literature present, timing would begin as soon as
to prevent the relay from dropping out as a reset, serves the function of turning the RSFF was set. The timing is pre-
during no-signal periods, CR4 is used to on the transistor with output at pin 7. If vented so long as the key is depressed.
suppress transients caused by the field this reset is not to be used, it should be When the key is lifted, the timing
coil of KI. When no rectified rf reaches tied to the positive supply. The other capacitor, CI, begins to charge. If the
key is depressed before the timing has
finished, the capacitor is discharged
through the key and CRI. If the key is
left open for a period of time, CI will
eventually charge to 2/3 Vee. This
action applied to the threshold terminal
+12V (pin 6) causes the flip-flop to be reset.
While the circuit may be used as
described for simple relay control, a
KA simple modification may be made to
10k
4 8 obtain a delayed control for the trans-
mitter. This is the circuit associated
with the 741 op-amp. The internal
1N914
TO KEY
2 reference of the 555 timer is used as the
555
LINE reference for the 741 comparitor. The
delay operation is virtually identical
with that described for Fig. 83.
This circuit (Fig. 87) may be modi-
fied easily to operate from an rf-derived
signal for use with an outboard ampli-
fier. This application is shown in Fig.
88, and the relay is n ow used in a
manner identical to that of Fig. 85.
A somewhat more complex applica-
tion of the 555 timer is the electronic
keyer shown in Fig. 89. This circuit is
straightforward, as keyers go, and the
performance is good. It has advantages
over some of the circuits that are
popular. One is that when a character is
started (a dot or a dash), no more
Fig. 87 - Break-in delay circuit which uses an NE555 timer IC.
information may be entered into the
.s
1N914
2N30S3
2200
OUTPUT
(DASH) 1N914
10k
circuit, irrespective of paddle position, thr ou gh the learning exercise of Shown in Fig. 90A is a simple T-R
until the end of the following space. In designing them. switch. The receiver is attached to the
many circuits it is necessary that the collector terminal of the matching pi
user be "off the paddle" before the end Electronic T-R Switching
network. In this example for 7 MHz, a
of the dot or dash. Otherwise, another All of the techniques outlined above 50-pF capacitor is used for coupling
character will be generated. Another for T-R switching have utilized a relay. into the low-impedance port of the
advantage of this circuit is that the However, the function can be handled receiver. The receiver is protected from
capacitors start a timing cycle in a completely with electronic switching strong rf signals by the back-to-back
completely discharged condition. methods. There are two general
Because of this, it is not necessary to approaches to the electronic T-R switch
discharge the capacitors quickly through problem. The one that is most common
the paddle and additional circuits. This is one of attaching the antenna directly
phenomenon led to timing errors when to the transmitter. Then, the receiver is
poor quality components were used in paralleled with the transmitter output
an earlier circuit described by one of the with suitable circuitry to prevent
writers (QST for Nov., 1971). A final damage to the receiver during transmit
advantage of this circuit is that all three periods. The other approach is to
of the functions (dot, dash, and space) actually switch the transmitted power
are timed with separate circuits. As a directly. Clearly, this is the more diffi-
result, the timing resistors (Rl, R2, and cult of the two.
RJ) may be changed in order to adapt For most work on the hf bands the
to any individual taste. simpler method of T-R switching is
The purpose of the foregoing keyer suitable. The advantage of electronic
description was to demonstrate the T-R switching is that it allows full
versatility of the 555 timer. While the break-in operation on cw, a feature that
keyer functions quite nicely and is is convenient for the contest operator, (A)
presently in use, there are dozens of traffic handler or vhf meteor-scatter
keyer circuits available that will func- enthusiast. There are some constraints
+Vcc
tion as well. Undoubtedly, the optimum that must be applied to the design of
route to follow in such a design would the system. First; there should be mini-
be to use CMOS ICs. The power con- mal degradation in receiver perfor.
sumption is very low with such devices, mance. This can originate from two
and so is the cost. considerations. One is that distortion
the writers have taken a slightly products can be generated in the switch,
different approach to the keyer design which would degrade the dynamic
problem than is perhaps typical. The range. Furthermore, losses in the switch
usual approach is very pragmatic, that can degrade receiver noise figure. The
of finding a design of an acceptable level second and major source of problems is
of complexity that will provide the best the transmitter output network. If the
performance available. On the other signal is not extracted from the trans-
hand, keyers offer another profound mitter output in the proper manner,
advantage from an educational point of there may be significant attenuation of
view. The function that is to be the signal. Examples of this effect will
designed is fairly straightforward, and be presented later. Another constraint is
yet certainly not trivial. As a result, that the T-R switch not create extra
designing keyers is an excellent mecha- harmonic output from the transmitter
nism for learning about new circuit that could cause interference to other (B)
techniques. Even if the circuits are never services. This problem is usually handled
built, it can be enlightening to go easily. Fig. 90 - Circuit of a simple T.R switch.
178 Chapter 7
+VCC of about 6 mA in each diode. When rf is
generated by the transmitter, some of
the output is sampled and rectified. The
resulting dc is used to saturate Q2 which
HALF-WAVE FILTER
has the effect of turning Ql off. In one
system of this kind that was investigated
+12V with a 2-watt QRP transmitter, it was
found that the receiving insertion loss of
the switch was about 1 dB, completely
T.05 insignificant at 7 MHz. The attenuation
2200 ~ 2200
of rf from the transmitter was over 40
500pF
.01 dB, which was enough to prevent
>r-7 lN914 lN914 damage to the receiver front end.
Because the receiver being used had a
~
TO RCVR.
fast, wide-range agc system, complete
Shaped Keying
A problem with many solid-state cw
transmitters is key clicks. This is usually
the result of oversight by the designer.
So much effort is devoted to the rf
details of the design that the shaping
'INPUT can be forgotten. There are many cir-
,~ cuits that can be used to assure that the
cw note is clean and crisp.
Shewn in Fig. 93 is a circuit that is
Fig. 95 - A pnp keying transistor operated as
used frequently in many of the trans- an integrator. The timing capacitor. C1,
mitters in the book. Here a pnp tran- should not be an electrolytic type.
,101 +12V sistor is used as a switch. This circuit has
several advantages. One is that the key-
ing is done in the positive supply line,
but the key is still grounded. This allows follower instead of a switch. As such,
]JKEV the builder to carefully ground the rf the dc waveform is slightly more pre-
parts of the circuit without regard for dictable than with the circuit of Fig. 93.
extra dc control wires. The other virtue Fig. 95 shows a third method for
is that the switch provides an easy applying a transistor to shaped keying.
Fig. 94 - A pnp keying transistor functioning means of controlling the timing. This is In this circuit, the transistor functions
as an emitter follower. performed with the network in the base. as an integrator. When the key is closed,
CI and RI determine the rise time of base current starts to flow. However,
the waveform while CI and R2 control this causes the voltage on the keyed
the fall time. This circuit is suitable for amplifier to begin to rise. The increasing
for the protection of the MOSFET from keying stages requiring up to about 50 voltage is coupled back to the base,
damage during handling. rnA of current. Greater current amounts decreasing the base current. The final
While additional measurements are may be keyed if larger switching transis- result is that the collector voltage ramps
required, it appears that methods of the tors are used. The base resistors must be up linearly. A similar action occurs
kind shown offer great promise for the decreased in ohmic value though. during the fall period. While the wave-
QSK enthusiast. The better results will A Class A amplifier may be keyed forms are trapezoidal instead of the
probably come from combinations of with the circuit of Fig. 94. Again, a pnp more classic exponen tiaIs, they have low
the methods outlined. The single largest transistor is used. However, in this sideband energy. This results in a clean
factor, other than the obvious effective- application it functions as an emitter keying characteristic.
180 Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Modulation Methods
Ie theory presented in the preceding phone mode for the amateur, is des- that a device which has an output that is
chapters has been general, applying to cribed by a product of two input voltages (a
cw and ssb systems. The construction multiplier circuit) has as its output a
projects have been predominantly for pair of signals at the sum and difference
Yo = Aa (1 + ksin 21Tfm t)sin 21Tfet
frequencies. Hence, the total output of
the cw enthusiast. However, phone is
the principal mode of operation for the a-m transmitter will contain three
most amateurs. On the hf bands single = Aa sin 21Tfe + Aak (sin21Tf mt) frequencies. One is the carrier, fe' The
sideband is predominant. At vhf and other two are called the sidebands, and
(sin21Tfet) . (Eq.l)
uhf, there is a split. There is an increas- are at frequencies fe + f m and fe - f m .
ing number of stations using ssb at vhf Shown in Fig. 1 are oscilloscope presen-
and uhf. The most common mode is fm. tations of an a-m signal. In Fig. 2 are
In this volume we will treat the There are two frequencies repre- spectrum-analyzer presentations of the
details of single and double -sideband sented. Fe is the carrier frequency. This same signal. The carrier and the side-
phone transmitters. Frequency modula- is evident from the expanded form of bands are clearly evident. In the case
tion methods are omitted because they the equation where we see that there is shown, the carrier frequency is 432
are covered in detail in many other a steady output at the carrier frequency. MHz. The modulation frequency is I
books. Ao is the peak carrier amplitude, and kHz. If the value of k is multiplied by
Our treatment of sideband methods the term k is called the modulation 100, the result is the percentage of
will include many problems. The text index. modulation. The signal shown in the
will deal with some introductory infor- The other term in the expanded photographs is modulated 100 percent.
mation on the design of the component form of Eq. 1 is a product of two sine It is interesting to note the powers
parts of a phone transmitter, the design waves. The two sine terms have two that are associated with the various
of high-power amplifiers, and the vari- frequencies, fe and f m' The second frequencies in a 100-percent modulated
ous methods that are available for realiz- frequency, f m, is the modulation fre- carrier when a single sine wave is used as
ing these ends. We will attempt to fill in quency. If we refer back to the dis- the modulating signal. From Eq. 1 we
some gaps that have appeared in the cussion of mixers and product detectors see that the carrier power is a constant.
amateur literature. Specifically, the in the receiver chapters, we will recall The voltage of the carrier is Ao volts,
design of low- and medium-power Class peak. The rms value is Ao 7 vlT'Since
A broadband amplifiers will be covered. the power is delivered to a resistive load,
R, the power is just V2 7 R, or Ao 2 7
The Nature of an A-M Phone Signal 2R.
If a cw signal was to be expressed If Eq. 1 is expanded, using trigono-
ma thema tically, it would be a simple metric identities, we see that the ampli-
sine wave. That is, the voltage appearing tude of each of the side bands is A 0 72.
at the transmitter output would be Va = Hence, the average power in each of these
A sin w t where w = 21Tfis the angular sidebands is 0.25 of that in the carrier.
frequency. F is the frequency in hertz. A spectrum-analyzer display of an a-m
The term A is the peak amplitude of the signal which is modulated 100 percent
signal. by a single audio frequency will show
Modulation is a term that implies a accordingly that the average power in
controlled change. The terms in the each of the sidebands is 6 dB below the
simple cw signal that may be changed or carrier power.
modulated are the amplitude, A, or the If we go back to Eq. 1, we see that
Fig. 1 - Time-domain oscilloscope presenta-
frequency, f. The amplitude modulation tion of an a-m phone signal. 100 percent
the normal cw signal with an amplitude
(a-m) that is used for standard broad- modulation is present. The modulating fre- of Ao is replaced by one with a variable
cast, and at one time was the dominant quency is 1 kHz. amplitude. At some parts of the audio
the voice of the opera tor. This is com- result when a double-sideband trans- LSB fc USB
posed of a number of sine waves added mitter is used. The spectrum that would DSB SIGNAL
together to form a composite voice result from these tones being trans- (C)
waveform. The transmitter will behave mitted on a single-sideband (ssb) trans-
essentially as if each of the component mitter is presen ted in Fig. 3D.
sine-wave modulating signals were It is interesting to consider the
present alone. Then, the net output power related to a single side-band
would be the addition of each of the transmission. Consider the usual case
individual components. that is used for the testing of an ssb
transmitter where tw 0 equal audio tones
The Double-Sideband Signal are applied to the audio input of the
If the a-m signal is studied with a transmitter. The resulting output is J l FRE?UENCY
spectrum analyzer or mathematically, shown in Fig. 4. Each of the tones has a f{ ---..,-......
we find that the carrier at fc has a given power associated with it. The USB
constant level. As the audio signal is average total power is merely the sum of SSB SIGNAL
(D)
applied to the transmitter, the levels of these two, or twice the value of the
the two sidebands vary, but the level of individual signals. The peak-envelope
Fig. 3 - Representative spectrum displays for
the carrier remains constant and un. power, however, is four times the value
various modulation forms. The audio spec-
altered. Hence, it contains no informa- of each of the individual tones. The trum of three tones is shown at A. B shows
tion. It is necessary if the signal is to be reason for this difference is because the the result when this audio signal is applied to
detected in a receiver using a simple two audio tones are not related to each an a-m phone transmitter. C shows the out-
rectifier detector, but it serves no other other (they are incoherent). Because of put spectrum when the three audio tones are
applied to a suppressed-carrier double-
purpose. On the other hand, when we this, there will be instants during the sideband transmitter. At D. the outPut spec-
examined the average power in the transmission when the individual equal tru-m of an ssb transmitter is presented. Note
carrier and in the two sidebands of an voltages from each tone are both at that the ssb signal is exactly the same as the
a-m signal, we found that most of the their peak values simultaneously. The audio input except that it is translated in
frequency.
power was in the carrier. It would be net voltage at the output at the instant
much more efficient if we could concen- is twice the value of one of the tones,
trate all of the transmitted power in the and the resulting peak-envelope power voice that is being transmitted and upon
sidebands where voice information is (PEP) is 6 dB above the power in each the nature of the transmitter. Some
contained, and dispense with the carrier. of the two tones. transmitters use speech clipping or
This can be done: The result is a double- In a practical case it is much more processing in order to limit the peak
sideband signal. difficult to relate the average power of value of the waveforms while increasing
If the spectrum-analyzer photo- an ssb signal to the PEP value. This will the average power. In most cases where
graphs of an a-m signal are studied, a depend upon the characteristics of the such methods are not employed, the
182 Chapter 8
mechanical filter. This filter is designed
such that one of the sidebands from the
modulator is within the passband while
the other is not. The result is an ssb
signal. For high-quality ssb signals to be
generated it is not necessary that the
filter response have a symmetrical
o 11 12 shape. It is only necessary that the
AUDIO FREQUENCY
suppression be quite good for the un-
AUDIO INPUT
(Al wanted side band. If a symmetrical filter
is used, as is usually the case, the crystal
..-OUTPUT
TONES
in the carrier generator (used to drive
the balanced modulator) may be
switched, allowing the operator to
change the sideband that is being
transmitted. If the sideband from the
filter is higher in frequency than the Fig. 6 - Block diagram showing the phasing
carrier, it is called the upper sideband method of ssbgeneration. Two balanced mod-
"-
DISTORTION
TRANSMITTER
PRODUCTS
OUTPUT
(RF)
FREQUENCY (usb). The lower sideband (lsb) is simi-
larly defined.
ulators are used, each being driven with rf and
audio signals of identical amplitudes. The rf
and audio signals to the two modulators are
(B)
Since fixed-frequency fIlters are in phasequadrature. A mathematical analysis
usually employed for the generation of is presented in the appendix.
ssb, it is necessary that the intermediate
Fig.4 - Spectrum obtained during two-tone frequency ssb output be heterodyned to
testing of an ssb transmitter. At A the audio technology for filter construction was
input is shown, consisting of two equal audio the frequency of interest. This is done
tones of identical amplitude. At B is shown with a mixer and LO system. Again, we not as advanced as it is today. Further-
the resulting ssb output including third-order emphasize that the filter method is an more, the phasing method may be
intermodulation distortion products. Note exact analogy to the superheterodyne applied directly at the band of interest.
the frequency spacingsof the I MD products.
receiver. Either single or multiple con- A superheterodyne approach to design
version may be employed. is not mandatory, although it may
PEP value will be much greater than The second method used for the certainly be used. .
the average power of an ssb signal. generation of ssb is called the phasing Today, the situation is reversed. The
method. This is shown in Fig. 6. The filter method is predominant for side-
Single-Sideband Generation basis of such a ssb generator is a pair of band generation. This is largely a result
There are two general methods that balanced modulators. Each is driven of the nature of the filters that are
are commonly used for the generation with identical carrier frequencies and available, along with the transceive con-
of ssb. One is the filter method and the audio signals of identical amplitude. cept where the same filter may be used
other is the phasing method, A block However, the phase of the signals i~ for sideband generation and to obtain
diagram of a filter type of ssb generator different. The carrier signal driving one receiver selectivity. The other reason is
is shown ill Fig. 5. This technique is modulator is 90 degrees out of phase that the filter method does not exhibit
virtually identical to that used in a with that driving the other. Similarly, the fundamental disadvantages that are
superheterodyne receiver, except that the audio driving one balanced modula- typical of the phasing method. This
the signal direction is different through tor is 90 degrees out of phase with that requires some elab ora tion.
the transmitter than it is in the receiver. driving the other. The outputs of the If a single audio tone was to be
An audio signal is obtained from a two balanced modulators are added transmitted at a single frequency with
microphone and is amplified in a speech t~gether with the result that only one of the phasing method of ssb, the design
amplifier. It is then applied to the input the sidebands remains. It is not immedi- would be straightforward. Building net-
of a balanced modulator. The output of ately obvious that such a collection of works that provide 90 degrees of phase
the balanced modulator is a double- circuits will lead to a single sideband. shift at a single frequency is generally
sideband signal. The carrier for the However, the mathematics used to show easy. This is not what is needed for
balanced modulator is most often that this does occur are straightforward sideband generation, though. The rf
obtained from a crystal-controlled and are presented in the appendix. phase-shift network must operate accur-
oscilla tor. In the early days of amateur ssb the ately over a small range, equal in the
The dsb signal from the balanced phasing method of generation was popu- worst case to the width of a phone
modulator is applied to a crystal or lar. The reason for this was that the segment of an amateur band. This is not
difficult to realize in practice. What is
difficult is the construction of the audio
phase-shift network. The voice spectrum
is generally considered to be from 300
to 3,000 Hz. This is a ratio of 10 in
frequency. It is difficult to build phase-
shift networks that will maintain a
90-degree phase difference with con-
stant output amplitude over this large
range. It can be shown that as little as
one degree of error in the audio phasing
will lead to an ultimate suppression of
the undesired sideband of only 41 dB.
Fig. 5 - Block diagram showing the filter method of ssb generation. The carrier oscillator Technology is changing and modern
freQuency is adjusted so that it coincides with a point that is 20 dB down on one of the
sidesof the responseof the bandpassfilter. After an ssb signal is obtained at an intermediate methods may inspire a renewed interest
freQuency it must be hetrodyned to the desired output freQuency. in the phasing types of ssb generators.
network. The newer approach embodies suppression are not needed. For
an active phase-shift network. A circuit Rl
example, one might use the phasing R3
is shown in Fig. 8, where resistors and method in a receiver as a technique for Cl
capacitors have been combined with an fJ.1teringthe i-f amplifier for noise. This Your
r
operational amplifier to obtain a phase- would replace the matched noise filter
shifted output. High-performance ver- that might be used between the i-f
R4
sions of this method will use a multi- ~mplifier and the product detector in an R2 ~.1
VIN
plicity of these active networks, (cas- advanced receiver. The main selectivity
caded) in order to obtain accurate phase of the receiver is still provided by a
shifts over a wide range of audio free ,high-performance crystal filter at the
quencies. No component values are input to the i-f amplifier. References are Fig. 8 - Circuit showing an RC active audio
given in Fig. 8 since they will depend given in the bibliography. phase-shifting circuit. This is an "all pass"
network, with the output-VOltage amplitude
upon the accuracy desired. The reader Direct-conversion receivers may be equal to that at the input. However, the out-
who is interested in studying this design used for the reception of single side- put will be phaseshifted. In practice, a pair
technique should investigate the 1970 band. The only problem encountered is of chains of such circuits will be employed.
paper by F. R. Shirley (see the bibliog- the audio image. This image frequency Each chain will contain from two to four
cascadedcircuits of the type shown. The
raphy). Using quad op amps like the may contain another station that would inputs of the two chains are driven in paral-
LM324, builders should be able to cause interference to the desired one. lel. The two resulting outputs are applied to
make the phase-shift networks compact Double-sideband reception is straight- the balanced modulators. For calculation of
and low in power comsumption. If a forward with the typical superhet the values of R1, R2, R3, R4, C1 and C2, the
phasing ssb exciter is to be built, it is receiver. This is because the filter in reader is referred to the engineerinq literature
(F.R. Shirley, Electronic Design, Sept. 1,
important that the audio signals reach- the receiver removes one sideband, 1970l. The op amps may be a 741, one half
ing the phase-shift networks be carefully converting the signal arriving at the of a 747 or 5558, or one quarter of anLM324.
184 Chapter 8
j
+12V +12V
.1
820 t+,
.01
:5
51
T.l !2I!E.
f---oDSB OUTPUl
frequency and an audio input. The increased. This is done by changing the
outputs are the sum and difference 10-kQ resistor leading to pin 5 to a
frequencies, or the two sidebands. The 3,300-ohm unit. In this case the maxi-
balance in the circuit ensures that a mum output should be around 0 dBm DSB
1- -
mixers are not recommended, since
there is no way to adjust carrier suppres-
sion.
If careful design work is intended, INPUT
CARRIER
the data presented in connection with
-
r
mixers for receivers should be con- Dsa
OUTPUT
sulted. Specifically, the intercept at the
output port should be studied in order
to determine the level for proper opera-
tion of the mixer. The higher output
levels have the advantage that less gain is
needed in the following stages. This can
be a major advantage in a double-side-
band transmitter. On the other hand, in
(Al
'0:L AFINPUT
'''O' IT -
This could raise the broadband noise
output of the transmitter.
In all of the balanced modulators
shown, the audio port is dc coupled. As
a result, a cw output can be produced
by injecting a dc voltage to unbalance (B) '0:.J, AFINPUT
186 Chapter 8
+12V
+12V
47
I-F AMPLIFIER RF AMPLIFIER
22
100
3300
RFC
Fig. 13 - Representative i-f amplifier and transmit mixer for use in a filter type of ssb exciter (see text).
also employs emitter degeneration. The often possible to use diplexer circuits, as Three-pole filters might be more desir-
main need for this is to main tain a high were presented. However, a much able for most of the hf bands. The
input impedance to the amplifier. simpler approach is to use a 6-dB filters listed in the appendix are suitable
Because of the light loading that the attenuator with a characteristic impe- for this application.
amplifier presents, the termination on dance of 50 ohms at the output. This In some cases, a low-pass filter might
the crystal filter is determined by the was not desirable for the receiver suffice. For example, if a transmitter
external 510-ohm resistor. The output because of noise-figure degradation. was built for the 75-meter band, with an
of the amplifier is applied directly to However, noise figure is of less signifi- i-f of 9 MHz, the La would probably be
the mixer input, while the La port of cance in transmitter applications. The at 5 MHz. If the balance of the mixer is
the mixer is driven by a suitable VFO. 6-dB pad should ensure that all mixer reasonable, the 5-MHz output compon-
Field-effeot transistors may also be pr od ucts are terminated properly. ent will be attenuated considerably
used in the i-f amplifier. A transmitter Correct La injection should also be prior to filtering. The main spur would
presented later in the chapter uses dual- employed for the mixer. For diode be the image at 14 MHz. A low-pass
gate MOSFETs in the i-f section. rings, this is from +10 to +13 dBm to a filter with a 4-MHz cutoff frequency
While there are a large number of 50-ohm load. would provide more than sufficient sup-
mixer devices that may be used in The mixer should be followed with a pression. The better circuit would
high-level transmit applications, it is bandpass filter. The complexity of this include a trap or two with frequencies
highly recommended that a doubly bal- filter will depend upon the exact of high attenuation near 5 MHz. This
anced design be chosen. The section on frequencies involved. The main spurious would provide additional attenuation of
the discussion of transmit mixers given response to guard against is the image. the La than might result from less than
in an earlier chapter should be consul- For example, if a 9-MHz i-fwere used in optimal mixer balance.
ted. Generally, we would suggest that a a single-conversion transmitter for the Dual-conversion systems should be
MCl496 be used for single-band designs 50-MHz band, the required La fre- avoided. The high signal levels that are
up through 30 MHz. This IC is easy to quency would be 41 MHz. The image often present can lead to distortion
apply and offers suitable, if not spec- frequency would be 32 MHz. A double- effects. These are complicated with
tacular signal-handling capability. For tuned circuit would provide more than extra conversions of the signal. A better
use into the vhf spectrum, a diode type sufficient rejection of this component. approach would be to premix a low-
of doubly balanced mixer is recom-
mended. Th~s would also be ideal for a
multiband hf design because of the
broadband capability of the circuit. RF AMPLIFIER
However, it is importan t that the proper
levels be maintained throughout the BANDPASS FILTER
system. The measurement of low levels
of rf power was discussed in chapter 7.
It is recommend that the designer use a
low-level detector (such as the square- 'j,
law detector described earlier) in con- 100
junction with a step attenuator in these
projects.
When using a diode-ring mixer, all of
the precautions about termination Fig. 14 - Circuit of an rf amplifier that might follow the mixer in Fig. 13. Band switching is
detailed in the receiver chapter should simplified by multiplexing the dc voltage for the amplifier on the output signal line. A typical
be followed. In a single-oand design it is gain for this circuit would be 20 dB, with an output intercept of +20 dBm.
188 Chapter 8
decreases it, the combination effect
42
causes the input impedance to be
approximately constant. Also, the shunt
36
OPEN LOOP
feedback decreases the output imped-
ance, leading to better interstage
30
matching. Finally, emitter degeneration
z often has the effect of making an
;;;:
24
amplifier self-oscillate at some fre-
a":
quencies. This is especially true if the
j'"
u
18
transistor has a very high h. On the
0
Vl
Z
<I
other hand, shunt resistive feedback
12
...
a:
RE"10,RF"250
almost always has the effect of making
an amplifier unconditionally stable. This
6 can be of significance in a high-gain
amplifier chain.
0 Shown in Fig. 17 is the effect of
feedback upon transducer gain. This is a
.1 10 100 1000 calculation based upon a transistor with
FREQUENCY,MHz a dc beta of 100, an h of 500 MHz and
a 3-pF collector-to.base capacitance. As
shown, without feedback, the gain at
Fig. 17 - Transducer gain as a function of frequency for an amplifier with and without feed-
back. The hybrid pi model of a bipolar transistor was used for this calculation. A dc beta of low frequencies was over 32 dB. How-
100 was assumed with fT = 500 MHz, Ccb = 3 pF and Rb' = 50 ohms. Note that the gain with ever, the 3-dB bandwidth was only 8
feedback is always lower than the open-loop gain (with no feedback) and that the bandwidth is MHz. When a 10-ohm emitter resistor
always extended by application of negative feedback.
and a 250-ohm shunt feedback resis-
tance were added, the gain dropped to a
little over 10 dB. However, the 3-dB
bandwidth is now extended to 65 MHz.
150 The transistor model used in this anal-
ysis is the so-called hybrid-1T model,
and is covered in the appendix.
125
If the amplifiers are to be cascaded,
OUTPUT it is desirable that their input and
INPUT
UI output resistances be equal. Analysis
2
%
o shows that a rule of thumb may be
20 p"10 100 W applied. If the desired characteristic
RF- (50)2
u
R. z impedance is Zo' then the emitter resis-
~
UI tance and the shunt feedback resistance
lD in should be chosen such that ReRf = Zo 2.
~ 15 75 ~
<!l
Fig. 18 has a curve showing the
!;
...
I-
effect of emitter resistance upon stage
j gain, plus input and output resistance.
10 50 ~ The amplifier was designed for a 50-
z
C ohm characteristic resistance. Hence, for
I-
a given emitter resistance, Re, the feed-
...
::>
back resistor used was chosen according
25 !:
to the rule given above. That is, Rf =
(50)2 -;.:Re In this calculation, a simpler
model was assumed for the transistor,
o o
with no account taken for a phase
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
change of beta. The value of beta
RE, OHMS
assumed was 10. In spite of the simple
model, the results agree with the mea.
Fig. 18 - Gt, Rin and Rout as a function of feedback components. A simple model was surementswe have done on amplifiers of
assumed for this calculation with a beta of 10. No account was taken for phase shifts in beta.
Nonetheless, the calculations agree well with measured results. A profound advantage of feed- this variety. It is interesting to note that
back is predictability in design. the rule is a little away from the stated
design center. That is, the input resis-
tances are a little under 50 ohms, while
the output resistances tend to be a little
used on a small ferrite core (Amidon were done at 10 MHz. higher. Measurements confirm this cal.
FT-2343). Another approach to broadband culation, also.
The transistor was biased for about design is to utilize a combination of The gain of a single stage may be
120 mA of collector current. With this emitter degeneration and resistive shunt increased over those values given in Fig.
much current it would be expected that feedback (see Fig. 16). This scheme has 18 by the inclusion of a transformer in
the output intercept might be fairly a number of advantages. First, it pro- the output. The turns ratios are from
high. It was measured with two oututs vides two "handles" on controlling feed- 1:1 to 4:1. It is not necessary that
of +17 dBm each, or +23 dBm PEP (200 back, which leads to greater flexibility. transmission-line transformers be used,
mW) output. The intermodulation dis- Second, the effect of feedback on im- although this may enhance performance
tortion products were 40 dB down from pedance can be exploited. Since emitter in the vhf spectrum.
each tone, indicating an output inter- degeneration has the effect of increasing Shown in Fig, 19 is a curve of gain
cept of +37 dBm. The measurements input impedance, while shunt feedback vs. frequency for four different cases
r
~1I2WPE:P
OUTPUT
190 ChapterS
+12.5V
should be at least 10 times greater than
the highest frequency of operation.
t20
+
20)l~T
,L.1 Also, the transistors should have suffi.
cient power dissipation .. Amplifiers of
15Vrh .7
this kind are much different than the
03 Class C amplifiers used for cw. The
current in a Class A amplifier' is con-
11.5VDC
-10.1VDC
stant, independent of the power output.
Hence, the designer does not have the
advantage of a low duty cycle that helps
him when building cw rigs of similar
.x.
power output. The writers have used the
+ 2N3553 for output stages at this power
T~10)lF
~.
would be th e Motorola MPS-U31 and
OPTIONAL
FEEDBACK
INDUCTOR MRF472. 'These parts are relatively
inexpensive. In any case, careful heat
sinking is required because of the high
power dissipation.
Fig. 21 - Suggestedcircuit for a 5-watt output ClassA power amplifier. 01 is an MRF449 or If it is desired to extend the band-
similar rf power transistor. 02 is a 2N4037, and 03 is an MJE105. Similar devices may be sub- width of amplifiers of this kind to
stituted for 02 and 03 (seetext). higher frequencies, there are a few tricks
that ma,y be employed. From the curves
it is evident that the widest bandwidths
occur with the lower gain numbers.
Because of this, a lower gain per stage
will lead to increased bandwid tho
Another trick that works well is to place
a small inductor in series with the
VBIAS
collector. This will increase the voltage
swing on the collector at the upper
frequencies while leaving the lower fre-
quency gain unaltered. Values as low as
----
I
INPUT
MATCHING r--'
~
50 to 100 nanohenrys are suitable for
vhf work. Similarly, some inductance in
series with the shunt feedback resistor
will peak the high frequency gain.
Finally, some impedance matching can
(AI be done. This would take the form of a
pi or L type of network as an interstage
HIGH-POWER LINEAR OUTPUT AMPLIFIER coupling element. It should have a Q
near unity, and should be tuned at the
upper frequency of operation. It will
then appear virtually "transparent." at
the lower frequencies.
It is sometimes desirable to run a
Class A amplifier at even higher powers,
+vcc although the power dissipations
encountered may make the 'thermal
designs difficult. Also, the high collector
+vcc currents may make it difficult to use
much emitter degeneration. This places
the burden of feedback on the shunt
POWER RFC element. Without a large emitter resis-
DIODE
tance, biasing will also be more cumber-
some. A sample circuit is shown in Fig.
21. This amplifier is biased for a current
of 1 A. With a 12.5-volt supply the
input power will be a little over 10
watts. The value of Vee is less than 12.s
owing to the voltage drop across the
collector resistor that is used as a
(S)
current-sensing element for biasing. A
2:1-turns-ratio transformer is used at
Fig. 22 - Generalized schematic of a single-ended high-power ClassAS rf amplifier. The rf
the output, transforming a 50-ohm ter-
circuitry is presented at A, while B emphasizes the details of the biasing circuit. mination to a 12.5-ohm load at the
192 Chapter 8
levels. Specifically, if the output power
is decreased by X dB. the IMD ratio will
improve by 2X dB. Class AB amplifiers
are not as well behaved. When the
output power is dropped from the
specified maximum, the IMD ratio can
degrade. For this reason, the best mode
of operation is at full rated power. If a
low-level output is desired (for QRP
experiments or driving vhf transverters),
an attenuator should be used. Alterna-
tively, the high-power final amplifier
should be bypassed, with the output
r0=:
MIG TO RGVR MIXER
VFO signal being obtained from an earlier
TO TX MIXER
Class A stage in the amplifier chain.
One problem with the diode biasing
PARTIAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN SSB TRANSCEIVER
scheme is the high current required to
bias the diodes properly. This current is
Fig. 23 - Partial block diagram of an ssbtransceiver. The system differs from an ssbtransmitter in often obtained from the same power
the inclusion of switching circuits and the multiple use of the carrier oscillator - BFO and VFO. supply that is used for the collector
bias. Most of the power used to derive
the bias current is dissipated in the large
the resistance will cause the efficiency third-order distortion products. are 30 resistor (RI of Fig. 22). This will
of the amplifier to be degraded. Also, it dB or greater below each tone during a degrade the system efficiency consider-
can have the effect of degrading the two-tone IMD measurement at full out. ably from that value given by the
stability of the amplifier. Unconditional put power. The distortion does not manufacturer. There are at least a
stability can sometimes be regained behave as nicely with such amplifiers as couple of solutions to this problem. One
through the application of shunt feed- it does with a Class A design. With the would be to use a separate power supply
back, at the cost of reduced stage gain. Class A amplifier, an output intercept for biasing the diode. The cost of a
. Modern transistors designed for high- can usually be specified for a given 5-volt supply would be small. Another
power linear rf applications have excel- circuit. This defines the IMD perfor- solution was suggested to the writers by
lent IMD specifications. Typically, mance of the amplifier at all power W7UDM: Use the current that is stand-
ing in a previous Class A amplifier to
also bias the diode. The power is then
+1 V
used more effectively. Careful decou-
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF pIing would be required.
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (JIF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR JlJlFI;
No construction examples of high-
power linear amplifiers are given in this
'0:-L RESISTANCES
k'IOOO. 000.
ARE IN OHMS;
M'IOOO chapter. However, some were presented
earlier. They were designed for ssb
service.
'0:L +12V FOR
INPUT A
Transceivers for SSB
Although some operators use sepa-
.01 rate transmitters and receivers for ssb,
INPUT A ~ CR1
the trend is toward transceivers. The
major reason is convenience of opera-
CR2
.~ tion. With an ssb transceiver, once a
/1
station is tuned in so that it sounds
proper in the receiver, the transmitter is
au tomatically on the proper frequency.
rl;1 Another reason is that much of the
transmitter and receiver circuitry can be
shared, leading to economy in construc-
tion.
Shown in Fig. 23 is a partial block
diagram of a single-conversion ssb trans-
ceiver. The carrier oscillator used for ssb
CR4
generation at the i-f is used also as the
RFC BFO for the receiver. It is not manda-
tory that this signal be switched. It may
be applied to both inputs simultane-
ously. However, great care should be
+12V FOR taken to ensure that minimal energy
INPUT B
from the carrier oscillator finds its way
into the receiver i-f amplifier. This
avoids the noise-modulation problems
which were reviewed in the receiver
chapters.
Fig. 24 - A method for diode switching a crystal filter. Only the input is switched in this
The VFO is also shared. Again, this
example. A similar circuit could be used at the output. signal may be applied to each of the
~ If
r
~
TOTX
MIXER
100
01 02
.01
~~S~o-j +12V
MIXER
10k
T. l
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VAUJES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (jJF I ;
,..}-, +12V
+12V OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR jJjJF I;
100
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k-I 000, "-1000 000.
lOOk lOOk lOOk
LOW +lV L
irC. TW~.
Fig. 25 - Circuit for sharing a crystal filter between receive and transmit functions in a transceiver. Bipolar transistors are used at the input, while
a dual-gate MOSFET is employed at the output.
194 O18pter 8
establish the gain of each stage. The +12V, LEFT +12V, RIGHT
output of the filter is applied to a pi INPUT INPUT
+12T
AMPLIFIER
AMPLIFIER +12T
+12T
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
+12T +12T
47
47
15,\lH
;L01
RFC
3300
.01
,01
240
+12V
T,01
SPEECH
AMPLIFIER
47 ,.J-, +12T~ r- - - --,
:==1 r~"
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (jlF I ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR jljlFI;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
6 k -1000. U.I 000 000
AMP. +12V ~
INPUT ,.J-,
Fig. 29 - Circuit for a 6-Meter dsb CRP transmitter (seetext), T-R switching is realized with a double-pole. double-throw slide switch.
L 1 - 10 turns No. 24 enameled wire on L3 - 6 turns No. 22 enameled wire on T1 - 10 trifilar turns No. 30 enameled wire
Amidon T37-6 toroid core. Amidon T50-6 toroid core. on Amidon FT-37-61 toroid core.
L2 - 2-turn link over L 1.
196 Chapter 8
.~,.
r""~ ~-----------------------------
I
i to 31
J
the gain accordingly. The crystal oscilla-
tor and the simple pi network output
would be replaced with suitable circuits.
If the amplifier is to be used on the
,4
160-meter band, it would be advisable
to increase the inductance value of the
rf chokes to around 50 f-lH. The output
network is adjusted for maximum out-
put with the test point set to + 12 volts .
.~ The output should be monitored in a
"'#.~
high-frequency oscilloscope for flat
j topping (if such an instrument is availa-
.. ble). Good results have been obtained
with this transmitter.
AMPLIFIER
:'a
144MHz
DOUBLER
HP2800
.~"
FINAL AMPLIFIER
2.7 k
1;01 33
DRIVER
.01
;:J:;01
T.01
rh 510 510
220
1000
Fig. 30 - Circuit diagram for a 144-MHz cw/dsb transmitter. Seetext for details. Variable capacitors are air, Teflon, or ceramic-
dielectric types. All resistorsare 5 percent, 1/4 watt.
C1 - 5-80 pF air variable. a T37-G toroid core. L4 - Air core, 0.25 10 X 0.65 long (inch).
L1 - 24 turns of No. 27 enameled wire on L3 - 12 turns of No. 27 enameled wire on 10 turns of No. 22 enameled wire, taps
a T37-6 toroid core. a T37-6 toroid core, 3-turn input link, at 1.1/4 and 1-3/4 turns.
L2 - 14 turns of No. 27 enameled wire on 2-turn output link. L5 - 5 turns, air core, 1/4 10 X 1/2
198 Chapter 8
+12V
39 AMPLIFIER
+12V
AMPLIFIER
.01
72 MHz
DOUBLER
~60
)".
470 1N914
1N914
SPEECH AMPLIFIER 22
+12V
+pt 2i~F
:
< MIC.
+l1dBm
;L01~
39
KEYING SWITCH
144MHz
L9
+121'
+12T
T R
I ~01
+12V (TO PREAMP.1
+12
+12V
INPUT
BNC TO
ANTENNA~ ~TORX
BNC
;L01
rather than relying upon shielding or to that shown for 50 MHz (Fig. 29), and the amplifier was evaluated over a
selectivity. It was found that hot carrier although only three stages were used. wide frequency range. The gain at 144
diodes gave superior performance in the The input stage, Q6, used a 2N5179 MHz was 37 dB, while 48 dB was
last frequency doubler. While the out- while the driver, Q7, used a 2N3866. available at 50 MHz. The gain at 220
put power was sufficient with IN914s, Both of these stages were designed for MHz was down to 31 dB. Some induc-
the 72-MHz component was only 50 dB 20 dB of low-frequency gain per stage, tance in the collectors of the three
below the desired output. and included a ferrite transformer in the stages would peak this up if operation
Other frequency-multiplier schemes collector circuits for matching. The out- on that band was contemplated. Alter-
were investigated. While single-ended put amplifier, Q8, used a Motorola natively, another low-level 2N5179
multipliers were the simplest, double- 2N5947. This stud-mount transistor is amplifier could be used. The gain at 28
tuned circuits were required at each specified for Class A linear service. The MHz was nearly 50 dB. However, at
frequency in order to keep spurs 50 dB stage was set for a gain of near 10 dB lower frequencies the gain began to
down. Push-push doublers were tried with a collector current of 120 mAo The drop. This is predominantly because of
using well-matched transistors. While collector rf choke is a toroidal inductor. the 470-pF coupling capacitors used.
the suppression of fundamental drive A piece of aluminum with an area of The output power was 400-mW PEP dsb
was good, instability problems were five square inches served as a heat sink or cw at 144 MHz.
encountered in cascading a number of for Q8. The weakest link in the trans- Cw operation is provided by keying
such stages. The diode frequency mitter is the output network which used the +12-volt supply to the total ampli-
doublers have been found to be one of a single tuned circuit. The taps were fier chain. The dc that is applied to the
the best avenues to follow for frequency adjusted for maximum cw output power balanced modulator was also keyed. The
multiplication. The broadband ampli- while using home-lab type equipment. backwave of this transmitter was mea-
fiers appear to be unconditionally stable Later measurements revealed that the sured at -75 dB. An RC network is
and the tuning is unambiguous. A more second harmonic at 288 MHz was only included for shaped keying.
exotic filter at the output (L6 and L7) suppressed 20 dB. This presented no The construction method used for
would suppress the spurs by even higher problems in operation, since an out- this rig was unorthodox for vhf. A large
ratios. board filter was used. An improved piece of double-sided pc board was
The output of the frequency. output network is definitely in order etched to form some breadboard mate-
multiplier chain is applied to a balanced and should certainly not be difficult. An rial. The top side was a matrix of copper
modulator to generate the dsb signal L-C-L type of T network should provide islands, 1 cm on a side. The back of the
directly at 144 MHz. The balanced suitable performance, as would a double board was a continuous ground foil. The
modulator and speech amplifier are pi circuit. same results can be achieved with a
virtually identical to those used in the The balanced modulator, 6-dB pad hacksaw. The capacitances of the board
50-MHz transmitter. The differences are and output network were disconnected presented no problems because almost
a reduced number of turns on a smaller
ferrite core and the use of smaller
balancing variable capacitors. The trans-
mitter strip was originally built and
adjusted in the home shop. As adjusted,
the carrier suppression was 40 dB. When
it was adjusted more carefully while
using a spectrum analyzer, a suppression
of over 50 dB was obtained. Using an
outboard signal source (+13 dBm), simi-
lar levels were obtained at 14, 28 and
50 MHz. "Retweaking" was required at
each band. The carrier suppression was
only 35 dB at 220 MHz.
Exterior view of the 2-meter dsb/cw transmitter. The knob controls the frequency of the VXO
The linear-amplifier chain is similar at 18 MHz.
200 Chapter8
all of the high-frequency circuitry was
at a low impedance level. The capaci-
tance of each pad section was less than
0.5 pF. Holes may be drilled through to
the ground foil wherever a ground
connection is needed. The VXO and
first doubler are on one board. A second
board contains the other two frequency
doublers. A third board contains the
j
balanced modulator, speech amplifier
and linear-amplifier chain. Results with
this transmitter have been good.
/\
11
:...1
A 75.Meter Transceiver - j
Direct-Conversion Receive
and DSB Transmit
The transceiver described in this
section covers the 80-meter cw and
)
75-meter phone bands. It provides full
('\.'
transceive and has an output of over 1
watt. This rig was built by Jeff Damm,
WA7MLH, and is used for home station
and portable operation.
The VFO section of the transceiver
is shown in Fig. 31. This circuit is
similar to many that have been used in
other projects. The Hartley configura- .A.
tion is used. Reasonable stability is
i
obtained by using capacitors of both the L._
NPO ceramic type and air variables. An
MPFl02 JFET is used and is Zener- Interior of the 75-meter transceiver. The VFO compartment is at the bottom of the photo-
diode regulated. The VFO is tuned with graph, and the receiver board is seen at the center. The transmitter output amplifier,
balanced modulator and speech amplifier are mounted on the end panel at the top of the
a capacitor from a surplus BC454 re- picture.
ceiver. This capacitor has a maximum
range of nearly 200 pF. The VFO
requires that the variable capacitor (in In transmit the VFO output is provides nearly 20 dB of gain. The
parallel with the inductor) cover a range applied to the balanced modulator balanced modulator and the first linear
of 33 to 68 pF in order to tune the shown in Fig. 32, using a two-diode amplifier (Q4) are contained on a single
range from 3.5 to 4 MHz. In the circuit. Carrier balance is adjustable circuit board.
WA7MLH transceiver a combination of with a 100-ohm control between the Another circuit board contains the
fixed-value ceramic NPO and air-variable diodes. The carrier suppression was 36 speech amplifier and a pnp transistor,
capacitors was used in series with the dB. The lN9l4 diodes were matched Q5, for cw keying. The speech amplifier
main tuning capacitor to obtain the for forward resistance by means of an uses a pair of 741 op amps. Keying is
proper range. ohmmeter. realized through addition of QS, a
The VFO is built in a separate box The output of the balanced modula- 2N3906.
that is contained within the main cab- tor is applied to a 6-dB pad to assure The output amplifier is shown in
inet. Since the oscillator operates at the proper termination, and is then routed Fig. 33. A 2N5l89 transistor is biased
same frequency as the transmitter out- to a broadband amplifier, Q4. This stage for a current of 50 rnA and serves as the
put, it is important that good isolation
be maintained. The oscillator is buffered
with a feedback amplifier consisting of
Q2 and Q3. The output power available +i2V
is + I 0 dBm into a 50-ohm termination.
The emitter current in Q3 was chosen osc. 220 BUFFER
100
large enough to maintain a sine-wave
output under a 50-ohm load.
,01 10k
4
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR j.lj.lF)~ .o~
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k> 1000, M'IOOO 000.
330
TO RCVR
PROD, DET.
External view of the 75-meter dsb/cw trans- Fig. 31 - 3.5- to 4.MHz VFO for the WA7MLH 75-meter dsb transceiver.
ceiver built by WA7MLH. The VFO control C1 - 200 pF. Air variable capacitor. Amidon T68-2 toroid core, tapped 12
is at the left. L1 - 51 turns No. 26 enameled wire on turns from ground.
~~.
+1E!: rh
(I crease the distortion products signifi-
cantly. Excessive "flat topping" was
observed on an oscilloscope when the
linear amplifier was overdriven.
Fig. 32 - Balanced modulator, speecha~plifier and keying switch for the WA7MLH transceiver.
A Universal Exciter for SSB and CW
'[1 - 15 trifilar turns No. 30 enameled wire T2 - 12 bifilar turns No. 30 enameled :; ~e transmi~ter described. in this,
on an Amidon FT-37-61 toroid core.. wire on an FT-37-61 toroid core. sectIOn was deslgned to proVlde good
'q:'"''
+12V LINE
+12V
cantly at 14 MHz. This results from the
,limited fr of the output transistor. If a
similar transmitter were to be used on
the higher amateur bands, an output
transistor with a higher fr would be
desirable.
07
g
The receiver used in the WA7MLH
transceiver uses an MC1496G product
detector which is followed by a pair of
"lUdio amplifiers containing 2N3565s. B C E
202 Chapter 8
+12V
+12V TRANS
OSCILLATOR
1000
BALANCEDMODULATOR 47
1200
.1
T_+22)JF
820 510 ~OOO
10k r-t, 15V
.01
10k
3 5
9
~,."'
O}
9.0015MHz MC1496G 90
1000
6
4700
60
4000
,+;'
10:L 4000 1000
~'5V
+
T~O)JF
1000 ,+;' 10k
10k
,L01 50k
BAL.
220
-
+12V
-, I
SIA
~ SSB
+t2V
I
I 10k 400
I SPEECHAMPLIFIER
I
I 10k
CW 10)JF
I DRIVE 15V
I +
I 3300
T~O)JF
I r-J,'5V
__ J .1 10k lOOk
Fig. 34 - Carrier oscillator, speech amplifier and balanced modulator for the universal ssb transmitter. Insert shows the FET oscillator used in
the KL71AK version. Coils are identical for either circuit. A double-pole, double-throw switch (51) serves as the mode switch. Any type is
suitable since no rf is switched. The other half of the switch is shown in Fig. 41. All variable capacitors are mica compression or ceramic
trimmer types.
L 1 - 45 turns No. 28 enameled wire on L2 - 3 turn link over L 1. wire on an Amidon T50-6 toroid core.
an Amidon T5D-2 toroid core. L3 - 20 bifilar turns No. 28 enameled L4 - 6-turn link over L3.
performance on ssb and cw. It was speech amplifier. The carrier oscillator de into the balanced modulator. This
intended primarily for QRP work. The uses a pair of bipolar transistors. A allows sufficient carrier energy to ride
output power is enough that higher common tuned circuit is shared by the through for cw operation.
power linear amplifiers may be driven collectors of the two oscillators. How- The speech amplifier uses a JFET
directly. Data are given for operation on ever, only one transistor is biased "on" input amplifier, making the circuit com-
any amateur band from 1.8 to 50 MHz. at a time. This allows the operator to patible with high- or low-impedance
The original unit was built by Terry choose the desired sideband. The JFET microphones. The FET is followed by a
White, KL7IAK. oscillator used for usb generation in the 741 op amp which provides a voltage
The transmitter was a single-band original KL7IAK unit is also shown in gain of 10. If additional gain is needed,
unit for 20 meters. The filter approach the insert in Fig. 34. a second op amp could be cascaded with
to side-band selection was used and a An MC1496G is used as a balanced the first.
narrow-band design was adopted for the modulator. Means are provided for Shown in Fig. 35 is the i-f and
rf power chain. adjusting the carrier balance. Measured output mixer system for the trans-
Shown in Fig. 34 is the carrier carrier suppression was over 50 dB. mitter. A pair of dual-gate MOSFETs is
generator, balanced modulator and Code operation is realized by inserting used as 9-MHz amplifiers. They provide
100 VFOINPUT
I 1V PK-PK +12V
~(+4dBm)
)T. 1
10~ T,1 47
~
.01 rl,
Le MIXER
e10
AMPLIFIER 1200
r+;1
10k 10k
3300
,L01
,O~
T1
e10
r
IN MICROFARADS (,,,F) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR ,jIjlF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; MC1496
k -1000, M'I 000000
Fig. 35 - I-f amplifier and transmit mixer for the universal ssb transmitter. The insert shows the mixer output circuit used in the KL71AK
wrsion of this exciter. R1 is a pc-board-mounted control.
L5 - 28 turns No. enameled wire on an T1 - 15 bifilar turns of No. 30 enameled T1 A - seetext.
Amidon T50-6 toroid core. wire on an FT-37-43 (primary), 5-turn 21 - 9-MHz crystal filter, KVG type
L6 - 3-turn link over L5. secondary. XF-9A.
some signal gain, terminate the crystal section filters at the desired output desirable to use the wide-band design.
filter, and provide a convenient means frequencies. See Fig. 38. The alternative Shown in Fig. 36 is the circuit for
for adjusting the gain. The application narrow-band output (used in the the 5- to 5.5-MHz VFO that is used in
of gain control to gate 2 of a dual.gate KL7IAK version) uses a tuned trans- the KL7IAK 14-MHz version. The
MOSFET amplifier was discussed in the former. For 14 MHz, the primary has 20 reader is referred to the 80. and 20-
receiver chapters. While this can cause bifilar turns of No. 30 wire on an meter superhet receiver in chapter 5,
IMD to be generated, the signal levels in Amidon T50-6 core. The secondary has and to the discussion of VFOs in
this 'i-f amplifier are low enough that it a 3-turn output link. The narrow-band chapter 3. The VFO should be capable
is not a problem. If desired, an ale signal transformer has enough bandwidth to of delivering a signal to the MC1496G
could be applied to the tw 0 gates. The cover the entire 20-meter band, but still mixer of 1 volt pk-pk across 50 ohms
reader is referred to the receiver offers some image rejection. The (+4 dBm).
chapters for the discussion of agc narrow-band output is suitable for The narrow.band linear rf-amplifier
systems. adaption to most of the hf bands. For chain used in the KL7IAK transmitter is
The output mixer transfers the use on 160 or 75 meters, it would be shown in Fig. 37. This circuit uses three
9-MHz ssb signal to the output fre-
quency of interest. An MCl496G is
used as the mixer. The IC is biased for
larger currents than are normally used EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
+12V
with this device. This enhances the CAP/lCITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (,jIF I ;
47
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR ,jIjlF);
linearity (the output intercept is RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
increased). Broadband and narrow-baqd k'IOOO. M'IOOO 000.
Fig. 36 - A 5.0 to 5.5-MHz VFO for the universal ssb transmitter. This circuit may be used as
shown for 3.5 to 4, or 14 to 14.5-MHz operation. For other bands it is heterodyned to the
The 9-MHz i-f amplifier used in t!'le universal appropriate injection frequency. This is presented in Fig. 40. L7 is a 3.4-~H inductor on a 3/~1l
ssb/cw transmitter. inch diameter ceramic form (no tuning slug used). C1 is a 150-pF air variable. ' -
204 Chapter 8
stages and dellvers an output of 2.5- {
watts PEP, or cw with a total small-
signal gain of 57 dB. The input stage is a
2N5859 biased for a current of 25 rnA.
r /"
'r \ ..' )
This is followed by another 2N5859 )
/.
R1
+12V
'. ,
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE S.M." SILVER MICA
IN MICROFARADSI pF I ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADSI pF OR ppFI;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k '1000. M'IOOOODD
Fig. 37 - A 14-MHz narrow-band rf-power amplifier c~ain used in ~he KL7lAK v~rsion of the
universal ssbtransmitter. All variable capacitors are mlca-eompresslon types. R2 IS 0.68 ohm
(four 2.7 ohm, 1/4-watt, 5-percent resistors in parallel).
L8 - 18 turns No, 22 enameledwire on a L10 - 9 turns No. 22 enameled wire on a
T5Q-6 toroid core. T50-6 core.
Front view of the 2Q-meterversion of the L9 - 11 turns No. 22 enameled wire on a L11 - 8 turns No. 22 enameled wire on a
universalssb/cw transmitter (built by T50.2 core. T50-6 core.
KL7IAK),
Modulation Methods 205
+12V
47
':L
.04
--
-OdBm TWO TONE
TO BROAD BAND AMPLIFIER
50n
The transmit mixer used by K L71 AK.
T2
1000
112W
'S,
RFC
for any Class AB ssb amplifier. This 15,<JH
206 Chapter 8
shown in Fig. 39 is an adaptation of the
circuit using a single 2N3553. This
circuit should provide identical gain and
bandwidth, but will have an output
power of only 1/2 wa tt.
The broadband amplifier was evalu-
ated for IMD while using a pair of signal
~. generators at 14 MHz, and a spectrum
. analyzer. The output intercept was
l
+43.5 dBm. When the amplifier was run
at I-watt PEP output (+24 dBm per
tone) the IMD was 39 dB down. The
maximum gain was 36 dB in the 3.5-
and 7 -MHz bar;tds. The gain was down
to 34.5 dB at 14 MHz and was 29 dB at
29 MHz. If the transmitter is built for
the 6-meter band, it is suggested that
the power amplifier used in the previ-
ously described 144-MHz dsb trans-
mitter be used. The output network
Breadboard version of a 1-watt output Class A broadband power amplifier. The circuit provides must be altered.
over 30 dB of gain over most of the hf region. Heat sinks are used on the parallel 2N3553 out- The broadband amplifier (Fig. 39)
put amplifiers. should be followed by a low-pass fIlter.
Half-wave filters are suitable (see
chapter 4).
+12V When the transmitter is used on
VFO MIXER ,-
6001\.
I
501\.
~
I
I
bands other than 20 or 80 meters, a
different VFO system is needed. A
solution is to use a heterodyne VFO.
! ,&
13 I
I ( I 1< 50.n. VFO Shown in Fig. 40 is a schematic for a
I OUTPUT +4dBm proposed system that could be built for
I
I any of the bands from 1.8 to 50 MHz. A
I I 5- to 5.5-MHz VFO is used. Its output is
I I heterodyned to the suitable injection
I I
SN76514
.01 frequency. An SN765l4 double-
6 11 ~ l .
balanced mixer Ie is used. A crystal.
con trolled oscillator is employed as the
10 *h
*rh
~:<~~f; INPUT
other input to the VFO mixer. Values
9 h OdBm
are given for the oscillator components
+12V for all bands.
5
.rh PRE. MIX.
The output of the premixer (Fig. 40)
OSCILLATOR
220 must be filtered well in order to sup-
press spurious responses. A double- or
L1
triple-tuned circuit is used. The circuit
.01
L2 should be terminated in 50 ohms at the
( output. The input termination should
*- .001 PARALLELED
WITH .1..,F
+7dBm
1 10k
Yl
be 600 ohms to match the output of the
SN76514. Filters values are given in the
appendix. They are designed for a 50-
ohm termination at each end. The
EXCEPT
VALUES
AS INDICATED,
OF CAPAC ITANCE
IN MICROFARADS I JlF) ; OTHERS
DECIMAL
ARE D~
4700
methods to adapt them to other termin-
ations are also presented. Either 2- or
3-pole filters may be used. For most
ARE IN PICOFARA OS (pF OR JlJIF I;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; cases the double-tuned circuit will be
k -1000. M'I 000000 sufficient. The 3-pole fIlters are prefer-
able for the 10- and IS-meter bands.
The transmit mixer requires an injec-
tion power of +4 dBm. If this level is
BAND Y1 FOUl L1 L2 C1 C2 not available at the output of the fIlter,
MHz (Z3 (pF) (pF) it may be increased by means of a
40M 11 16-16.3 24 ts 2 ts 100 75 broadband amplifier.
17.5 12-12.5 22 ts 2 ts 50 47 While the circuit shown in Fig. 40
15M
10M 14 19-19.5 21 ts 2 ts 75 47
15
'*23==Nominal C1 required.
Filter from tables.
has not been built, we feel that it should
6M 36 41-41.5 13 ts 2 ts 30
160M 5.8 10.8.11 45ts 4 t5 100 100 F = Fout present no problems. Two other proj-
ects in the book use a similar circuit in a
Fig. 40-Circuit for a heterodyne conversion system for the VFO. A 5- to 5.5-MHz VFO such as that
virtually identical application. No prob.
shown in Fig. 36 is heterodyned to the needed output frequency for operation on any amateur band lems were encountered with those
from 1.8 to 50 MHz. Note that the values given in the table for Cl are nominal values. A slightly larger designs as long as the proper filter
mica compressiontrimmer should be used. All coils for the crystal oscillator are wound on Amidon terminations were used.
T50-6 toroid forms. 23 is a 2- or 3-pole bandpass type from the appendix (see text). The SN-76514mix.
er IC has been reidentified as TL-442.CN by Texas Instruments. It may be procured under either part
A control system for the ssb exciter
number. is shown in Fig. 41 (see chapter 7). All
Fig.41 - Control system for the universal ssb system. This circuit provides automatic T-R switching on cw and push-to-talk operation on ssb.
The design details of these control systems were presented in Chapter 7.
MJE105
+12V
(TRANS,)
33k
10k
ANT.
RELAY
470
1W 1N9i4
KtA
1N914
KEY
SiB OCW
208 Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Most of the equipment described in elaborate than that used by the back- a quality of ruggedness which most
this book is suitable for field use, be the packer. home-station gear need not have.
application one of weekend camping, Those who operate from motels or The foreign traveler will often
mountain climbing, hiking, boating, or hotels, stateside or in some distant land, choose compact equipment, owing to
long-term vacationing abroad or in the would be more apt to employ an ac- the inconvenience of lugging a large,
USA. The exact nature of the material operated power supply which was com- heavy commercial transceiver. Light-
taken afield will depend to a large patible with the line voltage and fre- weight, compact gear can be carried
extent upon the environment in which quency in the area where operation was aboard an airplane without the penalty
the gear shall be used. In more definitive planned. However, a rechargeable of being "overweight." The latter can
language, the equipment must be de- battery might also be included in the become rather expensive! Also, the
signed for extreme compactness in some travel kit for use at times when local station equipment is less likely to be
instances, and must be capable of opera- power failures occur - and they do in damaged if kept out of the hands of
ting from batteries. The backpacker and many foreign countries! baggage men during air travel. Being
hiker are especially mindful of the There is a mystique connected with able to take the package of radio equip-
foregoing requirements, and would add portable operation, for in many ment to one's seat on the plane will also
to their list of accessories a lightweight instances the amateur is using home. prevent misrouting of the parcel to
an tenna system, headphones, key, made equipment which was tailored to some destination other than the
and/or microphone. the application. Furthermore, low intended one! The writers recall an
The lakeshore or river-side camper power is employed much of the time, unhappy event that found the entire
migh t elect to carry larger, more power- and conditions are seldom ideal with DXpedition radio package missent to
ful radio equipment with him. He could respect to operating conveniences. Being Trinidad, when the operators and their
utilize the automobile battery or a heard, and having other station opera- personal effects were destined to land
gasoline-powered generator to obtain tors copy your signal solidly, not only is on Barbados (WIKLK, WICKK and
the needed source of energy. His an- a measure of your station effectiveness, WICER). Not only did the radio gear
tenna system could be more rugged and it's a self-satisfying feather in the cap of become lost temporarily, the suitcases
the designer/operator. "Doing it the
hard way" does not necessarily denote a
twinge of masochism. Rather, it proves
that QRP gear is worth its weight when
applied properly.
Equipment Characteristics
The environment at the site of porta-
ble operations is of major importance to
the designer. For example, the moun.
tain climber will encounter extremes of
cold, which can affect the performance
of his equipment if certain design steps
aren't taken. His transceiver and related
apparatus must be small and light of Solid-state QRP station used by W1 CER at
weight - and rugged - if it is to suit his ZF1ST. A backup keyer and the station
Low -power station equipment can be used in particular needs correctly (more on this power supply are at the left. The top-center
subject later). unit is the 40- and 20-meter 10-W cw trans-
place of commercial gear when the QRP
mitter. A 160- through 15-meter superhet-
challenge inspires the operator. On the left The camper needs equipment that erodyne receiver is below the transmitter.
side of the operating position is the W1CE R can function properly in damp weather. A small speaker flanks the receiver to the
40- and 20-meter 10-W station. The power
supply and Transmatch for the homemade
It should be reasonably immune to dirt right, then comes a homemade keyer with a
setup are on the shelf behind the QRP gear. and temperature extremes, and requires commercial paddle.
power is available. Chances are that they other time. QRP DXpeditioning
will not be close to an automobile, It may be necessary to use the radio There is probably no greater thrill in
which will rule out "snitching" equip- equipment on the ground, as some amateur radio than that of being DX
ment power from a car battery. Not campers do not carry tables and chairs with QRP equipment. W1CER has made
many ardent campers will justify pol- afield. Therefore, the equipment should several trips to islands in the West Indies
luting the serenity of the wilderness by be sealed reasonably well against sand, for the purpose. Much of the work was
using a noisy, gas-gulping power plant. moisture and insects. When not in use, done as 8P6EU from Barbados, with
Therefore, various types of battery the gear should be wrapped in plastic XYL Jean, WI CKK/8P6FJ, as a second
power supplies become the order of the food bags to keep it dry and clean. A operator. Other operations took place
day. Some camper/amateurs use series- shady operating position is best, as the from Grand Cayman Island as ZF 1ST.
connected 6-volt lantern batteries to operator will be more comfortable, and Propagation from that part of the world
obtain 12 volts for the QRP gear. Others the equipment will not be subjected to is superb to the USA and Europe,
employ Gel-Cell or NiCadbatteries. Still making it practical to employ low-
others obtain good results with flash. pOwer transmitting gear. The antennas
light cells connected in series to provide have always been half.wave dipoles
the required operating voltage. 'The (coax fed) which were erected as
choice is based usually on what's avail. "slopers" at whatever height was possi-
able at the time, and on the power ble. Because salt water constitutes a
consumption of the field equipment. superb ground medium, the, antennas
Another excellent power source is a were slug over the seashore to assure
12-volt motorcycle battery, or two 6. best performance, The maximum trans-
volt ones hooked in series. If the auto- mitter output power used was 7 watts.
mobile is close enough to the campsite Much of the work was done, however,
to permit occasional recharging of the with 1-1/2 to 2.5.watts output. The
batteries, NiCads, Gel-Cells and motor- primary bands of operation have been
cycle batteries are the best bet. If dry 40, 20 and 15 meters. Cw was the
batteries are used exclusively, it's wise operating mode.
to carry enough spares to bracket the Solid QSOs were had with many
arrival and departure dates adequately. amateurs from Europe, South America
Assuming that battery power is used, and the USA. From Grand Cayman
the equipment should not consume during October of 1974, a number of
more than a few hundred milliamperes Japanese stations were worked on 40
A sloping dipole strung near the seashore
with everything running. The cw operat- makes an effective antenna for QRP DX- meters at sunrise, local time (1000
ing mode will probably be the most peditions. Shown here is the ZF1ST!W1CER GMT). Power output was 7 watts, and
efficient one. Effective communications 40-meter dipole used on Grand Cayman the antenna was a sloping dipole, the
should be possible from 160 through 10 Island (Spanish Bay Reef!. Power output
from the transmitter was 7 watts, and RST center of which was 15 feet above
meters while using power levels from ground! Signal reports both ways were
589 reports were received from JA stations
0.5 to 3 watts, assuming that a reason- during the operation. RST 589. ZLs and VKs have been
210 Chapter 9
worked with 2 watts and a sloping a foreign land, to learn wha t the local
dipole from Barbados. The period was power service is. Some parts of the
early sunrise, and the band was 20 world still use 25-Hz lines, while others
meters. Contacts like that are the excep- use 50- or 60-Hz lines at some unusual
tion rather than the rule, but they can voltage amount. It may be necessary to
be made with QRP equipment. Some carry a power converter when ac opera-
signal enhancement from 8P6EU to tion is contemplated. Furthermore, the
Oceania probably resulted from having wall outlets in some countries are pretty
the 20-meter sloping dipole facing west strange to U.S. amateurs - an adapter
on the western side of the island. may be necessary.
Furthermore, a 30-foot coral cliff was One final word of advice: When
behind the an tenna (east), helping to abroad it is important to exhibit proper
effect some directivity. radio conduct. Be especially courteous
There are many fine Caribbean to the local amateurs you meet and talk
islands from which to operate. Prior with on the air. If you're operating from
familiarity with government regulations a hotel, use headphones rather than
A typical collection of equipment, antennas, causing disturbances by opera ting with a
is recommended, lest an amateur arrive
spare parts and tools for a oFt!' DXpedition.
and not be granted operating privileges. The materials in the picture were packed into
loudspeaker. Be on the watch for inter-
On Barbados a license can be acquired the portable typewri ter case seen at the rear ference to TV sets and radios. If the
only in person. One must present his of this illustration, then transported in hand fault can't be corrected, cease operating.
U.S. license to the Government Electri- to Barbados during operation as 8P6E UI Also, a secondary frequency standard
8P6FJ in 1973. should be included with your radio gear.
cal Inspector, Old Hospital Bldg.,
Bridgetown. The fee for 12 months is Straying out of an authorized amateur
nominal, and the license can be renewed band could be embarrassing and expen-
yearly by mail. A Caymanian reciprocal very little additional space in the travel sive. Some foreign governments require
permit can be obtained by mail if the fee case, and may prove useful when setting that you have a crystal-con trolled secon-
is sent along with a photocopy of the U.S. up the station. Schematic diagrams of dary standard before they will allow
license. The call will be your U.S. one, the equipment should also be taken you to operate. A 100-kHz calibrator is
slant ZF1. Applications must be ad- afield, should troubleshooting be re- usually adequate.
dressed to Her Majesty's Postmistress, quired.
licensing Division, Post Office, George- Spare parts are important when Wilderness Operation
town, GCI, BWI. The fee for one year operating portable, and a few compon- The preceding section dealt with the
on Grand Cayman is fairly stiff, and the en 15 thrown into the tool kit could be problems encountered during operation
rate changes from time to time. helpful. Critical components, such as at camping and OX locations. While
It is wise to write to the local radio the PA and driver transistors of the such activities are certainly glamorous,
club on the island one plans to visit. transmitter, should be taken along as especially for the OX opera tor, other
Data can thus be obtained on Customs spares. Fuses, spare batteries, and a portable ventures can produce similar
regulations and licensing. Some coun- collection of capacitors are often handy rewards.
tries will not grant a license, and others when a failure occurs. The WICER parts For over a decade a dominant activ-
make it practically impossible to bring kit contains .001, .01, 0.1,2,10 and ity at W7ZOl has been operation in
equipment in. On some of the islands 50-IlF capacitors. Included also are rec- connection with mountaineering and
one must post a bond which represents tifier diodes, high-speed switching backpacking trips. The equipment re-
80 percent of the face value of the radio diodes, general-purpose FET and bipolar quiremen ts are different than they
gear! Some amateurs have reported small-signal transistors. Depending on would be for other portable stints. All
great difficulty getting all of the bond the kind of circuit used, certain ICs are of the equipment must be carried on the
money returned at the end of their also included in the kit. back of the operator. This presents no
vacations! On some islands it takes a Salt water, and the air near salt problem if the walk is short and the
year or more to get a license, owing to water, has a notable effect upon some purpose of the trip is specifically for
government red tape. Be sure to check kinds of amateur equipment. The keyer "hamming" for a short duration. How-
first; then make vacation plans. paddle will develop poor electrical con- ever, when the operation is secondary to
tacts after a period of time near the sea. a physically more ambitious goal, such
Accessory Equipment A machinist's point burnishing file is as reaching the summit of a major peak,
Campers and DXpedition types handy for res toring the contacts of a the criteria change.
should anticipate equipment failures key. Antennas mounted near the sea- There is a philosophy practiced by
and prepare accordingly. If a backup shore for long periods should be coated backpackers when assembling equip-
station is not carried afield, spare parts with silicone grease to prevent corro- ment for an extended outing. Simply
and tools are a must. It is wise to sion. This is especially true if aluminum sta ted, it is "Worry ab ou t the ounces -
conclude that most of these things will tubing is used in the antenna system. All the pounds will take care of them-
not be available once the operator joints in wire antennas should be sol- selves." This approach must be ex-
reaches his destination. Radio stores just dered rather than twisted together. That tended to the design of any radio
don't exist in the back woods or on will prevent salt air and spray from equipment that will be taken aloft.
many West Indies islands, so take what causing poor connections. The equipment should be designed,
you need with you. An SWR indicator is useful when built and tested in the winter months.
The following list of tools is sug- afield: Some antenna pruning is usually The gear is then ready when spring
gested when space permits taking them required to provide a low SWR. A arrives. Hasty construction just before a
along: Diagonal cutters, jack knife, elec- Transmatch can be taken afield for use trip invites equipment malfunction.
trical tape, screwdrivers, pliers (needle- with antennas that must accommodate The primary consideration is weight
nose and regular), small VOM, solder, more than one band of operation - rather than volume. Excessively dense
soldering iron (battery operated), clip end.fed wires or a 40-meter dipole that packaging may be entertaining for the
leads (6), cube taps, extension cord and will be used also on 15 meters. builder. However, if it makes the equip-
hookup wire. These items will require It is wise to check before traveling to ment less reliable and versatile due to
--./ '_. J
Author Hayward is seen here during a moun-
should be removed. This lessens the
possibility of tearing holes in a tent or
sleeping bag. It's worthwhile to build
the equipment so that it may be opera-
ted in the dark. This is particularly
able. The 40-foot cable mentioned has
0.7 dB loss at 7 MHz. The center
insulator for the dipole is made from a
scrap of pc board (unclad). The antenna
is always operated in the inverted.V
tain trip on which he took the 40-meter Ultra
Portable Transceiver described in this chapter.
useful during winter trips when the rig configuration. This has the advantage
The battery pack is in his jacket pocket. must reside inside the sleeping bag with that only one support is needed. Trees
the operator. Both must be warm to are ideal when available. Above timber-
function well. Most batteries will de- line, a small telescoping whip antenna is
component crowding, it should be crease in output voltage and energy carried. The unit used collapses to 14
avoided. A reasonable size for a com- capability when cold. Provision should inches and is 12 feet long when ex.
plete rucksack station is 2 X 5 X 7 also be made to keep the battery pack tended. It has always been more effec-
inches. This allows ample room for warm. tive to use the whip as a center support
circuitry while keeping construction As an aside, a winter trip on skis or for the dipole than to load it against a
straightforward. Batteries should be snowshoes is an especially enj oyable grpup of radials. This whip was a surplus
external. time for taking the radio gear along. item and the source is unknown. A good
The heaviest items to be considered Owing to the long nights, it is often substitute would be a long fishing rod.
are the batteries and antenna. The size necessary to spend from 12 to 14 hours Fiberglass rods up to 20 feet long are
of the batteries required will depend at a stretch in a mountain tent or snow available through the Sears Fishing and
upon the power level of the transmitter cave. The ham gear helps to pass the Boating Catalog.
and on the expected period of opera- time. Also, the possibility of being The usual methods for putting a line
tion. This brings us to a major con- stranded by a change in the weather is into a tree are effective. A lightweight
straint - keep the power as low as greater. Reliable communications capa- fishing line is preferred over a heavier
possible. It is difficult to say how low it bility could be very valuable. nylon cord. Also, it is wise to carry a
should be. At W7ZOI, the portable Questions asked by the prospective I-ounce weight with the other gear. On
power levels used, mainly at 7 MHz portable operator are, "What band and one occasion, one of the writers found
(cw), have ranged from 8 W down to mode to use?" First, cw is preferred himself without an adequate weight to
250 mW of output. Our impression is over ssb. The equipment tends to be tie to the end of a nylon cord. Not
that an output of 0.5 to 1 watt is near more reliable owing to the simplicity. wanting to miss out on Field Day, a
optimum for use in the contiguous The narrower information bandwidths
states and in the less remote parts of help. However, the operator should be
Canada. This allows the u~e of Penlight proficient with conversational cw - that
cells or NiCads for short operating is, he should be able to copy the code
periods. Higher powers are useful in the without having to put anything on
more remote areas or for contest work. paper other than logging information
Temperature extremes can have a and a few notes. Physical strain and the
dramatic effect on equipment perfor-
mance. Oscillator instability is one
effects of a harsh environment make /
normal operation difficult. The less pro-
common problem. In one cold experi-
ence (Mt. Adams in Washington State),
ficient cw operator should consider ssb I
a germanium transistor oscillator would
not start. During another trip with vhf
or dsb equipment.
The choice of frequency is difficult, I I
and partially subjective. For summer /'. \, )' 'I
gear, low temperatures caused severe
detuning of a frequency-multiplier
operation, 40 meters is ideal. The band
remains open for short hops during the
') _.J I
chain. daylight hours and well after sundown.
There are a number of factors to Eighty meters is better for winter use.
consider when designing for tempera-
ture extremes. Semiconductors with
Noise levels are too high for 80-meter
effectiveness in the late summer. The
~-"'-" ---' ~
wide operating-temperature ranges are 20-meter band is excellent for the oper- A close-up view of W7Z01's hands holding
the 40-meter transceiver. Despite the gloves
suggested. Crystal control is recom- ator with an interest in evaluating un- he was able to operate the built-in key
mended. While this is not mandatory for usual locations for DX effectiveness. In lever during cw transmissions.
212 Chapter 9
Transmatch was attached to the rope station. The operator's motivation is to An excellent time for the QRP oper-
and hurled aloft. add excitement and adventure to con- ator to make a large number of contacts
A small beam is recommended at tacts that would otherwise offer minor is during ,contests. Here there are a
vhf. This may be lashed to an ice ax for challenge. Much of the present QRP larger number of stations available to be
above-timberline operation. The an- popularity results from ready availabil- worked. Of greater significance, they are
tenna should be capable of easy ity of commercial equipment at reason- anxious to work anyone they can, and
assembly with a minimum of loose parts able prices. Fortunately, the excitement will not be upset with a less than
needed. has spurred many amateurs to build earoshatte rin g signal.
No matter what equipment is used, their own gear, allowing them to gain One of the best contests for QRP
or what the goals of the operator are, doubly from their operating activities. work is Field Day, for a large number of
respect should be maintained for other The criteria for success with QRP similar stations are active during the
mountain travelers. Rambling into coun- gear are not all that different than they same period. This has been aided by the
try which is devoid of roads or even are for high power. The key is in the individual listing of low-power stations
trails offers an escape from the daily antenna system and in a wise choice of in the QST results. A club Field Day
pressures and routine that have become operating frequencies for a given time of using QRP is an interesting and unusual
a dominant part of our society. Back- the day or year. These decisions are experience. TERAC (Tektronix
packing and mountaineering are increas- more critical with low power. Employees' RAC, K7 AUO) has partici-
ing in popularity and, unf or tuna tely, There are a few operating techniques pated in the QRP category for several
the "wilderness" is often an area with a that can aid the QRP operator. Gener- years. While many of the more competi-
number of visitors. The last thing a ally, he will be more successful if he tive, contest-oriented members have
fellow hiker wishes to hear is the blare calls other stations rather than calling avoided the activity, others with general
of cw rushing from an overdriven CQ. Often, it is better to call a station as interests have participated and have
speaker. Headphones should always be he is finishing a contact rather than enjoyed low-power work. A QRP Field
used! answering a CQ from a loud station. Day tends to be a more relaxed affair.
Finally, the radio amateur who Another trick is to add some additional This is aided by the conspicuous
carries his hobby into the back country information to a call, letting the fellow absence of the roar of a generator.
should be prepared for an occasional on the other end know that there is a Although QRP operation may seem
emotional dilemma. Should he com- reason for the signal being weak. This casual, there are some who have become
promise his hiking or climbing goal in can be successful even when calling CQ. accomplished in this area. Many opera-
order to get on the air or should he However, it is usually not enough to tors have achieved WAS and WAC with
pursue the primary goal? In this age tack a "QRP" on to a CQ. To some quite low powers, and a few have
dominated by high technology, the operators, this merely implies that the qualified for DXCC with less than 5
answer is obvious. Climb the mountain! station signing "QRP" is running less watts of rf output. Generally, the more
that I 00 watts, only 10 dB down from successful QRPers are cw enthusiasts.
QRP Operation the legal limit. A much more effective An interesting experiment is to
Although portable operation has format is CQ CQ de QRP 1 watt, attempt contacts with as little power as
been the motivation for the work of the W7ZOI W7ZOI and so forth. The possible. Minimum-power experiments
writers respective to QRP equipment, writers feel that these methods should were performed during a number of
this is not typical. The more common not be applied except for output powers contacts between W7ZOI and WA6YVT
QRP operation occurs from the home ofless than 1 or 2 watts. in 1969 and 1970 on 40 meters. To
attach some legitimacy to the contacts,
a strict format was established. Contact
~ was established initially with an output
,.:,.,.,.,,'
of 1 to 3 watts from W7Z0I. If the
I
reports from WA6YVT (in the Los
I Angeles area) were favorable, the output
power would be decreased. A step atten-
uator was used in a matched 50-ohm
antenna system to ensure that the out-
put power at W7Z0I was well defined.
At each power level, an arbitrarily
chosen 4- or 5-letter word would be
sent. The word was repeated several
times. WA6YVT would then repeat the
word to confirm that information had
actually been exchanged. It was not
possible for a vivid imagination to serve
as a substi tu te for actual copy.
While experiments were conducted
to evaluate the power levels that would
be suitable for portable equipment, they
turned out to be generally interesting.
In nearly all cases where the attenuator
was put into the transmission line,
information was exchanged at 100-mW
output. Often 50 mW was successful.
The lowest power producing a real
exchange of information was 2.5-mW
___________________ -'-_-'- .J
output. Immediately after that contact,
Photograph of the W7Z01 home station. All of the amateur equipment and test gear is home.
the output power was confirmed with a
made. The operation position servesdouble duty by also being a workbench. high-frequency oscilloscope. One con-
10k
I-F
GAIN
CONTROL
4700
MIXER
1N9i4
Ot
RX 33 40673
INPUT 5.M.
4.4 MHz
~9i4
+12V
1.~V RMS
AF AMP.
PRODUCT +12V
S.M. SILVER MICA DETECTOR
1000
2200
lO)lF
1N914
6eoo
47k
+
33k 10k 2200
,.L22)lF
l~V
SIDETONE
IN
t12V
330 47
BUFFER ;r:;1
(Bl
Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the VFO and receiver portions of the 7-MHz transceiver. Fixed-value cepacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise
noted. Fixed-value resistors are 1{4- or 1{2-W composition. Variable capacitors without part numbers can be mica compression trimmers
(surplus Teflon or ceramic trimmers were used in the authors' unit).
Cl - SO-pF air variable. enam. wire. L9 -43turns No. 26enam. wire on
FLl - Crystal filter, ladder type (see text). LS - 34 turns No. 26 enam. wire on TSO-2 toroid core.
L1 - 30 turns No. 26~nam. wire on TSO-2 toroid core. LlO - 29 turns No. 24 enam. wire on
TSG-2 toroid core. L6 - 36 turns No. 26 enam. wire on TSO-2 toroid core, tapped 7 turns
L2 - 36 turns No. 26 enam. wire on TSO-2 toroid core. from ground end. Coat with Q dope.
T50-2 toroid core. L7 - S-turn link over L6, No. 26 enam. T1 - 12 trifilar turns No. 30 enam wire on
L3 - 3-turn link over L2 winding, No. 26 wire. Amidon FT37-61 ferrite toroid core.
enam. wire. LS - S-turn link over L9, No. 26 enam. Ul - Motorola IC.
L4 - S-turn link over LS winding, No. 26 wire. VR1 - 6.2-V, 40G-mW Zener diode.
214 Chapter 9
mixer. A single tuned circuit (Ll) serves continuous ground f0il can cause these
as the preselector. Four 1N914 diodes problems. They are avoided in systems
are used to protect the input. This employing a number of smaller Circuit
would not be needed if the electronic boards.
T-R system were not employed. The BFO injection is provided by Q2.
mixer was not damaged when the diodes This oscillator is standard except that
were omitted. However, they were some means must be provided for
included as a precaution against an adjusting the crystal to the proper fw
improper termination at the antenna quency. All of the crystals used in the
terminal. This could lead to high rf transceiver, including those in the filter,
voltages at gate 1 of Q1. The output were cut for the same frequency. Exper.
network of the mixer (L2-L3) is de- imentation may be required on the part
signed to present a termination of 125 of the builder to establish the proper
ohms to the crystal filter. The design of capacitance across the crystal.
Front of the 7~MHz superheterodyne QRP the 4.4-MHz filter will be presented A two-stage audio amplifier is used.
transceiver. The jack at the left accommo- later. Emitter degeneration is employed in
dates an electronic keyer. Audio output is At the output of the crystal filter is both stages (Q3 and Q4) to ensure that
taken from the side panel (rightl. The case a network (lA-L5) that presents a 50- linearity is preserved under large-signal
measures 3 X 5 X 7 inches.
ohm termination to the filter. This is conditions. The side tone signal is in-
followed by an i.f amplifier which uses jected into the base of Q3 during
clusion was that the method was an an MC1350P IC. This circuit provides a transmit periods.
accurate means for evaluating the over- gain of approximately 40 dB, and allows The VFO for the transceiver is
all condition of the path within an for a gain variation of 60 dB. No agc shown in Fig. 1B. A JFET is employed,
accuracy of 3 dB, far more accurate system is included in this transceiver. as a Hartley oscillator. Because the
than an S-meter reading. However, the Receiver muting is realized by applica- frequency is low (2.6 MHz), stability is
lowest powers were successful only tion of + 12 volts to the arm of the excellent. The oscillator is tuned by
when the propagation conditions were manual gain control potentiometer. means of an 80'pF air variable capaci-
favorable and while noise levels were The i-f output is matched to 50 tor, which is driven by a Jackson
low. Similar methods would be useful ohms (L6-L7) and then routed to a Brothers vernier-drive mechanism. The
for the study of vhf propagation. Addi- product detector utilizing four diodes. fixed.value capacitance across the oscil.
tionally, the weak-signal experience Originally, only two diodes were used. lator coil (Ll 0) was chosen to provide
would be valuable to the operator with However, it was found that the im- the desired tuning range. A trimmer
an interest in modes such as moon- proved balance obtained with four might be a useful addition to ease
bounce. diodes provided less noise modulation alignment. The oscillator is buffered
of the BFO signal that found its way with a two-stage amplifier, Q6 and Q7.
A Superheterodyne CW Transceiver into the i-f amplifier. Note that the The VFO is built in a small alumi-
for 7 MHz primary of T1 is balanced, being num box. This box is fastened securely
For the beginning experimenter with grounded only at the output of the i-f to the front panel by means of standoff
an interest in QRP and portable opera- (L7). This also improved the balance. posts. Because all of the oscillator com.
tion, a direct-conversion transceiver is Such precautions would not be neces- ponents are mounted securely to the
ideal. Construction is straightforward, sary if a less dense packaging format smaller housing, mechanical stability is
owing to the simplicity of design. When were used. Ground loops in a single good. It was found that the transceiver
a higher level of performance is desired,
especially in the receiver, it is better to
build a superheterodyne system.
Transceive operation is still desirable for
some applications. Contests such as the
ARRL Field Day are an example.
The transceiver described in this
section is based upon the preceding
design criteria. The unit tunes a
100-kHz segment of the 40-meter ew
band. A full transceive type of trans-
mitter with an output of 1.5 watts is
employed. The receiver selectivity is
provided by a homemade 3-po1e crystal
filter of the lower side-band ladder type.
The bandwidth is 250 Hz and the
rejection of the undesired sideband is
approximately 60 dB. A completely
electronic T-R system is included, pro.
viding smooth, transient-free control.
Owing to the subtleties of the design,
especially in the construction and align-
ment of the crystal filter, this project is
not recommended for the inexperienced
experimenter. No pc information is
available.
Shown in Fig. 1A is the receiver Interior of the 7-MHz superheterOdyne transceiver. At the center is the 2.6-MHz VFO compart-
section of this transceiver. The front ment. The bottom pc board contains the receiver. At the top is the transmitter module. The
end employs a dual-gate MOSFET as the small assemblies (2) at the right are the TR and sidetone boards.
\
KEY
+12V
K TO T/R
us U6
7-MHz
BANDPASS FILTER
BW:200kHz
10 3.9 36 270
GER. ~ ~
PA
(HEAT SINK) J
4001----~ --- -----
I 220
+12V
I
I
I 1000
1000 1000
.1
I
13
9 ~ r _--.2RANSMIT~E~ BOA~ -.J
10 j I
~ 1.5VRMS I I
,; FROMI I
10pF V VF0
100 .01 S];f
1
I I
+12V ~
I I
500mV I I
RMS
470 I I TO RX
MUTE
+12V
I I KEY TO ARM
SIDETONE I I-FGC
I BOARD
I +12V +12V I
I I
I lOOk 10k lOOk 10k ~ _T/~ ~~D ~~~IN~c
I .005 220k
TO RGVR
I
1005
r
I
I
I
----------------~
S.M . SILVER MIGA
Fig. 2-Schematic diagram of the transmitter, T.R switching and sidetone circuits of the 7.MHz transceiver, Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless other-
wise noted. Fixed.value resistors are 1/4. or 1/2.W composition. Variable capacitors can be mica compression trimmers. The SN-76514 mixer IC has been reidenti.
fied as TL-442-CN by Texas Instruments. It may be procured under either part number.
L11, L12-23 turns No. 24 enam. wire on L14-2.turn link over L13, No. 22 enam. wire. T50-2 toroid core.
T50.2 toroid core. L15, L16-14 turns No. 22 enam. wire on L18-4.turn link over 117,No. 26 enam. wire.
L13-20 turns No. 22 enam. wire on T50.2 toroid core. L19-40 turns No. 26 enam. wire on T50-2
T50.2 toroid core. L17-42 turns No. 26 enam. wire on toroid core.
could be dropped 2 or 3 inches onto the SN76514 was selected for the mixer, Fairchild 2N4895 TO-5 type of tran&is-
operating table with no detectable fre- owing to the internally contained bias- tor. A 2N532l would function as well
quency shift. ing resistors. An MC1496G could be in this circuit. The output network is a
Shown in Fig. 2 is the transmitter used in this application. half-wave filter. The output stage should
portion of the transceiver. Three circuit The output of the mixer is applied have a small heat sink.
boards are employed. One board is used to a two-pole bandpass filter. The The electronic T-R switch uSys a pair
for the side tone oscillator, with a coupling capacitors between the resona- of silicon switching diodes. The antenna
second containing the electronic T-R tors and into and out of the filter are is permanently connected to the trans-
switch. The third board contains the critical and should not be substituted mitter. The receiver is also connected
rest of the transmitter. casually. The ou tpu t of the filter is when the switching diodes are biased to
The carrier oscillator (Q8) is a terminated in the 50-ohm input imped- an on condition. When the key is
bipolar transistor operating in the Col- ance of a feedback amplifier, Q9. The depressed, the 555 timer IC (U3) is
pitts configuration. To adjust the fre'- use of feedback is very useful where a triggered on. The output at pin 3 is then
quency to the center of the i-f passband well defmed input immittance is in a high state and supplies power to the
it was necessary to add inductance desired. The buffer is followed by a transmitter carrier oscillator, Q8. The
(L19) and capacitance to the circuit. driver, QlO. Both Q9 and QlO are receiver is also muted, and the T-R
The crystal oscillator delivers 0.5 volt keyed by a pnp switch, Q12. diodes are reverse biased slightly. When
rms to the transmi t mixer, U2 . An The final amplifier, Q11, uses a the key is opened, U3 begins to time
216 Chapter 9
oscillator. Y4 and Y5 are soldered into
place between the mixer and the i-f
amplifier (Fig. IA). Various values of
C2 are tried until the desired results are
ootained. For a cw filter, a good starting
point for C2 would be 470 pF. It may
\ be necessary to change the terminating
/
'A i~
ence between a single-pole response and
that realized with two or three crystals
I 'L'."
is profound.
L The performance of this transceiver
Close-upview of the receiver pc board. The front end is at the left, followed (right) by the has been excellent. It has been used for'
three-pole ladder filter. The i-f amplifier is at the center of the board, with the product portable and home-station QRP opera-
detector and audio amplifier at the upper right. In the lower right corner is the BFO. tion. Especially enjoyable has been the
crisp response of the receiver and the
smoothness of the control circuitry.
t- - - - - JVV\r- - - -0
CRI 2200
+12VlREG.J -TRANS.
OV-RECEIVE
cial transceivers in use. within practical limits. If the same
+IN914
Fig. 4 shows circuits in which a circuit were connected across the lower
I diode or a transistor can be used to feedback capacitor, Cfb' Cl would have
,.}-,
(A)
'0h, .o~
4700
MAIN
TUNING +12V
+12V(REG.) 4700
TRANS.
OV-RECEIVE
--()
CRI
VVC DIODE
TOTR~
CONTROL KIA
(8)
LINE
6V
218 Chapter 9
n
OSCILLATOR RFC. KEY R
T
PA
120
7MHz
T0 U'
6~ 05
rLSM
S.~
0-13-T +12V
S. M. 'SILVER MICA
EXCEPTAS INDICATED,DECIMALVALUES OF
T.022
CAPACITANCEARE IN MICROFARADSI "F ) ;
OTHERSARE IN PICOFARADSI pF OR")IF); +12V r+,
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
'-IOOO,M'IOOO 000. 2200
220'
PRODUCT 2200
19!!.E.
DETECTOR 4700
04
2N3565 ~5f.--<>---v~ AF
J3
OUTPUT
."f1~
10"2k 2}JF
TO +l2V
TOS1A
lNTeS .
e
D.5~,
100
47k
~
120 T.?;?JJF 10k 2200
4700 rf-7'5V
TO S1B
5600
B
7 0 1
6 0
5
o
o
0
0
0
0 2
3
Eev EE!~)c ~
C
01,03,0,\ 02 Alt(
4
U1 05
BOTTOM VI EWS
Fig.6 - Schematic diagram of the ultra-portable transceiver. Fixed-value capacitors are discussedin the text, Resistors are 1/4-watt composition.
C1, C2 - Subminiature ceramic trimmer, T -50-2 toroid core (Amidon Assoc., 12033 L8 - 5 turns No. 22 enam. over L7 winding.
42pF maximum. Otsego St., N. Hollywood, CA 91607). L9 - 10 turns No. 22 enam. over L7 winding.
CR1 - Silicon rectifier diode, 50 PRV, 500 L3 - 44 turns No. 28 enam. on T5Q-2 core. T1 - Miniature 1O,OOO-ohmto 2000-0hm
mAo L4 - 4 turns No. 22 enam. over L3 winding. transformer. Genter tap not used.
J1 - BNC chassis-mount coax connector. L5. L6 - 14 turns No. 22 enam. on T5Q-2 U1 - RCA integrated circuit.
J2. J3 - Phone jack. core. Y1 - 7-MHz crystal.
L1, L2 - 20 turns No. 22 enam. on Amidon L7 -.60 turns No. 28 enam. on T50-2 core.
to be somewhat greater in capacitance receive frequency can be varied above ceiver described in this section.
to effect the required offset amount, as and below the transmit frequency (:1:: 3 Shown in Fig. 6 is the circuit. QI
shown at B. A diode or a transistor can kHz, typically) by means of RI. The functions as a crystal-controlled oscilla-
be used as a switch at either point in the VFO readout dial should be calibrated tor operating at 7 MHz. This stage serves
VFO circuit. Regulated voltage should with KIB in the transmit position. a dual role. It drives, Q2, the power-
be supplied to the swi tching device to It is worthy of mention that addi- output amplifier of the transmitter.
assure frequency stability. C I should be tion of the offset or RlT circuits to a Second, it provides BFO injection for
an air-dielectric trimmer or glass piston VFO can increase the drift of an oscilla- the direct-conversion receiver.
trimmer - a further aid to stability tor. This can result from the heating of Initially, it may seem limiting to
(mechanical and electrical). the Varicap-diode junction, or from the utilize crystal control for both the
The RlT example at Fig. 5 is a junction-capacitance changes in the transmitter and the receiver. But, if the
simplified one. In a practical transceiver switching transistor or diode in the transmitter is to be crystal controlled, it
some additional switching provisions offset circuits we have illustrated. is generally unnecessary for the receiver
would be included to remove the RlT to have the ability to receive on differ-
from the circuit altogether when normal An Ultra-Portable CW Transceiver ent frequencies. On the hf bands con-
transceiving was desired. This would for 7 MHz tacts occur rarely on a split-frequency
require placing a fixed.value resistive The design of any equipment is basis. It is mandatory though that the
divider in the circuit to replace the dictated to a large extent by the in- crystal oscillator have capability for
potentiometer, RI, during receive. The tended application. Home-station equip- slight adjustment. If this were not pres-
Varactor diode, CRI, should have iden- ment may be large physically, and may ent, it would be possible for another
tical voltages applied to it during the contain as much sophistication as the station to be exactly zero beat with the
transmit and receive modes when RIT is builder desires. For portable operation, transceiver without the operator realiz-
not needed. When the RlT is actuated, however, it is desirable that the equip- ing its presence, as mentioned earlier in
the center position of RI should pro- ment be physically small. A major this chapter. This tuning is achieved by
vide the same dc voltage to CRI that is criterion for miniaturization is simpli- moving the crystal frequency slightly by
present in the transmit mode. Then, the city. This forms the basis of the trans- switching in series inductors, Ll or the
Field Operation, Portable Gear and Integrated Stations 219
Interior of the ultra-portable transceiver. Double-sided board is used This 40-meter transceiver measures only 1-1/2 X 3 X S-1/4 inches. The
in this equipment. key paddle is visible at the lower left.
S,M,-SILVER MICA
EXCEPT AS INDICATED. DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (~F) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR ~~Fl; +12V (TRAN,)
rl~, 47
2200
IN914
10k
;:h02 ;+;01
+12VTRAHS
1000
1000
2200
1000 rJ:1
+.!.Q.!t
rL
100 15V
HI Z
AF OUT
+t2V +12V(TRAN)
(REC) rJ;1
2200 ~51A
+12V
TRANS
~ANr
~'TRAN.
~'REC
r+:<
Fig. 7 - Schematic diagram of the KL71AK 80-meter transceiver. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise noted. Polarized
capacitors are electrolytic. Unlabeled variable capacitors are mica compression trimmers. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-W composition.
C1 - 200-pF air variable with vernier drive. TSO-2 toroid core. TSO-2 toroid core.
C2 - Pc-board-mount 1S~F air variable. L3 - Saturn link ovpr L2, No. 28 enam. wire. L6 - 6-turn link over LSI No, 28 enam. wire.
L1 - 30-tums No. 24 enam. wire on L4 - 21 turns No. 24 enam. wire on TSO-2 S1 - Dpdt slide switch Ishown in receive
T68-2 toroid core. toroid core. mode).
l2 - 43 turns No. 28 enam. wire on L5 - 44 turns No. 28 enam. wire on
220 Chapter9
series combination of Ll and L2. With While never needed, it has been available
the component values shown in Fig. 6, for emergency communications on trips
the shift is -0.5 or -1 kHz. The shift of a more committed nature. A defi-
will vary with different crystals: Experi ciency of the design, as presented here,
mentation may be required. is the need for plug-in crystals. Not only
The receiver is similar to others are loose crystals lost easily, but the
described in previous chapters. An RCA pins are subject to corrosion. The next
CA3028A serves as a product detector. version of this transceiver will contain
The output is transformer coupled to a switched crystals. VFO operation has
two-stage audio amplifier which utilizes not been considered because of envi- \.
a pair of bipolar transistors. In the ronmental extremes that are encoun-
interest of simplicity, no audio-gain tered during use. No pc information is Front panel view of the SO-meter direct-
control was included. The only selectiv- available for this project. conversion cw transceiver.
ity in the receiver is that which is
provided by the low-pass characteristic Direct-Conversion VFO Transceivers
of the audio amplifier and the limited for 40 and 80 Meters The transmitter board consists of
bandwidth of TI. For general purpose portable oper- Q4, a keyed driver, and Q5, the output
The transmitter portion of the cir- ation, or for "sport" QRP work from amplifier. This circuit is virtually iden-
cuit consists of the crystal oscillator the home station, a direct-conversion tical to the universal QRP transmitter
(Ql) and the keyed power amplifier transceiver is ideal. Construction is described in an earlier chapter. One of
(Q2). Keying is by means of a micro- simplified if a single-band design is used. the boards from that layout could be
switch in series with the supply to the This section describes two VFO- adapted for this transmitter if desired.
collector. The microswitch is activated controlled "dc" transceivers. The The output amplifier uses a 2N532l
by a strip of pc board which serves as a 80-meter unit was built by KUlAK. with a small heat sink. A large number
paddle. The details may be seen in the The 40-meter transceiver was con- of transistors could be substituted for
photographs. Keying is clean, although structed by one of the writers. Both this part if desired. The GE D44C6 used
with this method the backwave is only transceivers have a transmitter output of in a number of earlier transmitters could
suppressed by approximately 30 dB. approximately 1.5-watt, and they are provide an output power of several
Owing to the low power output of the physically compact. watts. Different network constants at
transmitter (0.5 watt), the backwave Shown in Fig. 7 is the 80-meter LA would be required. (Early chapters
presents no problem. transceiver. A VFO (Ql) operates di- should be consulted.)
A General Electric D13-T type of rectly in the 80-meter band and is The receiver was adapted from the
programmable unijunction transistor buffered with a two-stage feedback pair "TERAC Mountaineer." This was a
(PUT) serves as a sidetone oscillator. of bipolar transistors. The output of the transmitter-receiver combination that
The output is injected into the input of buffer is applied to the transmitter and was built as a club project by the
the two-stage audio amplifier. receiver simultaneously. The VFO is Tektronix Employees' Radio Amateur
Transmit-receive switching is realized tuned with two sections of a capacitor Club and was originally described in
with a double-pole, double-throw toggle that was scavenged from an old broad- QST for August, 1972. The original
switch, S1. One section switches the cast receiver. The capacitor had a built, version was for 40 meters, but was
antenna while the other controls the in vernier-drive mechanism, simplifying adapted for 80 by KUlAK. These
power-supply output. Receiver muting the physical construction. The total boards are no longer available although
is done by removing the operating volt- capacitance required was approximately pc information may still be obtained in
age from the detector during transmit 200 pF. The VFO is built on a double- accordance with the reference in the
periods. sided circuit board. original paper.
A low-pass filter section (L6) is
included at the antenna jack of the
transceiver. This provides harmonic sup-
pression at the transmitter output.
Additionally, it adds preselection to the
receiver front end. This was found to be
helpful when the transceiver was oper-
ated in close proximity to TV broadcast
stations.
The station is built on a 2 X 5-inch
double-sided pc board. The side contain- . ,
ing the components is the ground foil,
with the interconnecting runs on the
back of the board. The box size is 1-1/2 .1
X 3 X 5 inches. Locations of the
components may be seen in the photo- , .'-.
./
graphs. Placing all of the controls on one
side of the chassis permits convenient
/
operation. The transceiver is normally
held in the left hand, with the right
hand activating the controls and key.
The battery pack is composed of AA-
size NiCads, and usually resides in a I~
parka pocket.
This transceiver has been used for
several years, predominantly on back- Interior of the SD-meter transceiver. At the lower right is the VFO. The receiver can be seen on
packing and mountain-elimbing trips. the L-shaped board. At the lower left is the transmitter output circuit.
The basis of the receiver is a product is not included in the transceiver. The brator. A three-pole, double-throw slide
detector using a dual-gate MOSFET, Q6. frequency-offset method used in the switch, SI, serves as the TR control.
This is followed by a three-stage audio KL7IAK transceiver is used in the VFO. One set of contacts transfers the head-
amplifier. More than ample audio is However, in this model the diode is phone jack between the receiver output
available to drive 2000-ohm head- activated during receive periods. A tog- and the sidetone oscillator. A board-
phones. ' gle switch, S2, is included on the front mounted potentiometer is included on
A side tone oscillator is included. panel to interrupt the diode bias cur- the sidetone-oscillator board for level
This circuit (Q 12 and Q 13) uses a pair rent. When S2 is open, the transceiver adjustment.
of transistors to synthesize the action of may be tuned to zero beat with an At first glance the amount of cir-
a programmable unijunction transistor. arriving signal. S2 is then closed. This cuitry used in this transceiver may seem
A GE type D13-T PUT could be substi- causes the VFO to decrease in fre- excessive. Certainly, some simplification
tuted directly. Q 11 provides a low- quency by the proper amount to pro- is possible, just as further refinement
impedance drive for the headphones duce an output tone of 800 Hz. might be desired. The audio filter may
from the sidetone oscillator. Detected rf The output of the FET VFO is be eliminated. However, the filter is so
is used to activate the sidetone, offering applied to a single-stage bipolar buffer simple, and adds so much to the perfor-
a built-in indication of rf output. The amplifier. The buffer output drives a mance, that this is not suggested. The
pitch of the audio note will depend frequency doubler which uses a pair of use of diodes as the multiplier might
upon the output level. Transistor QIO is silicon switching diodes. The resultant also be questioned. The total parts
included to mute the receiver during 7-MHz output is filtered with a single count is somewhat higher than might be
transmit periods. tuned circuit (L3) and then routed to a realized with other circuits. However,
Transmit-receive control is achieved two-stage feedback amplifier (Q3 and no special equipment is required for
with SI, a double-pole, double-throw Q4). This signal is applied to both the adjustment. An oscilloscope is not
slide switch. The transceiver is built in a receiver detector and the transmitter needed to obtain balance to ensure
3 X 5 X 7-inch box. Parts placement can board. rejection of the 3.5-MHz fundamental.
be seen in the photographs. Shielding is The transmitter is nearly identical in Also, diodes do not oscillate! The out-
not necessary. design to the 80-meter circuit used by put of this transmitter was studied with
The VFO circuit includes an offset KL7IAK. A 2N3904 keyed driver is a spectrum analyzer. At 1.5-watts out-
capacitor, C2. This is switched in during followed by a 2N5321 power amplifier. put, the 3.5-MHz fundamental compon-
transmit periods to place the outgoing The output power is slightly over 1.5
signal at approximate zero beat with the watts.
sta tion being contacted. It is necessary The receiver is conventional in de-
that the receiver be tuned on the high- sign. It uses CA3028A product detector.
frequency side of the other station. Balance at the rf port of the detector is
The results obtained with this unit enhanced through the use of a bifilar
have been excellent. While most of the link to drive the IC. The detector
contacts have been with other Alaskans, output is amplified with a two-stage
the "1O\Ver48" have also been worked audio amplifier, Q9 and QlO. The resul-
from KL71AK. tant signal is fIltered with a four-pole
ShO\Vnin Fig. 8 is the circuit for the RC active low-pass filter. U2 serves as an
40-meter transceiver. This unit is similar impedance- transforming elemen t to en-
in design to the one for 80 meters. The sure proper drive for the following
VFO (Ql) is virtually identical. It oper- stages. A dc level shift is also provided
ates at 3.5 MHz. The main-tuning capac- to properly establish the bias on the
itor, Cl, has a range of approximately fIlter ICs. A low-pass filter with a I-kHz
10 pF. The series capacitor that is used cutoff frequency was chosen over a
with it provides a tuning range of 50 bandpass circuit. This allows a received
kHz on the 7 -MHz band. While a larger signal to be tuned to zero beat with Outside view of the 4G-meter direct-conversion
cw transceiver. The large knob tunes the VFO.
range would be desirable, the restricted greater ease.
A smaller knob is seen on the af gain control.
one has the advantage that no vernier The side tone oscilla tor in the 7 -MHz A toggle switch serves the receiver offset func-
drive is required. Frequency calibration transceiver is a free-running multivi- tion. The panel jack is for af output.
222 Chapter 9
+12V
+12V
220 47
BUFFER
3.5 MHZ ~OO
MULTIPLIER
lN914
Ll
II 22
s:M:
470
22k
+ 12V
O---O+12VR
S2 I ANT.
l~ ;L01
}HI-Z AF OUTPUT
330
+12V
~
i ~-,~
AUDID SIDE-TDNE DSC
47 DRIVER S1A S1B SlC +12V
OUT
~R
T
R
10k
27k
PRODUCT
I.\fS
DETECTOR
+12V
~ lOOk
10k
Fig. 8 - Schematic diagram of the 7-MHz direct-conversion cw transceiver. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise indicated.
Polarized capacitors are electrolytic. Variable capacitors without numbers are mica compression trimmers. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or
1/2-W composition.
C1 - 1O-pF air variable. panel mounted. L5 - 35 turns No. 26 enam. wire on wire over L8.
C2, C3 - 15-pF pc-board-mount air variable. T50-2 toroid core. S1 - 3-pole, double-throw slide switch.
L 1 - 31 turns No. 22 enam. wire on L6 - 4-turn link over L5, No. 26 enam. wire. S2 - Spst toggle.
T68-2 toroid core. L7 - 14 turns No. 22 enam. wire on T1 - 10 trifilar turns No. 32 enam. wire on
L2 - 5-turn link over L3. No. 24 enam. wire. T50-2 toroid core. Amidon FT37-61 ferrite toroid core.
L3 - 18 turns No. 24 enam. wire on L8 - 30 turns No. 28 enam. wire on T2 - 10,OOO-ohmpri., 2000-ohm sec.,
T50-2 toroid core. T50-2 toroid core. miniature audio trans.
L4 - 3-turn link over L3, No. 24 enam. wire. L9 - 5-turn bifilar winding of No. 28 enam. VR 1 - 6.8-V, 400-mW Zener diode.
50
+13 dBm
5 OR 16 MHz
AUX.
INPUT ~
___ ~~+5V.tA
POWER
SUPPLIES
Jl ____ ~+12V.1A
224 Chapter 9
Pacific Northwest. The compact format QST for March and April, 1974. Since bility, no attempt has been made
makes this realized easily. that time several refmements have been toward miniaturization.
incorporated to provide improved per-
An Integrated Contest-Grade formance. A transmitter has been built System Details - The Receiver
CW Station to operate in a full transceive mode with A block diagram of the total station
Most of the equipment described in the receiver. The power output is 1 watt is shown in Fig. 9. The receiver is a
this book has been comparatively sim- for QRP work or 25 watts for DXing single-conversion design with a .9-MHz
ple. One- or two-band designs have been and contesting. The performance of the i-f. The local oscillator, which is at
more prevalent than multiband systems. system is excellent, and appears to equal either 5 or 16 MHz for 20. and 40.meter
Equipment has, more often than not, or exceed that of commercially available operation, respectively, is the only cir-
been designed with ease of duplication equipment with which we are familiar. cuit that is shared with the transmitter
as a major objective. There is good Some semblance of simplicity is re- except for the power supplies. A digital
reason for this: Our motivation is to tained in this station by confining the display is employed to read the LO
encourage the amateur to c9nstruct his operation to cw and to only two bands, frequency. Because the i-f is exactly at
own equipment. This is more easily 7 and 14 MHz. No other constraints are 9.000 MHz, no special programming is
realized if. extremes of complexity are imposed other than that of low power, needed ,for the counter, allowing its use
avoided. The writers have followed which is a matter of personal choice. for general-purpose test applications.
these guidelines for their own equip- Owing to the relative complexity of this Shown in Fig. lOis the receiver
ment in many cases. station, it is not recommended as a preselector function. Four poles of ftl-
During all of the experimentation construction project except for the ama- tering are used on each band with an rf
and design work required for the sim- teur with considerable experience. No amplifier embedded within the ftlter. A
pler projects, there has always been the pc information is available. However, JFET is used for 40 meters while .a
question, "What would happen if all of every effort has been made to include dual-gate MOSFET is employed at 14
the constraints were lifted? What level all pertinent circuit information. MHz. There was no special justification
of equipment performance can the ama- A project such as this serves a for this choice since both are capable of
teur experimenter expect to achieve multiple purpose. First, it provides high- low noise figure and high output inter.
without the aid of sophisticated instru- quality equipment for communications. cept. The dual-gate MOSFET is prob-
mentation?" The. station described in Of greater significance, the gear func- ably the better choice since it tends to
this section is aimed at providing one tions as an experimental vehicle - a be more stable in the common-source
answer to those queries. means of trying new ideas as they occur. configuration. Relays are used for band
The station is an outgrowth of a As such, this station is in a constant switching. This has the advantage of
receiver that was described initially in state of change. To enhance this fiexi- placing the switches where they are
~II I
20
L7
~
INPUT
FROM ANT.
;L1
'00
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL K2C
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
+12V I
IN MICROFARADS I.llF I ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF DR .ll.llFl;
RESISTANCES. ARE IN OHMS; ~To
MIXER
'1000. M'I DOD DOD RF AMPLIFIER
33' 100'
+12V
FOR
44 MHz
Fig. 10 - Schematic diagram of 7- and 14-MHz receiver preselectors. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unlessnoted differently. Variable
capacitors are mica compression trimmers. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-W composition.
K 1, K2 - Double-pQle,double-throw 12-V L5 - 4-turn link No. 27 enam. over L1. wire on T37-6 toroid core. L9 tapped
dc relay with SOo-ohmfield coil. L6 - 6-turn link No. 27 enam. over L3. 8 turns from ground.
L1-L4, incl. - 30 turns No. 27 enam. L7 - 4-turn link No. 27 enam. wire over L12 - 3-turn link No. 24 enam. over La.
wire on T37-6 toroid core. L2 L4. L13 -4-turn link No. 24enam. over L10.
tapped at 15 turns. L8-L 11, incl. - 18 turns No. 24 enam. L14 - 3-turn link No. 24 enam. over L11.
5000
TO I-F
18
I
MIXER
r+!?
-
T3
_ T4
T2 -6dB
-II f7:
Y ,\1",
INPUT
39
ISO 150
1000
POST-MiXER
51 AMP. lN4152
s:hf." 03
2SCI252
IN4152 lN4152
47
5.1
Li5
.-PHASING
II i7:t
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCEARE IN MICROFARADS I JlF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF DR JlJlFI; S.M. SILVER MICA
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k-IOOO, M'IOOO 000.
Fig. 11 - Schematic diagram of the front-end mixer and post-mixer i-f amplifier. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless noted differently.
Variable capacitors are mica compression trimmers. Resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-W composition ..
CR1-CR4, incl. - Hewlett-Packard hot- T6B-6 toroid core. T1, T2 - 10 trifllar turns No. 30 enam.
carrier diode or equiv. 03 - Nippon Electric 2SC1252 wire on FT37-61 ferrite toroid core.
l15 - 12 turns No. 24 enam. wire on (California Eastern labs., Inc., One T3, T4 - 10 bifilar turns No. 30enam.
T37-6 toroid core. Edwards Ct., Burlingame, CA 94010), wire on F37-61 ferrite toroid core.
l16 - 17 turns No. 22 enam. wire on
needed within the circuitry, while add- in a separate box, shielded from other The high intercept results from good
ing no mechanical complexity. Shielding circuits. This is mandatory if filter transistor characteristics and a high bias
integrity may be easily maintained. stopband rejection is to be maintained. current of 65 rnA.
Band selection is realized by means of a Shown in Fig. 11 is the receiver A set of silicon switching diodes is at
panel-mounted toggle switch. mixer and the associa ted circuitry. A the output of the i-f post-mixer ampli-
The use of four poles of preselection ring of hot-carrier diodes is used, owing fier. They protect the following crystal
.is quite worthwhile. The measured to its 'relatively low noise figure and filter from excessive signal levels. The
image rejection on both bands is 95 dB. high intercept of this type of mixer. The amplifier has an output capability of
Similar numbers were obtained for the mixer' is terminated carefully on a about 250 mW, enough to potentially
i-f feed through. The preselectors were broadband basis at the i-f port. This is damage the filter. While the receiver will
adjusted for a bandwidth of 100 kHz on done through the use of a diplexer. never (hopefully) be subjected to such
40 meters, with a slightly wider one at These circuits were described in chapter signals from the antenna, they could
20 meters. Careful adjustment is neces- 6. LI6 and the related capacitors form a result during experiments with break-in
sary to ensure that the double-tuned single-pole bandpass circuit at 9 MHz. keying or from an antenna-relay failure.
circuits are not over-coupled. The ampli- LI5 and the capacitors associated with T4 provides a source impedance for the
fiers are biased for high gain. However, it form another 9-MHz tuned circuit. crystal fIlter (200 ohms) which is close
by purposeful impedance mismatching Because of the parallel resonance, at to that specified.
the net gain of this section is set at 10 frequencies other than 9 MHz the 47- Fig. 12 shows the local-oscillator
dB. This is manda tory to main tain ohm resistor is attached to ground system used for the station. A three-
reasonable gain distribution. through a low reactance, serving as a terminal regula tor (D 1) provides a stable
Al though detailed measurements termination for out-of-passband energy. 5 volts for the oscillators. Tw 0 separa te
have not been made with this module, it The diplexer is followed by a LOs are used, one for each band, with a
is possible that some intermodulation "strong" 9-MHz i-f amplifier. Through relay for band switching. Motorola
distortion is occurring within the toroid the use of feedback (both shunt and MCI648Ps serve as the oscillators. The
cores used in the fIlters. It might be series) the input impedance of this output power of these circuits is low -
desirable to replace the T37 -6 cores amplifier is very close to 50 ohms over a only about 1 mW. A broadband ampli-
with the larger T68-6 units. Suitable wide frequency range. The 6.dB attenu- fier (Q4) is used to boost the LO output
circuits are presented.in the appendix ator at the output helps to ensure that to +13 dBm. Attenuated outputs are
tables. An alternative approach would impedance variations resulting from the provided to drive the digital readout and
be to eliminate the rf amplifiers com- following crystal filter do not reflect the transmit mixer.
pletely, using only passive preselector back through the amplifier to alter the The stability of these oscillators is
filters. Such networks were used in a input immittance. Even with the 6-dB more than sufficient. Temperature com-
family of crystal-controlled converters attenuator, the gain of this amplifier is pensation was required in the 16-MHz
described in chapter 6. The preselectors 17 dB. The amplifier noise figure is 6 dB oscillator used for 40 meters. This was
here, with their rf amplifiers, are housed and the output intercept is +35 dBm. accomplished experimentally by repeat-
226 Chapter 9
+l2V
10
S~
S.M.' SILVER MICA
220
14
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
TO TX
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
~ MIXER
IN MICROFARADS()IF I; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS(pF OR )I)IF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
L2. ~
,.1 220
I
~READOUT
TO
k .1000. M'I 000 000
5 MHz
3 5000 +12V~
1N41S2 ---r-- ON 20 METERS
;L1rh
~
Fig. 12 - Schematic diagram of the local-oscillator system used in the integrated station receiver. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless
otherwise indicated. Variable capacitors without parts numbers are air-dielectric pc-board-mount trimmers. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or
1/2-W composition.
edly opening the window to the shop, unchanged at 7 dB. The MDS was -141 tance. KVG filters are available from
and through application of heat from a dBm. The measurements were per- Spectrum International, Box 1084,
desk lamp. One might question the formed with high-quality laboratory Concord, MA 01742.
advisability of using a free-running oscil- instrumentation. Noise-figure measure- The gain in the i-f strip is provided
lator at a frequency as high as 16 MHz. ments correlated well with direct MDS by a pair of MC1590G ICs. While
However, the low -noise characteristics, measurements. Further study is required sufficient gain could be realized with
and the lack of other output compon- to determine the factors that are pres- one stage, a larger agc range is available
ents that might lead to spurious re- ently limiting the dynamic range. with two. In the circuit shown, the gain
sponses, is ample justification for the Effects like nonlinearity in transformers is approximately 65 dB. Over 120 dB of
minor job of temperature compensa- and coils, and IMD due to crystal filters, gain variation are achieved, however.
tion. could be of significance. The output of US is applied to a FET,
The oscillator is tuned with Cl, a The i-f amplifier and agc system are Q5. This unit buffers the output from
three-section capacitor from a surplus shown in Fig. 13. Most of the selectivity the agc takeoff point.
receiver. The built-in gear-reduction was of the receiver is provided by FL!. The The agc system is one that was
found to be superior to commercially tilter used in this receiver has ten described in detail in chapter 5. A full
available drive mechanisms. The large crystals and a 3-dB bandwidth of 500 hang action is employed. The main
reduction ratio employed leads to a Hz. The shape of the filter was Gaussian memory capacitor, C2, should be a
tuning rate of less than 10kHz per near the peak of the response, a charac- low-leakage type such as a disc ceramic.
revolution of the knob. The high selec- teristic that provides improved transient The agc is defeated by Sl while S2
tivity justifies this. response. This filter (KVG-XL-lOM) is changes the decay-time constant. Both
The circuitry used in the original no longer available. However, KVG has switches are toggle types. Rl at the
version of this receiver did not include recently introduced a similar unit, the inverting input of U6 should be adjusted
the amplifier in the LO chain. Also, the XF-9NB. This filter should be an excel- for +5 volts at pin 6 of U6 with the agc
mixer was poorly terminated. The result lent substitute. The termination resis- off. The FETs used in the agc are not
was good sensitivity but a dynamic tance for the XF-9NB is 500 ohms commonly available. A modified circuit
range of only 85 dB. The increase in LO instead of the lower values used for the that is compatible with more common
drive power and improved mixer termin- XL-10M. Circuit changes will be re- FET types was shown in chapter 5.
ation, along with the addition of a quired. A pi-network matching scheme The product detector and BFO are
better post-mixer amplifier, increased would be ideal at the input, while shown in Fig. 14. The input to the
the dynamic range to 95.5 dB. The output termination can be realized by product detector is filtered with a four-
noise figure of the receiver was virtually replacing the present 300-ohm resis- pole crystal filter, FL2. This restricts
~ I 470
+-------
I
~--l
I I
I 510
I b5
--- - - ~- -,.+:,- ---1 I 2N4416
(
100
+12V
;L~:
5000 I
220:i7 <;}J
100
~-~--_;h---- __
II -l
~l.':L
L24
+12V
Cc.w
lN4152 I-F G41N
lN4152 10k
3300
CW
4700
1000
DC AMPLIFIER
+12V
+12V
22k
470 S METER
1000
20M
METER
ZERO
10k
FROM ,56
AUDIO AMP. 1
1000
~
~ Rl
I
'ROUND
TO
?FAST ri,AGC 50k ~MUTE
Fig. 13 - Schematic diagram of the receiver i-f amplifier and agc system. Dashed lines indicate shielding, which is extensive throughout the
receiver. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic except those with polarity marked, which are electrolytic. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or
1/2-W composition. Variable resistors other than R 1 are pc-board-mount controls. Variable capacitors are mica compression trimmers.
F L1 - 9-MHz 1O-pole crystal filter. T37-6 toroid core. panel mounted.
Spectrum International type KVG L24 - 10 turns No. 34 enam. over L23. Sl, S2 - Spst toggle.
(seetext), Ml - l-mA meter of builder's choice. U4, US - Motorola IC.
L23 - 50 turns No. 34 enam. wire on Rl - 50,00o-ohm linear-taper control,
the noise bandwidth of the i-f energy waveform for the detector is sym- able, but was simulated by loading the
reaching the detector. FL2 should be metrical, a requirement for best balance. arm of the control with a 4700-ohm
matched to FLl in frequency. A pi The power available to the detector is resistor.
network is used to match the SOO-ohm +12 dBM, which is enough to provide The output amplifier operates in
output impedance of FL2 to the 50- good IMD performance from the diode Class A. While this has the liability of
ohm input of the detector. A diode ring ring. consuming considerable current, the
serves as the product detector. Origin- The~audio system for the receiver is fidelity is excellent. The maximum out-
ally an MC1496 was used. However, this presented---in tlg. 15. An LM30lA is put power is under 100 mW, but is
led to IMD and excessive noise. The used as an audioPr~plifier. Owing to enough to drive a small monitor speaker
performance of the diode ring is much the high closed-loop gain of this circuit, or headphones. A sidetone oscillator
better. a noisier device (741) should not be (Q14) is included. This circuit is acti-
The BFO uses a JFET, Q12. The substituted here. A SO-kQ linear poten- vated with a +12-volt source that is
output is ftltered with a single-section tiometer serves as the audio gain con- derived from the station keyer.
low-pass ftlter. This ensures that the trol. An audio-taper unit was not avail- The performance of this receiver is
228 Chapter,g
ATTEN.
9 MHz L25
(-3d8) ,4
,+,
TO
AUDIO
ANI'.
18
+12V
Fig. 14 - Schematic diagram of the receiver product detector and BFO. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless noted differently.
Variable capacitors are mica compression trimmers. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-W composition.
FL2 - Four-pole, 9.MHz crystal filter T37-6 toroid core. L28 - 17 turns No. 26 enam. wire on
(Spectrum International tYpe KVGJ. L26 - 40 turns No. 26 enam. wire on T37-6 toroid core.
See text. T50-2 toroid core. T6, T7 - 10 trifilar turns of No. 30 enam.
L25 - 26 turns No. 26 enam. wire on L27 - 6-turn link of No. 26 enam. over L26. wire on FT37.61 toroid core.
FROM) I )+
50k
PROD. I '}IF LIN.
DET. ~ wv
50
lOOk
1000
3300
Fig. 15 - Schematic diagram of the audio system and side-tone oscillator for the integrated station. Capacitors are disk ceramic except those
with polarity marked, which are electrolytic. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-W composition unless otherwise noted. R2 is a linear-taper
composition control, panel mounted.
10
RCVR
MUTE
018
.01 2N3904
4700
6 9
DELAY RELAY
GENERATOR CONTROL
+12V
CARRIER 2200
OSCILLATOR 1I2W 750k
9MHz
L29
L30
+
T..!O)lF
,...;,15 V KEYING
SHAPER
+12V
1000 TO KEYED
STAGES
.4:1
~01 :;DKEY
Fig. l6-Schematic diagram of the carrier oscillator, transmit mixer and control circuits. Fixed-valuecapacitorsare disk ceramic, Mylar, or monolithic chip types.
Variablecapacitorsare mica compressiontrimmers. Fixed-valueresistorsare 1/4-or 1/2.Wcomposition. Polarizedcapacitorsare electrolytic.The 5N-765l4 mixer
IC has been reidentified as TL.442-CN by Texas Instruments. It may be procured under either part number.
L29 - 38 turns No. 28 enam. wire on 53 - 5pst toggle. VR2 - 6.8-V, 40o-mW Zener diode.
T37-6 toroid core. U9 - Texas Instrument IC. VR3 - 33.V, 1.W Zener diode.
L30 - 2.turn link No. 28 enam. over L29. Ul0, Ull - NE555 timer ICs.
Interior look at the exciter for the integrated cw station. The main
board in the center contains the transmit mixer, 7- and l4-MHz
bandpass filters, and the individual amplifier chains. Control and Inside look at the 25-W PA. The switches control the networks in
key-shaping circuits are on the same board. At the upper left is the amplifier output. There are separate networks for 7 and
the 1.W PA. The PA output network is seen at the lower left. 14 MHz.
230 Chapter 9
47
*. USE
EXCEPT
HEAT SINK
AS INDICATED. DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACI7ANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS II'F) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR I'I'FI;
RESISTANCES ARE I N OHMS;
k '1000. M-I000 000
7MHz
FL3
1000
1N41~2
1000
TO 017
S4A 40 S4B T11
+'2V
47
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
14MHI
FL4
4.7 2.7 1~
Fig. 17 - Schematic diagram of the 7- and 14-MHz exciter circuit. Included also is the 1-W output PA stage. Fixed-value capacitors are disk
ceramic unless noted differently. Variable capacitors are mica compression trimmers. Resistors of fixed value are 1/4- or 1/2-W composition.
+ 14 MHz
I 25V.2A L40 L41
Fig. 18 - Schematic diagram of the 25-W rf amplifier. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise noted. Capacitors with polarity
marked are electrolytic. Variable capacitors are mica compression trimmers.
232 Chapter 9 .. fied T network.'It was found that one impedance-ratio transformer formed
+5V 1000 +5V
+5V
+5V
1000
TO
1001' S MAIN
GATE
{U22Cl
+5V
10k
028
2N3904
RESET
(TO U23. U24,U25) 1000
from T13 and T14. Some attenuation is would function as well. The output of output of the clock oscillator is applied
present at the input. The amount of this amplifier is 25 watts on each band. to a gate (VI2e), which then drives the
attenuation is higher at7 MHz than at count-down chain. This divider is com-
14. This results from the network asso- Digital Readout posed of six 7490 decade dividers and a
ciated with 139, which is tuned to 14 Early in this project, it was decided divide-by-two divider using half of a
MHz. The action of this network is that digital methods would be used for dual-D flip-flop (VIS through U2lA).
similar to that used in a diplexer. The frequency readout. The advantages of Four different outputs may be selected
transformers (T13 and T14) were units this, along with some general discussion from the divider chain. This is done
on hand. They seem to do the job of methods, were presented in chapter with S7, a multiposition wafer switch.
adequately. The reader is referenced to 6. A further motivation was a need for a S7 controls the appropriate inputs of a
the earlier discussion of impedance- general-purpose counter for experimen- 7401 quad NAND gate. This type dif-
matching methods for power amplifiers. tation. fers from the usual 7400 in that the
The output of the amplifier is The time-base and counter-control outputs are open collectors. Also, the
matched with T1S. This broadband 4:1 section is shown in Fig. 19. TTL logic is pin-out is different! The outputs of the
impedance-ratio transformer presents a used exclusively. The clock for the 7401 (U14) are "wire ored" to drive
l2.5-ohm termination to the collector circuit operates at 2 MHz, using an U2lA. Depending upon the position of
of Q2S. Output filtering is performed oscillator composed of a pair of NAND S7, the time base will have a period of
with a double pi network for each band. gates (U12A and B). This frequency was 100 JlS, 1 ms, 10 ms, or 1 second.
The filters are selected by means of two chosen since it has no harmonic output During normal receiver operation, the
wafer switches. A double wafer switch at the 9-MHz i-f of the receiver. The lOoms time base is used, allowing read-
1000
IN4152 1N4152
1M
RESET
(FROM
027)
STROBE
(FROM 026)
1K (x21)
1 13108 7 2 H 1 13108 7 2 H
14 14
U32 U33
SLA-l U34
SLA-l SLA-l
10
(LSD) MSD 1W+12V
+1000
,.L20V
Fig. 20 - Schematic diagram of the signal-conditioning and frequency counters for the digital readout. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic
except those with polarity marked, which are electrolytic. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-W composition.
U22 - 7400 quad, dual-input NAND gate. U29-U31, inc!. - 7447A BCD to 7-' U32-U34, inc!. - Opcoa SLA-1 7-segment
U23-U25, inc!. - 7490 decade counter. segment decoder/driver. LED display.
U26-U28, incl. - 7475 quad latch.
out to O.l-kHz resolution. ted. This prevents the 2-MHz pulses The main signal-counting portion of
The time-base output (pin 9 of arriving from the clock from triggering the circuit is shown in Fig. 20. Switch
U21A) is applied to a second flip-flop the divider chain. Hence, there is no S9, a front-panel-moun ted toggle type,
(U21B). This circuit produces pulses digital circuitry operating except for the selects either the internal LO or an
which are positive for the length of the clock. This can benefit in reducing the input from a panel-mounted BNC con-
time-base period. It controls the main level of digital noise injected into the nector. With this, the counter may be
counting gate (U22C in Fig. 12). At the receiver. The flip-flop also causes Q30 used for general purpose applications.
end of a counting period, U21 B will to be cut off, allowing a relaxation The preamp/buffer amplifier allows sig-
reset to a logical zero. The negative- oscillator (Q29) to begin. This circuit nals as low as 50 mY pk-pk to be
going transition will be differentiated has a time period of about 0.5 second. counted. A pair of gates are connected
by the RC network driving Q26. The At the end of that period, a positive in a trigger circuit (U22A and B). The
result is a pulse that is utilized to strobe pulse is produced at the cathode of the main counting gate is U22C. This deter-
the latches in the main counter (Fig. PUT (Q29). This resets the RS flip-flop, mines the number of input pulses that
19). The strobe pulse is also differenti- allowing the clock to again be divided. reach the counting chain.
ated, producing a reset pulse. This resets Counter operation commences again and Three decades of counting 'are pro-
the signal counters. It is also inverted in the cycle is repeated. The PUT oscillator vided with 7490 decade counters. The
U13C and then used to set an RS establishes the update rate on the dis- BCD outputs are applied to three 7475
flip-flop composed of cross-coupled play. Switch S8 was not found neces- quad latches. The resulting signals feed
gates (U13A and B). sary in this unit. If closed, it will 7447 A 7 -segment decoder-drivers. The
When the RS flip-flop is set, a completely inhibit the counter, leaving displays are Opcoa SLA.1 types, which
number of things happen. First, the gate the last frequency that was counted in are 1/3 inch high, common-anode types.
in the time.base chain (U12C) is inhibi- the displays. At the time the counter was built, the
234 Chapter 9
cost of each display was $5. At this sort of project that is undertaken casu- equipment they have used, homebuilt or
writing, similar or better versions are ally. Including the power supply com- commercial. The age system is totally
available for as little as $2 each. Because ponents, a total of 37 transistors and 36 uncompromising. The dynamic range is
of the decreased prices, it is highly integrated circuits are employed. A better than any commercially manufac-
recommended that four or even five much simpler station with an equivalent tured amateur receivers that we have
decades of counting be used. This cir- power output would probably yield an reviewed.
cuit is capable of operation up to 25 equal number of contacts. Above all of the features listed, the
MHz, even though this is slightly higher On the other hand, there are some station is personal. Not only does opera-
than the specification of the TTL de- circuit features that cannot be found in tion of such equipment offer more
vices. commercially manufactured equipment. satisfaction than might be realized with
Fourteen poles of crystal filtering leads an "appliance," but the operator has
Concluding Thoughts to selectivity that is better than the gained the experience of learning and
The station just described is not the writers have experienced in any other understanding. That's "where it's at!"
Single sideband a-m phone may be Clearly from the equations, the
generated with two balanced modula- carrier voltages and the audio voltages
tors, each driven with identical ampli- Ec
must be equal in amplitude to obtain
tude carrier and audio voltages. The two complete cancellation of the unwanted
voltages applied to one modulator are sideband. Consider the effect of a phase
out of phase by 90 degrees from those OUTPUT difference, (), other than 90. This is
applied to the other. See Fig. 1 where shown in the phasor diagram of Fig. 2,
the voltages are analytically defmed. where () is slightly under 90. However,
Note that the phase-shifted signals are Eq. 8 gives the output in terms of the
denoted with a prime sign throughout amglitude of the two phase quadrature
this discussion. The "c" and "a" sub.
Ee = Vesinwet (90 difference) signals. It may be
scripts denote carrier and audio signals. shown that Ea' of Fig. 2 may be
Each balanced modulator is assumed Ee' = Ve sin(wet + 1r/2)
resolved into the sum of a voltage in
to be a perfect multiplier. Thus the Ea' = Va' sin(wat + 1r/2) phase with Ea and another 90 out of
output voltages are given by Ea' = Va'sinwat phase. These are also shown in Fig. 2.
where Wj = 21r/j We see that a phase difference less than
Eo =KEeEa 90 tends to increase the Va terms and
decrease the Va' terms in Eq. 8.
Eo' =KEe'Eq' (Eq. 1) Fig. 1 - Phasing method of ssb generation. As an example, assume that the
The equations define the applied voltages. magnitude of all voltages is 1, but the
We will assume K = 1 for simplicity. If audio phase difference, (), is 88 instead
we insert the voltages from Fig. 1, we sion of Eq. 2, the output of the other of 90. In this case the effective value of
obtain for the two modulator outputs modulator is given by Va is 1 + cos 88 while Va' is sin 88.
The values, respectively, are then Va =
Eo = VeVa sinwetsinwat 1.0349, and Va' = 0.9994. The ampli-
Eo' = Ve'Va'sin (wet + 1r/2) Eo' = Ve' Va' cos We t cos Wa t tude of the two sidebands is then
sin (Wilt + 1r/2) (Eq.2) = 1/2Ve' Va' [cos (we - walt E1sb = 1/2 (1.0349 + 0.9994)
+ cos (we + walt' Eusb = 1/2 (0.9994 - 1.0349)
Three standard trigonometric identi- J (Eq.7) (Eq.9)
ties which we will use are
Again, both lower and upper sidebands Taking 20 times the log of the ratio of
sin A sin B = are represented. the two, we find that the suppression of
1/2 [cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)J If the 2 outputs, Eo and Eo', are the undesired sideband is 35.2 dB.
added as shown in Fig. 1, the resultant Slight phasing errors are of conse.
(Eq.3) output voltage E"et is given by quence.
236 Appendix 1
Appendi~2
Band-pass Filters
~rrrrrr
C01 C12 C23 C30
however. An example of a familiar
singly terminated filter is the pi network
used in transmitter-output stages. Singly
terminated 2-pole fIlters will be dis-
cussed later.
Shown in Fig. 3 is the circuit for a
3-pole filter. This filter is also doubly (A)
terminated. The circuit at Fig. 3A is the
~tfP~i
complete 3-pole filter. The subscripting
has been chosen to signify the position
of that component in the filter. That is,
C2 is the capacitor needed to tune the
second resonator while C23 is the c
coupling capacitor between resonators 2 ---1
(B)
and 3. All inductors being labelled L R3
DOUBLY TERMINATED,DOUBLE TUNED CIRCUITS
signifies that all are identical.
Table 3 gives data for 30, three-pole
Fig. 2 - Examples of doubly terminated band-pass fIlters. The normalized Q is
double-tuned circuits. See text for Cl and
C2 value. given, allowing the insertion loss to be (8)
evaluated from Fig. 1. CI, C2 and C3,
the capacitors to tune the three reso-
usually not necessary that the resistors nators, are given as are the respective
be included when building the circuits. coupling capacitors C12 and C23 Also
Since only the nodal capacitances presented are the proper end capacitors,
are given in Table 2, it will be necessary Co 1 and C30 needed to match to 50
for the builder to calculate the actual ohms.
capacitance, CI and C2 (see Fig. 2), that Sometimes it is desirable to match
will be used in a practical circuit. The the ends of the filter with links (perhaps
equations are also given in Table 2. All to impedances other than 50 ohms) or
of the filters in the tables are doubly to terminate the filter in a high value of
terminated. That is, each end of the resistance. The appropriate methods are
filter must be terminated with a resistive shown in Fig. 3B and C. Note that it has
load of the proper magnitude. All filters been necessary to replace the resonator Fig.3 - Doubly terminated 3-pole filter.
Table 2
capacitor, C3, with a larger one to
3-dB FREQ. '5 Cend R1 & R2, account for the capacitive reactance of
MHz L TQ50n. kn. C30 presented by the end loading
shown in Table 3. While these methods
1.8 - 1.85 L5 5.4 870 16.8 148 7.02
1.8- 1.9 L5 10.6 847 32.4
are shown only for the "output" end of
221 3.06
1.8 - 1.85 L4 5.2 1485 28.8 192 4.12 the filter, they may be applied equally
1.8 - 1.9 L4 10.3 1446 55.3 291 1.8 to the input section.
3.5 - 3.7 L5 12.5 224 8.8 83.4 5.67
3.5 - 3.6 L5 6.3 230
If capacitive coupling to a resistance
4.6 56.6 12.6
3.8 - 4.0 L5 11.5 191 6.9 70.7 6.7 other than 50 ohms is desired at one or
3.8 - 4.0 L4 12.7 325 11.8 93.2 3.89 both ends of the filter, this is possible.
3.5 - 3.7 L4 13.7 382 15.0 110 3.28 Considering the input, the nodal capaci-
3.5 - 3.6 L4 7.0 393 7.8 75.1 7.19
5.0- 5.2 L5 8.3 111
tance of the resonator is Co = COl + Cl
3.1 40.1 12.1
7.0 - 7.1 L3 3.8 248 2.5 26.6 14.4 + Cl2. This value will be the same for
7.0 - 7.2 L3 7.5 245 4.9 42.4 5.6 all three resonators. Given in Table 3 is
7.0 - 7.3 L3 11.2 242 7.2 53.2 3.55 the required resistive load at the input,
7.0 - 7.2 L5 4.9 57.5 1.1 19.1 27.4
10.7 - 11.1 L3 102.7
Rl. If it is desired to load the input
9.9 2.7 25.9 6.4
10.8 - 11.0 L3 4.6 102.7 1.3 16.7 15.3
with a resistance lower than Rl, a
14.0 -14.2 L3 3.6 61.6 0.6 9.2 30.0 coupling capacitor may be used. This
14.0.14.4 L3 7.2 60.4 1.2 14.7 11.6 capacitor should have a reactance at the
14.0-14.4 L2 3.3 158.7 1.6 14.4 12.3
16.0 -16.5 L2 7.6 118 2.6
center frequency of Xc '-'yRlRL - RL 2 .
20.4 4.7
19.0 - 21.0 Ll 19.5 129 9.2 37.8 0.94 The capacitance, Cl, required to tune
19.0 - 20.0 L1 10.0 136 4.9 26.6 1.93 the first resonator will be the nodal
19.0 - 19.5 L1 5.1 139 2.6 17.6 4.49 capacitance less the inter-resonator
21.0 - 21.5 L2 5.7 68.4 1.1 11.4 8.7
21.0 - 21.3 Ll 2.8 115 1.2
capacitance and the end coupling capac-
9.2 13.3
21.0 - 21.5 L1 4.6 114 1.9 14.1 5.69
itance. The same method may be
28.0 - 29.0 L1 6.3 64 1.6 11.8 4.5 applied to the output.
28.0 - 28.5 L1 3.2 65.3 0.8 7.2 12.4 Consider an example. One of the
41 .42 L1 3.1 29.9 .05 4.6 13.7
41 - 43 L1 6.2 29.3 0.1
filters in Table 3 is for 28 to 29 MHz.
7.6 4.98
From the table we see that CI = 46 pF.
Data for doubly terminated double-tuned circuit. See Table 1 for coil data and Fig. 2
COl = 16.6 pF and Cl2 = 1.6 pF. The
for schematic of filter. Note that the resonator capacitances are not given. Cj = Co - C12 - nodal capacitance is then the sum of
Cend. See text for data and explanation. these, Co = 64.2 pF. Assume that it is
desired to couple a 600-ohm load into
238 Appendix 2
Table 3
F3dB *L 00 C1 C2 C3 COl R1 R3
MHz No, Kn Kn
1.80 4 5.2 1186 1430 1289 273 286 26.9 28.6 2.0 5.4
1.85
1.8 - 1.9 5 10.6 505 783 605 308 212 33.9 30.7 1.6 3.4
1.8 - 1.85 5 5.4 646 838 724 209 130 15.9 16.7 3.5 9.0
1.8 - 2.0 5 21 314 684 438 426
172
3".
117
65.2
10.8
55.9
10.0
0.83
5.1
1.5
11.1
1.8 - 1.85 6 9.0 360 522 416
1.8 - 1.825 6 4.6 431 541 477 115 68.7 4.8 5.4 11.7 32.7
3.5 - 3.6 5 6.3 146 221 174 79.3 51.2 4.5 4.5 6.4 15.4
3.8 - 4.0 5 11.5 85.9 177 116 97.5 67.8 7.3 6.5 3.6 7.3
3.8 - 4.0 4 12.7 184 302 224 129 90 12.5 11.2 2.0 4.2
3.5 - 3.7 4 13.8 214 352 261 152 107 16.0 14.1 1.8 3.5
3.5 - 3.6 . 4 7.0 280 377 316 105 68.8 7.8 7.6 3.7 8.6
3.9 - 4.0 4 6.3 228 306 258 84 54 5.5 5.6 4.7 11.2
3.5 - 4.0 5 33.1 88.5 286 154 229 168 36.3 31.1 0.74 1.3
5.0 - 5.5 5 24 52.9 155 84.6 114 84 13.2 11.3 1.5 2.7
7.0 - 7.1 3 '3.8 208 244 220 38.4 25.8 2.1 2.6 7.0 15.0
7.0 - 7.2 3 7.6 181 236 201 .59.1 39.1 4.9 4.7 2.9 6.6
7.0 - 7.3 3 11.2 161 227 184 73.7 68.0 7.5 7.0 1.87 3.86
10.7.11.1 3 10.1 63.9 97.4 75.4 36.0 24.8 2.7 2.5 3.3 7.0
12.0-12.5 3 10.8 46.9 76.7 57.0 32.0 22.1 2.5 2.2 3.4 7.0
14.0 - 14.2 3 3.6 47.4 60.1 51.7 13.2 8.9 0.5 0.6 14.5 32.1
14.0-14.4 3 7.18 38.6 58 45.6 20.5 13.6 1.2 1.1 6.0 13.7
16.0 -16.5 2 7.6 87.3 113.2 97 28.4 18.8 2.6 2.5 2.4 5.5
19 .20 1 10.0 93 126 106 37.2 25.3 5.1 4.7 1.0 2.1
19.0 -19.5 1 5.1 112 134 121 25 15.3 2.4 2.6 2.2 5.9
21.0-21.5 2 5.7 51.3 66.2 57.2 16.0 10.1 1.0 1.1 4.4 11.1
28.0.28.5 1 3.2 54 63.9 59 10.5 5.4 0.6 0.9 2.2 5.8
28 -29 1 6.3 46 61.1 52 16.6 10.7 1.6 1.6 2.3 5.5
41 - 42 1 3.1 22.8 29 26.0 6.7' 3.5 .4 .5 2.5 6.4
41 .43 1 6.2 17.6 27.3 21.4 10.7 6.9 1.0 1.0 2.5 6.1
50 -52 1 4.7 12.3 18.8 15.1 7.0 4.2 0.50 0.55 4.0 11.0
this ftlter. From the table, we see that reference to Fig. 5, Eq. A gives the
Rl = 2300 ohms. The reactance of the center angular frequency. Eq. B is the Wo =2rrvtd2 (Eq. A)
capacitor re~uired will be Xc= (2300 X nodal capacitance in farads while Eq. C
600 - 600 YI2 = 1010 ohms. The gives the loaded filter Q. Eq. D shows.
center frequency is 28.5 MHz (actually, the coupling capacitance between reso- Co = (Lwo 2) -1 (Eq. B)
the geometric mean should be used). nators. Eq. E gives the net Q that each
The capacitance at this frequency with end section must be loaded to, while
1.01-kS1 reactance is 5.5 pF. The result- Eq. F gives the external Q. In a 2-pole, (Eq. C)
ing input part of the ftlter is shown in doubly terminated filter, these values
Fig. 4. Note that Cl has changed are the same for each end. Eq. G gives
slightly from the value used for a the end loading resistance required to (Eq. D)
50-ohm termination. establish the previously defined external
While computer analysis is handy Q. Eq. H gives the capacitor needed to
when designing a large number of ftlters, couple to a given RL. RL must be less Qj=..;2 QL (Eq. E)
it is not necessary. Shown in Fig. 5 is a than the corresponding Re. Eq. I com-
set of nine equations which may be pletes the calculations with the values of for j = 1,2
followed to design a 2-pole ftlter. The the capacitors to tune each resonator.
designations foRow those used in the
schematic of Fig. 2. To design a filter,
all that is required to be known are the
Fig. 6 shows an application of these
calculations. The filter covers the 14.0-
to 14.4-MHz range. The inductor is L3
'lej= (J du y1
j -
3-dB frequencies (in Hz), the inductor from Table 1 with L = 2.08 ~H with Qu for j = 1,2 (Eq. F)
(in henrys) and the unloaded Q of that = 255 at 14 MHz. Note that this filter is
inductor at the center frequency. With included in the catalog, Table 2.
While not complicated, the exact Rej = Qej woL
design of filters with a larger number of forj=I,2 (Eq. G)
poles is more involved. This results not
only from additional component values
1.6pF that must be calculated, but from the
f---- so-called normalized coupling coeffi-
cients and end section Qs. These values (Eq. H)
are dependent upon the normalized Q
of the filter. They are inde'pendent of
Qo in a two-pole filter, however, and are C;=Co -C;L -C12
contained within the equations of Fig. (Eq. I)
for j = 1,2
5.
Sometimes it is desirable to couple a
Fig. 4 - Input portion of a filter from ftlter with mutual inductors instead of Fig. 5 - Algorithum for the design of a
Table 3. capacitors. This is done easily usingdata doubly terminated double tuned circuit.
Co = (Wo 2 X 2.08 X 10-6)-1 implicit in the tables. The tables give the and then adjust the filter empirically for
. = 6.04 X 10-11 Farad = 60.4 pF. nodal capacitance, Co, and the coupling the desired response. If a filter is
capacitance between two resonators, designed for a given bandwidth when
(Eq. B)
9k' (In Table 2, Co is given directly. In doubly terminated, but is then construc-
Table 3 it must be calculated.) The ted according to Fig. 9, the result will
QL = Wo / (21T X 0.4 X 106) = 35.5 coupling coefficient between resonators usually be a double-humped response. A
(Eq. C) is Kjk = Cjk/Co' If a mutual inductor is flat response could be achieved with a
to be used (see Fig. 7), its value is Lm = terminating resistor at the ou tpu t of the
LKjk. Lm is the value of the nodal filter, R2 of Table 2. Alternatively, the
Cl2 = 60.4 X 10-11 / (35.5 X 1.4.4) inductor. coupling capacitor to the load, CIL,
= 1.2 X 10-12 F=1.2pF. Ideally, for the calculations de- could be increased. This increases the
(Eq. D) scribed it is best to measure the value of loading on the first resonator, decreas-
the inductance and Qu at the frequency ing the value of Qe for that circuit.
of application. However, we have found Generally, a flat response is obtained if
1.414 X 35.5 = 50.2 the data in the Amidon catalog to be Qe is decreased by a factor of V2 (see
(Eq. E) accurate and suitable for these network Fig. 5). When this is done, the ultimate
calcula ti ons. bandwidth will be less than the original,
Qel = Qe2 One of the practical problems en- again by a factor of about V2. This is
= (50.2
1
2i5 ) -1 = 62.5
countered ~hen building multipole fil- often acceptable. It is not recommended
ters is that of component selection. The that unterminated filters be built which
(Eq. F) capacitors used to tune each resonator utilize more than two poles.
are not difficult to realize. Usually, a
ReI =Re2 combination of a fixed-value unit and a Q Measurement and Filter
= 62.5 X Wo X 2.08 X 10-6 mica compression trimmer will serve Alignment
adequately. The most severe problem is In the design of predistorted filters,
= 11.6 kn (Eq. G) with the coupling capacitors. Tables 2 it is necessary that the unloaded resona-
and 3 reveal a number of small, non- tor Q be known prior to synthesis.
standard values. One way to circumvent While this value can often be measured
this problem is shown in Fig. 8. A with a Q meter, an equally viable
1 desired small capacitor, Cjk> may be method is shown in Fig. 10. A 50-ohm
woVl1.6 X 103 X 50 -2500 replaced by a network of three capaci- signal generator is used in conjunction
=' 14.8 X 10-6 = 11.6 kn tors, two of value C' and a third of value with a 50-ohm detector. First, the gen-
(Eq. H) C". The equations for selection are erator (perhaps with an attenuator in its
given in the figure. Similar methods may output) is connected to the detector
be applied at the end sections. Link and the response is noted. Then an
CI = C2 = 60.4 - 14.8 - 1.2
coupling can also be used at the ends, unknown resonator is inserted, as shown
= 44.4 pF. (Eq. I) in the figure. Cin and Cout should be
saving in component count and space.
Alternatively, a combination of link equal and small in value. The capacitors
Fig. 6 - Design of a filter using the method coupling and a series capaci tor can be are small enough when the insertion loss
of Fig. 5. The filter is terminated in 50 ohms
at each end and has a bandpassof 14 to 14.4 used. through the resulting one-pole fIlter is
MHz. All of the filters presented have been 30 to 40 dB. The generator is then
doubly terminated. However, in the case tuned through the resonant frequency
of the two-pole filter, it is not always of the resonator, noting the frequencies
necessary that a filter be doubly termi- where the detector response is down by
nated to function properly. In some 3 dB. The difference in the two is the
cases, it is desirable that a filter not be unloaded bandwidth. The unloaded Q is
terminated at both ends. One example
might be the input to a receiver where a
double-tuned circuit is used to drive the
input of an FET mixer or amplifier. The
lack of a termination leads to higher
voltage transformation ratios, increasing
gain of the FET circuit.
Shown in Fig. 9 is a singly termin-
ated filter with two poles. The easiest
way to realize such a filter in practice is
Fig.7 - Mutual-inductor coupling method. to use the tables or Fig. 5 as a guideline Fig. 9 - Singly terminated 2-pole filter.
240 Appendix 2
result. Generally, those filters with a detector is still attached to the first
COUT low normalized Q are the easiest to resonator. If desired, at this point the
coupling may be checked between reso-
X
~'N align. Unfortunately, they are also
lossier. nators I and 2. If the generator is swept
T ~500HM
ATTEN. ,+, iETECTOR Shown in Fig. II is a more advanced on either side of the center frequency,
peaks will be measured. The coupling
method of filter alignment. The filter is
modified in two ways. First, a low- coefficient is approximately equal to
impedance detector is coupled very the separation in frequency divided by
loosely to the first resonator. The prob- the center frequency. (If the methods of
ing capacitor, Cp" should be much small- Fig. 8 were being used, C" could then
Fig. 10 - Method for determining resonator er than any of the coupling or end load. be adjusted properly.) This general
unloaded Q. method may be used to evaluate the
ing capacitors. Second, each resonator
then the center frequency divided by has a switch across it. In practice, each coupling between all of the resonators.
the bandwidth. The advantage of this may be a small piece of wire that is Assuming that the methods outlined
method over that of using a Q meter is soldered temporarily to each resonator. have been applied, or the builder has
that it is applicable at vhf and uhf, well The first step in alignment is to close otherwise assured that the coupling and
above the range of Q-measuring instru- all switches except Sl. The generator is loadings are proper, fmal alignment may
mentation. set to the center frequency and CI is be done. The setup of Fig. 11 is used, as
The design of multipole filters is adjusted for a peak in the detector. The shown. First, all switches except SI are
covered by Zverev. The data for three- generator is then swept around the closed. Cl is tuned for a peak at the
pole Butterworth filters have been center frequency, noting the 3-dB fre- center frequency. Then, S2 is opened
applied here. However, tables are avail- quencies. This determines the loaded and C2 is tuned for a dip in detector
able for a number of response shapes bandwidth and thus the loaded Q of the response. Following this, S3 is opened
with up to eight poles. Although not end section. Co 1 may be adjusted, if and C3 is tuned for a peak. The proce-
immediately obvious, the essence of necessary, to produce the proper end Q. dure is continued until the filter is
such a design is to establish the singly A similar procedure is performed at the completely aligned. The output section
loaded Q of the end sections of the output end of the filter to establish that should be terminated duriI}g alignment.
fl1ter and the coupling coefficients be- Q, usually different than that of the The advantage of this method is that all
tween resonators. As mentioned previ- input. alignment takes place at one frequency.
ously, the coupling coefficients in the The next step is to reconnect the This technique is attributed to Dishal
two- and three-pole filters may be generator to 'the input. With all switches (see bibliography). Equipment suitable
inferred from the data we have presen- except SI closed, Cl is peaked at the for this method was described in chap-
ted. The values of these parameters will fl1ter center. Leaving the generator set, ter 7. After alignment, the detector is
depend upon the normalized Q of the S2 is now opened. C2 is adjusted for a removed and the end of Cp is soldered
fl1ter. dip in detector response. Note that the to ground.
Once a filter is designed, it still must
be built and aligned. This is sometimes Cp
Tc
R .~ into the three simultaneous equations,
IN Jo(mA)
we obtain the results Vb = 0.9315 volt,
Ve = -2.6986 volts, and Ve = 0.7534 ,s.10
(3 = h/f volt. The negative sign on the collector
voltage indicates that the amplifier is
R - 26{3 inverting.
in - le(rnA)
The output power is VL 2 /RL = 146
mW. The available generator power, Pa, Fig.2 - Small-signal amplifier using shunt
and series feedback. The model of Fig. 1 is
Fig; 1 - Simplified model for a bipolar tran- was 20 mW. The transducer gain, CT, is used for analysis. Arrows show the assumed
sistor. defined as the power output divided by direction of current flow.
244 Appendix 4
approaching 90 degrees. Many of the
RF
transistors used routinely in amateur
applications are operated above 1{3' For
example, for the 2N3904 withfr =300
Rj
MHz and (30 = 100,f{3 is only 3 MHz.
, The final feature of the hybrid-pi
v. model is a collector-base capacitance.
This built-in feedback element leads to a
R. further decrease in gain as IT is ap'
proached over that implicit in the de-
crease in beta. It also leads to reverse
gain and, sometimes, instability.
Fig. 3 - Circuit used for evaluation of the out- The implications of a complex beta Fig.5 - Circuit analysis showing the effect of
put impedance of the feedback amplifier. a reactive emitter bypass.
can be profound. Consider the slightly
simplified hybrid-pi model in the circuit
of Fig. 5. In this analysis, we have
with measured data. This is predomi- neglected the collector.to.base capaci- ance (assuming the same transistor
nantly because of feedback. As we tance. The results will be qualitatively parameters as were used above) is 27.6
emphasized in the text, one of the the same if it is included. - j25. With a 100-nanohenry emitter
major virtues of feedback is predictable The impedance that is in the emitter inductor, Zin :::;189 + j30. The input is
circuit behavior, independent of active lead of the circuit is a paralleled 100. now predominantly real and much
device characteristics. ohm resistor and ,a 100-pF capacitor. higher than before.
The simple model of Fig. 1 is Assume that the operating frequency is This effect can be of profound
limited. It always predicts an output 30 MHz. At this frequency, the emitter importance in the design of very low
which is 180 degrees out of phase with impedance is Ze = 21.9 - j41.4 ohms. noise amplifiers. Noise modeling gener.
the input signal. This is because we have (This is arrived at by writing the admit. ally attributes much of the excess noise
neglected any reactive elements. A more tance Y = l/R + jwC. The impedance is output of a transistor to noise from Rb'
complete model, known as the hybrid then the reciprocal of the admittance, Z and Re of the hybrid-pi. To achieve a
pi, is shown in Fig. 4. In this model,Rb' = l/Y = y*/yy* where the asterisk low noise figure, the input must be
is a base resistance that is independent signifies the complex conjugate.) terminated so that much of the noise
of current in the transistor. Re is a If the model is analyzed, we find power of these elements is shunted to
built.in emitter resistance with a magni. that the input impedance is given by ground. However, a reactive element in
tude of 26/Ie(mA). If this model is a circuit contributes virtually no noise.
analyzed, we find that the emitter resis- (Eq.4) The increased input impedance of the
tance, Re, transforms to a base input amplifier with emitter inductance
resistance of ((3 + I)Re, similar to that results predominantly from two reactive
used in the simplified model of Fig. 1. Assume that the transistor has IT = 300 effects - the reactance of the induc-
The most unique feature of the hybrid- MHz and (30 = 50. Using the formula of tance and the complex, capacitive-like
pi model is the complex (algebraically) Fig. 4, (3 = 1.92 - j9.62 (predominantly effect of an almost all reactive beta. The
nature of beta. At very low frequencies, imaginary). Substituting the complex (3 clever circuit designer may utilize this
beta has the value (30' However, as and Ze into Eq. 4 and assuming that Rb' phenomenon to achieve a very low noise
frequency increases, the magnitude of = 20 ohms and Re = 2.6 ohms (Ie = 10 figure simultaneously with a 50-ohm,
the effective beta decreases and be- mA), we find that Zin = -306 - j356 resistive-input impedance. This has the
comes more reactive. A significant fre- ohms. It is significant that the real part virtue of allowing the use of a multiple
quency is 1(3 which is defined as 1ft = of this impedance, the input resistance, resonator filter ahead of the amplifier to
fr/(3o' At this frequency, (3 = ((30/2) (1 is negative. This implies that if the input protect it from strong out-of-passband
- jl). The magIlitude ofbeta is reduced of this amplifier is terminated in a low signals. Typical multipole preselector
by the factor ::.r'2
and the phase angle is value of resistance, perhaps with some filters must be doubly terminated.
-45 degrees (the collector current is 45 inductive reactance to tune out the Amateurs are presently in the pro-
degrees out of phase with the base drive input capacitance, the stage will oscil- cess of rediscovering this phenomenon
current). As frequency is increased fur- late! If the original goal were to design and are applying it to the design of
ther, beta becomes predominantly an amplifier rather than an oscillator, receiver preamplifiers for moonbounce
imaginary with the phase angle stability could be regained with; a larger at 432 MHz. However, an exhaustive
emitter bypass capacitance. Alterna-
tively, a series (positive) base resistor
will improve stability. A shunt resis-
tance, however, would not.
This analysis demonstrates some of
the features of stability analysis. We will
have more to, say about stability later.
B c Also, the example of Fig. 5 shows why
26 emitter-follower amplifiers sometimes
R IelmA) oscillate, especially when terminated in
a capacitive load.
E Another application of emitter reac-
Re = 26/Ie(mA) (3 = (30 tance is shown in Hg. 6. Here, Ze is a
1 + j(301 small inductor. The value of Ze is 0 +
fr jwL, a positive imaginary element. If Fig. 6 - Amplifier with an inductive-emitter
termination. This method is often used with
this is inserted into Eq. 4, the input microwave amplifiers to achieve a proper in-
Fig.4 - Refined model of a bipolar transistor. impedance may be calculated. With no put impedance match while preserving ampli-
Note that beta is now a complex number. emitter inductance, the input imped- fier-noise figure and stability.
246 Appendix 4
The previous two equations may be
rewritten in a different format. +
RL
RL
(Eq.14)
- A2
-
:cfROT
in a 50-ohm (Zo) system. Also, 181212
TWO
~Vs NETWORK VA
82
..1.
( i ,
- /
'., ~ h "".".
~
, ,.
"i'r,'
. JJ: .:~ ~ .; ..
::
'~h: jj.
and the physical size. Values of K for a TYPE K, nHt-2 RANGE TYPE K,nHt'2 RANGE
number of popular powdered-iron cores
are given in Table 1.
As an example, the T50-2 core has
T30-2
TSO-2
4.3
,5.0
..
0.5-30 MHz T25-6
T37-6
2.7
3.0
..
3-250 MHz
250 Appimdix-5 \ _ A.
Bibliog raphy
Bibliography 251
Kestler, "A Phase-Locked Oscillator for Shuch, "Easy-to-Build SSB Transceiver Granberg, "Broadband Linear Power
144 MHz," VHF Communications, for 1296 MHz," Ham Radio, Amplifiers Using Push-Pull Transis-
NO.6 (l974), pp. 114-124. September, 1974. . tors," Motorola AN-593.
Kestler, "A 400-Channel Synthesizer for Sowden, "The Super-Simple 80-20 Re. Hejhall, "Rf Small Signal Design Using
2 m," VHF Communications, NO.6 ceiver," QST, April, 1972. Tw o-Port Parameters," Motorola
(1974), pp. 131.141. Stecker, "Some Tips on Successful QRP AN.215A.
Lange, "A Three.Transistor Receiver," Operation," QST, November, 1972. Hejhall, "Solid-State Linear Power
QST, March, 1968. Stein, "Solid.State Transmitting Con- Amplifier Design," Motorola
Leibowitz, "A Complete Solid-State verter for 144. MHz SSB," Ham AN-546.
Portable for 40 Meters," QST, Radio, February, 1974. Kraus and Allen, "Designing Toroidal
August, 1970. Stoffels, "Let's Talk Transistors," QST, Transformers to Optimize Wideband
Leslie, "Breadboard Revisited," QST, November, 1969, to July, 1970. Performance," Electronics, August
February, 1974. (This excellent series is available as a 16,1973.
Lowe, "A 15-Watt-Output Solid-State reprint from ARRL, 225 Main St., Leeson, "A Simple Model of Feedback
Linear Amplifier for 3.5 to 30 Newington, CT 06111, price $1.) Oscillator Noise Spectrum," Proc. of
MHz," QST, December, 1971. Taylor, "A Direct.Conversion SSB Re- IEEE, February, 1966.
Manon, "An HF.Band Solid-State ceiver," QST, September, 1969. lloyd, "Here's a Better Way to Design a
Amplifier," QST, September, 1973. Turrin, "Broadband Balun Trans- 90-Degree Phase-Difference Net-
(TRW 25 and 100 W SSB.) formers," QST, August, 1964. work," Electronic Design, July,
Moore, "Some Design Ideas for Special- Turrin, "Application of Broadband 1971.
ized Communications Receivers," Balun Transformers," QST, April, Moo r e , "Phase. Locked Loops for
Ham Radio, June, 1974. (BC-band 1969. Motor-speed Control," IEEE Spec-
receiver.) Vester, "Surplus.Crystal High-Frequen- trum, April, 1973.
Nelson, "A Little About Noise," 73, cy Filters," QST, January, 1959. Oxner, "Active Double-Balanced Mixers
January, 1967. . Weiss, "Simple and Accurate RF Power made Easy with Junction FETs,"
O'Hern and Sly, "Balanced Modulators Meter," Ham Radio, October, 1973. EDN, July 5, 1974.
for VHF and UHF Sideband," QST, White, "Balanced Detector in a T.R.F. Oxner, "FETs Work Well in Active
November, 1969. (Direct phasing at Receiver," QST, May, 1961. Balanced Mixers," EDN, January,
2 meters.) Wine, "New Front End for the HW.7," 1973.
Parrish, "Detecting VHF Signals Too QST, December, 1973. Pitzalis and Couse, "Practical Design
Weak To Be Heard,"QST, January, Winn, "Synthesized Communications Information for Broadband Trans.
1968. Receiver ," Wireless World, October, mission-Line Transformers," Proc. of
Poor, "~9/S1 - The Art of Weak-Signal 1974. IEEE, April, 1968.
Detection," QST, October, 1965. Priestley, "Oscillator Noise and its
Pos, "Digital Logic 'Devices," QST, July, Effect on Receiver Performance,"
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1968. Radio Communication, July, 1970.
Pos, "Integrated-Circuit Flip-Flops," Al-Araji and Gosling, "Direct Conver- Rohde, "Eight Ways to Better Radio
QST, February, 1971. , sion SSB Receivers," The Radio and ; Receiver Design," Electronics,
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Preamplifier," Ham Radio, October, tronics, February 19,1976. Simons, "The Decibel Relationships Be-
1975. Chambers, "A 1000-W Solid-State tween Amplifier Distortion Prod-
Reisert, "Ultra Low Noise UHF Pre. Power Amplifier ," Electronic De. ucts," Proc. of IEEE, July, 1970.
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Re ss, "Broadband Double-Balanced In term od Performance," Micro- lett-Packard Journal, January, 1976.
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1970. 1973. Weaver, "A Third Method of Generation
Rife, "Low-Loss Passive Bandpass CW Danley, "Mounting Stripline.Opposed. and Detection of Single.Sideband
Filters," QST, September, 1971. Emi Her Transistors," Motorola Signals," Proc. IRE, December,
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Shubert, "Solid-State Phasing-Type SSB Applications Note, Beaverton, to amplifier ,design. Scattering para.
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S ta te linear Amplifiers," Ham for RF," Motorola AN-749. Wesley, 1971.
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signs.) fier,'.' Motorola EB-27. tice-Hall, Inc.
252 Bibliography
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McGraw-Hill, 1964. Rheinfelder, Design of Low-Noise Tran- Wiley, New York, 1970.
Engelson and Telewski, Spectrum sistor Input Circuits, Hayden, 1964. ARRL Electronics Data Book, Ameri.
Analyzer Theory and Application, Searle, et aI, Elementary Circuit Proper- can Radio Relay League.
Artech House, 1974. ties of Transistors, Semiconductor Basic Theory and Application of Tran-
Fisk, Ham Notebook, Communications Electronics Education Committee, sistors, by U.S. Department of the
Technology, 1973. Volume 3, Wiley, 1964. (Good Army, Dover PUblications, Inc.
Gardner, Phaselock Techniques, John models information.) High Power RF Transistors, Amperex
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Third Edition, Radio Society of Terman, Electronic and Radio Engineer- Linear Applications, Feb. 1973, Nation-
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Jung, IC OP-AMP COOKBOOK, No. 1955. volume of IC application notes.)
20969, Howard Sams and Co., Inc. Tobey, Graeme and Huelsman, Opera- Linear Integrated Circuits, No. IC42 ,
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Design & Application, Halsted Press, tions, McGraw-Hill, 1971. The Radio Amateur's Handbook, Amer-
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Bibliography 253
fier using: 195 Doubler: 44
Bipolar type of post-mixer amplifier: Frequency doubler: 42
123 "Ideal": 8
Broadband: Mixers: 118
Class A amplifier: 188 Switching a crystal fllter: 193
Class A power amplifier: 206 Switching with PIN devices in i~ffilter
Matching transformers: 54 section of a receiver: 91
Ac-current gain: 20 Transformer, conventional: 59,60 Diplexer circuits for use after a mixer:
Active band-pass filter: 81 Transformers, matching: 54 119
Active region: 10 Utility power amplifiers: 62 Direct-conversion receiver: 71
Agc-detection system: 92 Break-in delay circuit which uses an Direct-conversion receivers, audio ampli-
Agc detectors, fullwave audio: 92 NE555 timer IC: 177 fiers for: 76
Agc loops and detection systems: 90 Bridge circuit for rf sine waves: 152 Direct-conversion receiver for 40 meters,
Agc threshold: 94 Bridges for antenna tuners: 153 pocket-size: 99
A-m phone signal, na ture of an: 181 Bridge-Tee attenuator using PIN diodes: Direct-conversion VFO transceivers for
Amplifier: 91 40 and 80 meters: 221
Forward and reverse agc, which uses: Buffer amplifier: 23 Discrete regulators, refinements in: 158
88 Buffer amplifiers, designing untuned: Divide-by-N synthesizer: 49
Grounded emitter: 20 19 Double-balanced diode-ring mixer: 119
High-power linear ssb, the biasing Double-balanced mixer: 45
problem: 192 CA3021E doubly balanced detector: 73 Double-sideband signal: 182
Intercept: 113 CA3028A product detector: 72 Double-sideband transmitters: 195
Inverting: 21 Capacitance bridge: 168 Double-tuned front-end circuit: 96
Single-ended 4- to 6-W: 61 Cascaded filter sections: 81 Doubly terminated double-tuned circuit,
Amplifiers: Cascaded half-lattice crystal filter: 86 algorithum for the design of a: 239
Front end: 122 Cascode i-f amplifier: 89 Doubly terminated tuned circuits, ex-
IC i-f: 89 Circuit boards, etched: 28 amples of: 238
Intermediate-frequency: 87 Class If. amplifier: 24 Doubly terminated 3-pole fllter: 238
MOSFET i-f: 89 Class A amplifiers, broadband: 188 DSB cw exciter for 144 MHz: 197
High-power solid-state: 57 Class AB rf amplifier, high-power: 191 DSB transmitter for six meters, simple:
Selecting transistors for: 25 Class A power amplifier, broadband: 196
Shunt feedback and emitter degener- 206 Dual-conversion superheterodyne
ation, with: 188 Class A rf amplifier: 21 receiver: 83
Antenna matching techniques: 163 Class C amplifier, medium power: 24 Dual-gate MOSFET:
Antenna-support line: 210 Class C power amplifier: 24 I-f amplifier: 88
Antenna tuners, bridges for: 153 Collector rf choke: 25 Mixer: 95
Attenuators: 150 Common-gate JFET rf amplifier: 96 Product detector: 72
Audio amplifier capable of 78 dB of Continuously variable regulated supply VFO: 34
gain: 77 which utilizes the LM317K: 160
Audio amplifiers for direct-conversion Controlled-Q L network: 53 Electrical equivalent of a quartz crystal:
receivers: 76 Conventional broadband transformer: 85
Audio amplifiers, practical: 77 59,60 Electronic keyer, an: 177
Audio amplifier, three-stage, high-gain: Converter designs: 139 Electronic T-R switching: 178
76 Converters, crystal-controlled: 128,129 Emitter degeneration: 20, 21, 192
Audio filters: 79 Converters, high performance: 139 Etched circuit boards: 28
Audio oscillator which employs an Crystal-controlled converters: 128, 129
NE555 timer IC: 174 Crystal-controlled sources for IMD mea- Feedback:
Audio limiter: 93 surements: 170 Amplifier, evaluation of the out-put
Audio voltmeter: 167 Crystal-filter construction: 217 impedance of the: 245
Crystal filter, half-lattice: 86 Amplifier, noninverting: 15
Balanced modulators: 184 Crystal oscillators: 17, 20 Negative: 22
Balanced modulator using the MC1496G: Crystal oscillator, third-overtone: 18 Series: 21
185 Current generator: 9 Shunt: 21
Balanced modulators using diode rings: Current limiting: 157 Upon transducer gain, effect of: 189
186 Current-overload protective circuit: 158 Ferrite cores: 56
Balanced modulators using two diodes: Cw transceiver for 7 MHz, ultra-portable: FET:
185 219 Amplifier, analysis of an: 246
Ballasted transistors: 59 Cw-transmitter formats: 18 Biasing: 13
Band-pass types of matching networks: Dc voltage measurements: 143 Frequency multiplier: 42
164 Dependent current: 9 Load line: 13
Base resistance: 9 Dependent-current generator: 13 Voltmeter, low-cost: 143
Bidirectional amplifier using bipolar Differen tial amplifier: 14 Field-effect transistors, biasing and
transistors: 195 Differential comparator which uses a modeling: 13
Bifilar-wound transformer: 54 741 op amp: 175 Field-strength meter: 171
Bipolar amplifiers: 88 Differential i-f amplifier: 89 Field tester, a handy: 172
Bipolar-transistor crystal oscillator: 19 Differential pair i-f amplifier: 89 Filter:
Bipolar-transistor frequency multiplier: Digital frequency readout: 130 Advanced method for aligning a: 241
41 Digital ICs for generation of quadrature Method of ssb generation: 183
Bipolar-transistor rf amplifier: 97 rf signals: 184 Filters:
Bipolar transistor, biasing of: 9 Diode: Electromechanical: 84
Bipolar transistors, bidirectional ampli- Detectors: 74 Half-wave: 54
254 Index
Loop: 49 Loaded Q: 23 Power output: 23
Multiresonator: 116 Loop fJlter: 49 -Power supplies, solid-state: 155
MultisectionaI active: 82 Low-level rf source: 169 Power supply, basic: 155
Two-pole passive audio: 79 Low-noise oscillator: 126 Preamplifier design: 123
Four-diode mixer: 48 Low-noise preamplifier using a dual- Predistortion: . 237
Frequency-counter fundamentals: 130 gate MOSFET: 124 Preselector design: 115
Frequency multipliers: 41 Product detectors: 71
Frequency offset: 217 Matching network, band-pass types of: Protective circuit, current-overload: 158
Frequency readout, high-resolution: 164 Push-push doubler: 42,43
132 Matching network, L-C-C, with related Push-push frequency doubler: 44
Frequency-response characteristics of equations: 53
a passive audio fJlter: 77 Matching networks, Land T types of: Q measurement and fJlter alignment:
Frequency synthesis: 46 164 240
Front end: "- Matching transformer, broadband: 54 QRP:
Amplifiers: 122 MC1496G IC as a product detector: DXpeditioning: 210
Section of a receiver: 94 72 Operation: 213
IT of a transistor: 9 Measurement of noise in local oscillators: Power meter: 150
Full-wave audio agc detectors: 92 127 Transmatch: 166
Mixer: Quartz crystal:
Circuits: 95 Electrical equivalent of a: 85
Gain compensation: 58 Comparisons: 121
Gain compensation networks for nega- Equivalent circuit for a: 19
Design: 44, 117 Evaluating a: 85
tive feedback: 59 Double-balanced: 45
Gain compression: 113 Four-diode: 48 R-C active audio phase-shifted circuit:
Gain control by means of PIN diodes: High-level balanced JFET: 121
90 . 184
Single-balanced: 46 R-C active cw fJlters: 138
Grounded emitter amplifier: 20
Using a dual-gate MOSFET: 118 Reactive emitter bypass, effect of a:
Using JFETs: 121 245
Half-lattice crystal fJlter: 86
Modeling of an ideal resonator: 115 Reactive impedances, adapter for use in
Half-wave fJlter: 54
MOSFET i-f amplifiers: 89 measuring: 153
Harmonic attenuation: 54 Multiresonator fJlter: 116 Receiver:
Heat sink, homemade high-power: 58 Multisection active fJlters: 82 Design basics: 69 '
Heat sinking and mounting: 57
Front-end section of a: 94
Heat sinks: 25,64 NE555 timer IC: 177 Input protection circuit: 179
Negative-feedback gain compensation: Sensitivity: 70
Ie i-f amplifiers: 89 59 Single-conversion superheterodyne:
I-f amplifier and transmit-mixer de- Noise: 84 "
sign: 186 Factor: 70 Two-tone dynamic range of a: 113
I-f amplifiers, switching in: 90 Figure: 70 40 and 20 meters, unitized: 106
IMD measurements, crystal-controlled Floor: 114 160 meters, high-performance: 132
courses for: 170 Generator: 167 Receivers:
IMD products: 115 Temperature, the principle of: 111 Rf amplifiers for: 97
Inductance of toroid coils: 250 Single- and double-sideband: 184
Inductive-emitter termination: 245 Op-amp sidetone oscillator: 174 Regulated dc supply, overload protec-
In-line rf power measurement: 148 Op-amp voltmeter: 144 tion for a: 158
Input intercept: 113 Operational amplifier: 14 Regulated supply which utilizes the"
Insertion loss versus Qu for Butterworth Oscillators for receiver application: 125 LM317K, continuously variable: 160
fJlters with one to four poles: 237 Oscilloscope presentation of an a-m Regulated voltages: 156
Integrated contest-grade cw station: phone signal, time-domain: 181 Regulator IC, extending the current
225 Output coupling from a Clas~ A ampli- range of a: 160
Intermediate-frequency amplifiers: 87 fier: 23 Regulators, three-terminal: 159
Inverting amplifier: 21 Output intercept: 113 Relay-driver circuit for T-R applications:
Isolation transformer: 55 Output network, prealigning an: 61 175
Resistive attenuators: 151
Parallel-equivalent loss resistance:" 22 Resistive bridge, simple: 154
JFET mixer, high-level balanced: 121 Peak-envelope power (PEP): 182 Resonator unloaded Q, determining:
JFET rf amplifier, common-gate: 96 Phasingmethod of ssb generation: 183, 241
JFETVXO: 19 236 Response curves for a number of Butter-
Phase-frequency detector: 49 worth fJlters: 116
Land T types of matching networks: Phase-locked loop (PLL): 47 Return-loss bridge: 154
164 Pi network, the: 53 Reverse agc: 88
LC fitter, terminating an: 79 PIN diodes in i-f amplifiers: 90 Rf-actuated relay driver: 176
Lnetwork, the: 53 Pnp keying transistor: 180 Rf amplifiers for receivers: 97
L network and equations for using it: Portable operation: 210 Rfbuffer using shunt feedback: 21
52 Post-mixer amplifier without feedback: Rf oscillator, wide-range: 170
L-C-C matching network with related 122 Rf power bridge: 149
equations: 53 Post-mixer i-f amplifiers: 122 Rfpower measurement: 146
L-C-Ctype Tnetwork, the: 53 Power amplifiers and matching networks: Rfpower measurement, in-line: 148
L-C-L type T network, the: 53 52 Rfprobe, building an: 144
Linear two-port network concepts: 246 Power amplifiers, broadband utility: 62 Rf sine waves, bridge circuit for: 152
Load resistance: 24 Power delivered to load: 24 Rf source, low-level: 169
Index 255
RIT circuit, example of an: 218 T-R circuit which uses an op-amp dif- sistance: 152
RlT,using: 218 ferential comparator: 175 Wilderness operation: 211
T-R relay-control systems: 174
T-R switching, electronic: 178
Zener diode: 11, 12
Saturation: 10,20 T-R switch, simple: 178
Zener-diode protective clamp: 60
Series feedback: 21 Transceivers and integrated stations -
construction and operation: 217 Zener-diode range, extending: 157
Shaped keying: 180 Zener diodes, designing with: 156
Shunt feedback: 21 Transceivers and trans-receivers: 217
Shunt feedback in a broadband Class A Transceivers for ssb: 193
medium-power amplifier: 188 Transducer gain as a function of fre-
quency: 189 1: 1 balun transformer: 55
Sidetone oscillators: 173 I-watt amplifier: 79
Sidetone oscillator using a multivibrator: Transducer gain, effect of feedback
upon: 189 I-watt 160-meter transmitter: 38
174 2-A regulated power supply, a: 162
Sieler-type oscillator: 36 Transformer, ideal: 54
Transformer, isolation: 55 2- and 3-pole band-pass filters: 237
Signal power versus distortion products: 3.5-watt amplifier: 79
Transistor and crystal testers: 172
112 3.5- to 4-MHz VFO: 201
Transistor choice: 63
Single-balanced mixer: 46 4: 1 balanced-to-balanced transformer:
Single-conversion ssb transceiver: 193
Transistor,fT of a: 9
Transistor gain: 9 56
Single-conversion superheterodyne re- Transistor modeling: 8 4: 1 step-up transformer: 55
ceiver: 84 Transistorized amplifier with feedback: 4: 1 transformer: 55
Single-sideband generation: 183 16 4-pole lower-sideband ladder filter: 87
Single-sideband signal: 182 Transmatch adjustment: 165 5-watt output Class A power amplifier:
Singly terminated 2-pole filter: 240 Transmatch which features a modified 191
Single-tuned circuit, the: 115 T network: 165 5.0- to 5.5-MHz VFO: 204
Small-signal input resistance: 21 Transposition of a pi network: 52 6-dB hybrid combiner: 155
Small-signal model: 12 Tunable Cohn type of filter: 117 6-meter converter, simple: 130
Small-signal two-port analysis, virtues of: 6-meter dsb QRP transmitter: 196
Tunable rf generators: 171
248 6-meter QRP transmitter: 29
Tuned buffer amplifiers: 22
SN76514 used as a balanced modulator: 7-MHz synthesizer, simple: 48
Two-band direct-conversion receiver:
185 9: 1 unbalanced transformer: 56
98
"Sortabalun": 56 12-V power supply, a husky: 162
Two-diode mixer: 48
Spectrum analyzer display: 126 B-V supply, a low-cost: 161
Ssb generation, filter method of: 183 Universal exciter for ssb and cw: 202 14-MHz generator, weak-signal: 169
Ssb transceiver, single-conversion: 193 Universal QRP transmitter: 26 14-MHz narrow-band rf-power ampli-
Stud transistors, correct and incorrect fier: 205
mounting methods for: 57 Varactor-diode tuning: 34 15-meter cw transmitter with VFO,
Superhet basics - i-f system and filter Variable-crystal oscillator (VXO): 18 deluxe: 51
design: 82 VFO: 15-meter transmitter: 50
Superheterodyne cw transceiver for 7 Clapp: 35 IS-watt amplifier: 64
MHz: 214 Components: 33 15-watt hf-band amplifier: 65
Superheterodyne front-end design, Design guidelines: 33 15-watt linear amplifier: 66
simple: ..94 Design philosophy: 32 20-dB coupler: 151
Superheterodyne receiver, basic: 71 Dual-gate MOSFET: 34 20- and 40-meter cw transmitter with
Superheterodyne receiver, dual- High-stability: 37 VFO: 40
conversion: 83 Lead lengths in a: 34 25-W cw amplifier: 56
Superhet for 80 and 20 meters: 103 Offset circuits: 218 30-dB gain broadband amplifier with 0.5
Superhet for 80 and 40 meters, simple: 80-meter: 35 watt of PEP output: 190
101 160-meter: 37 40-meter transmatch: 166
Synthesizer, divide-by-N: 49 VFOs: Building and using: 32 50-MHz dsb transmitter: 197
System for evaluating the oscillator: Vhf converters: 129 50-ohm amplifier, broadband: 148
127 Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO): 47 75-meter transceiver: 201
Voltage divider, variable-capacitance: 80-meter transceiver: 220
Tent camping: 210 153 100-kHz standard: 171
Timing and control circuits: 173 VXO: 18,19 144-MHz cw/dsb transmitter: 198
Toroid coils, inductance: 250 VXO circuit: 20 160-meter converter: 129
T-R applications, relay-driver circuit 160-meter QRP transmitter: 38
for: 175 Wheatstone bridge for measuring dc re- 300-watt-output linear amplifier: 67
256 Index