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Solar power and application methods

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 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 776785

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Solar power and application methods

Mukrimin Sevket Guney
Energy Systems Engineering/Giresun University, Muhendislik Fakultesi, Gre Yerleskesi, 28200 Giresun, Turkiye

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Solar energy conversion and its application methods varies in wide range from passive solar to heat
Received 28 September 2015 building to complex concentrated form to generate electricity. It is crucial to know these structures in
Received in revised form detail and to classify them in methodical order. The constituent mechanism of primary energy sources
14 December 2015
have been briey mentioned. Hereafter the classication of renewable energies, various application
Accepted 15 December 2015
methods of solar power, the amount of solar energy falling on the earth, the main effects created by solar
energy, and energy conversion methods, inclusively concentrated solar power, have been discussed.
Keywords: & 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Energy
Renewable
Solar power
Application methods

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
2. Classication of renewable and solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
3. Solar radiation on the Earth surface, and the conversion methods of solar energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
3.1. Photovoltaic energy conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
3.2. Thermal conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
4. Concentrating solar power (CSP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
4.1. Linear concentrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
4.1.1. Linear Fresnel collectors system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
4.1.2. Parabolic trough systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
4.2. Dish engine system (Paraboloidal mirrors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
4.3. Central receiver concentrator (power tower system). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
4.4. Thermal storage system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
4.4.1. Two tank direct system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
4.4.2. Two tank indirect system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
4.4.3. Single-tank thermocline system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
4.4.4. Thermal storage system with phase change material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784

1. Introduction energy efciency are gaining importance because of the rapid

decline of fossil fuels and their negative effects on the environ-
The rapid increase in the world population and evolving con- ment. They are among strived topics for investigations today [1,2].
sumer habits can be enumerated among the main reasons of The sun's contribution to our energy needs is substantial. Its
increasing energy requirement and electricity consumption availability far exceeds any conceivable future energy demands [3].
nowadays. The boost in the use of clean and renewable energy Exploiting the sun's power includes some challenges [4]. Harnes-
sources, generating electricity from renewable, and improving
sing these for electricity depends on the cost and efciency of the
technology which is constantly improving and reducing costs per
E-mail address: guney80@gmail.com peak kilowatt. Utilizing electricity from solar in a grid requires

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.055
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M.S. Guney / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 776785
some back-up generating capacity due to their intermittent nature
[5].
The sun creates its energy through a thermonuclear process
that converts about 650,000,000 t of hydrogen to helium every
second. The process creates heat and electromagnetic radiation.
The heat remains in the sun and is instrumental in maintaining the
thermonuclear reaction. The electromagnetic radiation (including
visible light, infra-red light, and ultra-violet radiation) streams out
into space in all directions. Only a very small fraction of the total
radiation of the sun produced reaches the Earth. The radiation that
does reach the Earth is the indirect source of nearly every type of
energy used today [6].
Energy is the power and ability to be physically and mentally
active [7]. There are ve ultimate primary sources of useful energy.
Solar (radiant) energy.
The motion and gravitational potential of the Sun, Moon,
and Earth.
Chemical energy (combustion process) from mineral resources.
Geothermal energy from cooling, chemical reaction and radio-
active decay in the Earth.
Human-induced nuclear reactions [8].
Solar radiation is the main factor for several natural motions
(wind, wave, heat, light, etc.) [9]. The effective and competitive
conversion of these motions into electricity, which is the most
useful form and can be easily turned to the other forms of energy,
is an intensively researched subject. The energy in sunlight is
introduced into the biosphere by a process known as photo-
synthesis, which occurs in plants, algae and some types of bacteria
[10]. Temperature differences occurring due to dissimilar heat
absorbing properties of various materials between areas, produ-
cing wind, which can drive wind turbines. Water evaporates
because of the sun shine heat effect, raises on high elevations, and
as rain falls to earth, which is routable for spinning hydroelectric
turbines. Moreover, the sun shine energy can be used to directly
generate heat, lighting, and electricity. Chemical energy is stored
in the structures of compounds and released when their structures
are changed. Thermal energy increases the motion of atoms and
molecules, thus it provides the mechanism of heat transfer and
phase changes (heating water in order to produce steam). There
are many different classications of energy resources. For the
beginning phase, it seems plausible to make a topic-related clas-
sication of energy sources from the viewpoint of sustainability,
such as exhaustible (depletable), and renewable (non-depletable).
Renewability or non-renewability of a solar driven process is dis-
tinguished based on the energy storage or cycling time involved.
Renewable resources have a cycling time less than 100 years, while
for non-renewable resources; it is greater than a million years [11].
2. Classication of renewable and solar energy
Natural renewable resources may be divided into two types.
The rst category comprises of renewable resources, such as sh
and forests. The second category is the renewable resources which
depend on sunshine directly such as water [potential (water vapor
density is smaller (lighter) than atmospheric air-buoyancy force),
kinetic (marine current)], wind, or the motion and gravitational
potential of the Sun, Moon, and Earth such as tide. Moreover, both
the categories may be divided as critical and non-critical zone
resources [9].
Renewable energy may be divided into categories such as wind
power, solar energy, geothermal energy, ocean energy, hydro-
power, and biomass-waste energy [12]. Sunshine ux can be used
thermally (for heat engine or process heating), photo chemically
777
(photovoltaic), and photo physically (photosynthesis) [13]. The
renewable solar energy is subdivided into direct and indirect types
[9,13]. Most energy sources on Earth are forms of indirect solar
energy [13]. On the directly used systems, the solar energy can be
captured to generate electricity or heat through a system of panels
or mirrors. Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into elec-
tricity. Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a
series of attached circulation tubes to heat water or buildings.
Solar concentration systems use mirrors (parabolic troughs, a large
round dish, or Fresnel lenses) to focus the suns reected rays on a
heat collecting element [14]. The concentrated sunlight heats
water or a heat transferring uid such as molten salt to generate
steam, which is then used conventionally to spin turbines and
generate electricity. Manipulating the solar energy to our
demands, without changing them to electrical power is known as
passive methods. It is possible to effectively harness natural solar
radiation by proper using windows, skylights, and sunrooms,
building site and orientation, and thermal construction materials
[15]. A well-designed passive solar home rst reduces heating and
cooling loads through energy-efciency strategies and then meets
those reduced loads in whole or part with solar energy [16].
3. Solar radiation on the Earth surface, and the conversion
methods of solar energy
Solar radiation reaches the Earth's surface at a maximum ux
density of about 1.0 kW/m2 in a wavelength band between 0.3 and
2.5 m. This is short wave radiation in visible spectrum. For
inhabitant areas, this ux varies from about 3 to 30 MJ/m2day,
depending on place, time and weather conditions [17]. Designing a
system for solar energy conversion into thermal energy or elec-
tricity is based on accurate assessment of the solar radiation in the
given location and on the knowledge of solar radiation properties.
Average distance between The Sun and the Earth is 1.5
1011 m.
The solar core, with a radius of about 0.23 R is a thermonuclear
fusion reactor. Its temperature is estimated at (840)
106 K. At a
distance of 0.7 R from the Sun core, the temperature falls to
130,000 K. The area between 0.7 and 1.0 R is called the convection
zone. The temperature falls to 5000 K at the surface [18].
The Sun is the main source of energy that denes the climate
on the Earth. Theoretical potential of solar energy is estimated
89,000 TW. Every square meter of the outer covering of the
atmosphere receives 342 W, of which 31% or 106 W is immediately
reected into the space by the clouds, the atmosphere and the
land surface. The rest, i.e. 236 W/m2, is absorbed by the land,
ocean surface water and partially by the atmosphere, warming
them [18].
Three conversion processes are normally associated with the
sunshine.
Heliochemical, which is principally the photosynthesis process.
Helioelectrical, which is commonly exploited in solar cells
(photovoltaic).
Heliothermal, which is a conversion of sunlight into thermal
heat as employed within concentrating solar power (CSP) plants
[19].
All routes for utilizing solar energy exploit the functional steps
of capture, conversion, and storage [20]. Solar energy can be
converted generally in two ways commercial purposes:
By using the photovoltaic effect (directly convert solar energy
into electricity).
By thermal conversion (hot water production, drying of agri-
cultural products, and residential space heating, or electricity
778 M.S. Guney / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 776785
production) [18]. The most commonly used solar technologies
for homes and businesses are solar water heating, passive solar
design for space heating and cooling, and solar photovoltaic for
electricity. Businesses and industry use these technologies to
diversify their energy sources, and to improve efciency. Solar
photovoltaic (inclusive concentrated form of photovoltaic) and
other concentrating solar power technologies are also being
used by developers and utilities to produce electricity on a
massive scale to power cities and small towns [21].
3.1. Photovoltaic energy conversion
Solar or photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sunlight directly into
electricity. PV can transform both direct and indirect solar radia-
tion into electric power [22]. Conversion of solar energy into
electricity through PV cells is achieved at different efciency rat-
ings varying between 7% and 40% and determined primarily by the
type of semiconductor material from which the cells are manu-
factured [2325].
Most photovoltaic cells are made primarily of silicon. When
sunlight hits a cell, the energy knocks electrons free of their atoms,
allowing them to ow through the material. The resulting DC
electricity is then sent to a power inverter for conversion to AC
electricity, which is the form in which electric power is delivered
to homes and businesses [9]. There are three kind of silicon
materials for PV cells; crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon and
amorphous silicon The PV conversion efciency based on three
types of photovoltaic materials are shown in Table 1 [18]. As
another PV modules can be enumerated cadmium telluride and
copper indium gallium selenide [26].
High concentration photovoltaic (HCPV) systems use optical
devices (lenses or mirrors) to concentrate the solar radiation onto
small solar cells [27]. Some semiconductor materials manufacturer
for the electronics and energy sector announced its newest con-
centrated photovoltaic (CPV) solar module featuring a record
power-generating efciency of 31.8% [28].
Some other manufacturer uses multi-junction solar cells in
which different types of solar cells are stacked on top of one
another. Each cell type is designed to convert a certain range of the
solar spectrum: short wave radiation, medium wave radiation and
infrared. The energy yield and the potential of these high-
efciency cells are enormous. In the lab, an efciency of 44.7%
has been achieved [29].
It is possible to combine PV technology with solar thermal
system. The result is known as a concentrated photovoltaic ther-
mal (CPVT). Several CPVT systems have been designed, studied,
and demonstrated both theoretically and experimentally in the
literature. The results of these studies and demonstrations show
that CPVT systems hold very high potential for market penetration
in the energy sector due to their unique features [30,31].
3.2. Thermal conversion
Thermal conversion methods may be classied into three
categories such as for heating, lighting, and electricity production.
If the solar heat is collected in a uid, usually in water or air, which
is then moved by pumps or fans for use, the solar system is said to
be active. If the insolation is absorbed and utilized without sig-
nicant mechanical pumping and blowing, the solar system is said
to be passive [32].
Any black surface exposed to beams, called absorbing surface,
transforms solar energy into heat. This absorbing surface is the
simplest example of direct converter of solar radiation into ther-
mal energy [19]. Passive solar design is the creative use of win-
dows, skylights and sunrooms, building site and orientation, and
Table 1
Materials comparison for PV cells.
Solar cell material Crystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous
silicon silicon silicon
Power conversion 1522 1415 710
efciency %
Fig. 1. Solar thermal system with greenhouse effect and air pressure difference
[12].
thermal construction materials to heat and light buildings, or to
heat water, the natural way [33].
Solar thermal energy conversion systems by combining the
greenhouse effect and air pressure difference may be used for
electricity production from sunshine. The principle schema of the
system is shown in Fig. 1. That consists of a turbine included solar
tower with combination of solar collector. This solar thermal
plants use the combination of solar collector greenhouse effect
and the pressure difference in the tower for generating convective
air currents that drive the turbine to produce electricity. The main
components of the system are air collector, tower and the wind
turbine. It is destined for power scale applications 4100 MW [19].
An additional support fan with air ow regulation mechanism can
be easily provided to the system in order to minimize the inu-
ence of variations in solar radiation towards improving the per-
formance coefcient of the system. Another option for electricity
production from sunshine is concentrating solar power, which is
detailed presented in the next section.
4. Concentrating solar power (CSP)
Many power plants today use fossil fuels as a heat source to boil
water. The steam from the boiling water spins a large turbine,
which drives a generator to produce electricity [34,35]. However, a
new generation of power plants with concentrating solar power
systems uses the sun as a heat source [34]. Concentrating solar
power Technologies use mirrors to reect and concentrate sun-
light onto receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to heat.
This thermal energy can then be used to produce electricity via a
steam turbine or heat engine that drives generator [36]. Solar
energy falling on a large reective surface is reected onto a
smaller area before it is converted into heat. This is done so that
the surface absorbing the concentrated energy is smaller than the
surface capturing the energy and therefore can attain higher
temperatures before heat loss due to radiation and convection
wastes the energy that has been collected [37].
Operation of solar concentrators is based on reection and
refraction of light. If a surface is not rough or the linear sizes of a
surface are much smaller than the wavelength of an incident light
beam, this surface reects. Surface reection capacity is
 M.S. Guney / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 776785 779

Fig. 2. Three commonly used reecting schemes for CSP to attain high temperatures.

Fig. 3. Linear Fresnel reector and system conguration.

characterized by the reectance factor. Galvanized silver has the
highest reectance factor of 0.96. The solar energy concentrator
composed of three main components; the reector that receives
Sunlight and directs in to the focus point; the receiver, located in
the focus point and that turns Sunlight into heat; Sun position
tracking system [18].
Three types of solar concentrators are in common use: Linear
concentrator (Fresnel lenses, parabolic troughs), parabolic dishes,
and central receivers (power tower), Fig. 2 [18,38]. The worldwide
CSP installed capacity has experienced a great expansion due to
the application of incentive mechanisms. Specically, during the
ve-year period 20082013 the CSP installed capacity around the
world increased near 50% per year on average [39,40]. Thermal
storage system also can be added into the CSP classication as a
fourth group [41]. CSP system uses steam turbine cycle for elec-
tricity production. The plants consist of two parts: one that
collects solar energy and converts it into high-temperature heat,
and another that converts the heat energy to electricity [42].
4.1. Linear concentrator
Linear concentrating solar power (CSP) collectors capture the
sun's energy with large mirrors that reect and focus the sunlight
onto a linear receiver tube [43,44]. The receiver contains a uid
that is heated by the sunlight and then used to create superheated
steam that spins a turbine which drives a generator to produce
electricity. Alternatively, steam can be generated directly in the
solar eld, which eliminates the need for costly heat exchangers.
Linear concentrating collector elds consist of a large number of
collectors in parallel rows that are typically aligned in a north-
south orientation to maximize annual and summer energy col-
lection. With a single-axis sun-tracking system, this conguration
780 M.S. Guney / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 776785
enables the mirrors to track the sun from east to west during the
day, which ensures that the sun reects continuously onto the
receiver tubes [43,44]. Linear concentrator can be subdivided into
two groups such as parabolic trough and linear Fresnel reector
system.
4.1.1. Linear Fresnel collectors system
They are modular, i.e. in order to generate a given nominal
power the same module can be installed multiple times in parallel
[45]. Linear Fresnel reector (LFR) presents more degrees of free-
dom in the geometry denition and the materials to be used [46].
LFR is a unit composed of several concentric lenses which func-
tions as an integral lens. Material and mass costs of a Fresnel lens
are much smaller than those of a conventional one. Parallel light
ux concentrates in focus point F (Fig. 3) [18].
This system consists of at or slightly curved mirrors mounted
on trackers on the ground are congured to reect sunlight onto a
receiver tube xed in space above the mirrors. A small parabolic
mirror is sometimes added stop the receiver to further focus the
sunlight. The structure of Fresnel lenses and principal system
schematic are shown in Fig. 3 [18,44,47,48]. Moreover, Fresnel type
concentrators are used in the photovoltaic technology [18].
Current designs for the linear solar Fresnel system heat water
to produce steam at 545 F in the absorber tubes. The steam is
used directly to drive a turbine in a standard Rankine cycle to
produce electricity, avoiding the need for a heat exchanger to
produce steam from some other high temperature uids [49].
4.1.2. Parabolic trough systems
The system consists of three groups of equipments, such as
parabolic trough mirrors, absorber tubes, and high temperature
uids with heat exchanging and circulation mechanism. In such a
system, the receiver tube is positioned along the focal line of each
parabolic-shaped reector (Fig. 4) [42]. The solar eld consists of a
parabolic trough collector which is located on a structure that
allows a two axis tracking [50].
The parabolic-shaped mirrors are constructed by forming a
sheet of reective material into a parabolic shape [51]. The
absorber tube is xed to the mirror structure. The heated uid
(either a heat-transfer uid or directly water/steam) ows into the
absorber tubes through the eld of solar mirrors in order to supply
of process heat or to the turbine. Parabolic trough system are
modular, scalable and in wide use since 30 years [18].
The parabolic trough system is possible to generate over
100 MW [52]. The system may incorporate and connect to thermal
storage. In application, the collector eld can get oversized to
create a heat storage system which is sufcient and is able to
Fig. 4. Parabolic trough system.
maintain during cloudy weather and night time to generate
additional steam to produce electricity [18].
4.2. Dish engine system (Paraboloidal mirrors)
Dish/engine systems use a parabolic dish of mirrors to direct
and concentrate sunlight onto a central engine that produces
electricity. The two major parts of the system are the solar con-
centrator and the power conversion unit. This produces relatively
small amounts of electricity compared to other CSP technologies.
The system details are shown in Fig. 5 [42,44].
The solar concentrator, or dish, gathers the solar energy coming
directly from the sun. The resulting beam of concentrated sunlight
is reected onto a thermal receiver that collects the solar heat. The
dish is mounted on a structure that tracks the sun continuously
throughout the day to reect the highest percentage of sunlight
possible onto the thermal receiver [49]. Concentrator of this type
is used for melting and obtaining of most pure metals in ground
conditions or for electricity generation. Stirling or Brayton heat
engines are usually used as heat engine. This system is suitable for
relative small capacities up to 50 kW [18].
4.3. Central receiver concentrator (power tower system)
In power tower concentrating solar power systems, numerous
large, at, sun-tracking mirrors, known as heliostats, focus sunlight
onto a receiver at the top of a tall tower. A heat-transfer uid
heated in the receiver is used to generate steam, which, in turn, is
used in a conventional turbine generator to produce electricity.
Individual commercial plants can be sized to produce up to
200 MW of electricity. The system is schematically shown in Fig. 6
[53].
The system uses either water or molten nitrate salt. The heat
transfer uid (HTF) is circulated through the receiver and is heated
to temperatures over 500 C. The heated high temperature uids is
then sent to a heat exchanger where water is turned into steam,
which then drives a turbine generator [5355].
4.4. Thermal storage system
Thermal energy storage provides a workable solution to the
reduced or curtailed energy production when the sun sets or is
blocked by clouds. In a concentrating solar power (CSP) system,
the sun's shines are reected onto a receiver, which creates heat
that is used to generate electricity. If the receiver contains oil or
molten salt as the heat-transfer medium, then the thermal energy
can be stored for later use [56].
 M.S. Guney / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 776785
Fig. 5. Dish/engine system and conguration.
Fig. 6. Power tower system conguration.
Fig. 7 shows the basic integration of thermal energy storage
(TES) technology in a typical concentrating solar power (CSP)
plant. When the sun sets, or there is a cloud cover, the ow of HTF
through the TES system can be reversed and the TES system will
heat the HTF to provide energy to the steam generator. In this way,
the TES system can maintain steam generation for several hours
after sunset, and provide power on demand if the TES system is
sized accordingly [57]. Thermal storage system can be divided into
three categories such as the two-tank direct system, two-tank
indirect system, and single-tank thermocline system [56]. Phase
change material category may be added to this classication [58].
4.4.1. Two tank direct system
Solar thermal energy in this system is stored in the same uid
used to collect it. The uid is stored in two tanksone at high
781
temperature and the other at low temperature. Fluid from the low-
temperature tank ows through the solar collector or receiver, where
solar energy heats it to a high temperature and it then ows to the
high-temperature tank for storage. Fluid from the high-temperature
tank ows through a heat exchanger, where it generates steam for
electricity production. The uid exits the heat exchanger at a low
temperature and returns to the low-temperature tank. Two-tank
direct storage was used in early parabolic trough power plants
which used mineral oil and molten salt as the heat-transfer and
storage uid [55]. To achieve a higher operating temperature and
hence a higher efciency, the two-tank direct was no longer
suitable (Fig. 8) [59].
4.4.2. Two tank indirect system
Two-tank indirect systems function in the same way as two-
tank direct systems [56]. The subsequently developed two-tank
indirect storage system has not only a HTF but also a storage uid
(SF) and an extra heat exchanger [58]. This system is used in plants
in which the heat-transfer uid is too expensive or not suited for
use as the storage uid [56]. The storage uid coming out of the
low-temperature tank absorbs the heat energy of the high-
temperature HTF in the extra heat exchanger. The now high-
temperature SF ows back to a high-temperature storage tank and
the now low-temperature HTF moves on to the solar collector to
start the power cycle again [58]. Storage uid from the high-
temperature tank is used to generate steam in the same manner as
the two-tank direct system. The plants will use organic oil as the
heat-transfer uid and molten salt as the storage uid [56]. The
system is schematically shown in Fig. 9 [59].
Despite the extra cost resulting from a second heat exchanger and
smaller temperature difference between the two tanks, the two-tank
indirect system with molten salt as the SF is still dominant in most of
the parabolic trough power plants (PTPPs) around the world [58].
782 M.S. Guney / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 776785

Fig. 7. Schematic of parabolic trough power plant with a thermal storage system.

Fig. 8. Two-tank sensible heat storage.

Fig. 9. Two tank indirect system.

 M.S. Guney / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 776785
4.4.3. Single-tank thermocline system
A single tank system called thermocline has been used to fur-
ther reduce the cost of the storage uid and the storage tanks by
researchers. In thermocline system, thermal energy is stored in a
tank made of solid storage medium commonly concrete or silica-
Fig. 10. Thermocline system.
Fig. 11. Thermal storage with phase change material.
Fig. 12. An hybrid application of phase change material.
783
sand located in a single tank instead of a storage uid [56,58].
High-temperature heat-transfer uid ows into the top of the
thermocline and exits the bottom at low temperature [56]. It
creates two different temperature regions from high to low [58].
The hot- and cold-temperature regions are separated by a tem-
perature gradient or thermocline [56,58]. This process moves the
thermocline downward and adds thermal energy to the system for
storage. Reversing the ow moves the thermocline upward and
removes thermal energy from the system to generate steam and
electricity. Buoyancy effects create thermal stratication of the
uid within the tank, which helps to stabilize and maintain the
thermocline. Using a solid storage medium and only needing one
tank reduces the cost of this system relative to two-tank systems
[56]. The system is schematically shown in Fig. 10 [58].
4.4.4. Thermal storage system with phase change material
Solar-thermal energy can be stored in the form of latent heat by
using a suitable phase change material (PCM). This offers a higher
heat storage capacity per volume/mass and a higher temperature
stability of stored hot water. Phase change material (PCM) absorbs
heat during its phase change cycle from solid to liquid during the
daytime solar cycle. The amount of heat that a tank of water can
absorb is much higher with the presence of phase change material
Fig. 11 [60]. Phase change material can be divided into three
categories such as Inorganic (hydrated salt solution made from
natural salts with water), Bio-based (naturally existing fatty acids
such as vegetable oil), and Organic PCM (naturally existing pet-
roleum bi-products) [61]. By latent heat storage where energy is
stored by altering the physical state of the storage medium, which
784 M.S. Guney / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 776785
Fig. 13. Power generating cycle with NaK and steam heat transfer pipes.
can be solidsolid, liquidgas or solidliquid. The most common
form of sensible heat storage in dwellings is the incorporation of
thermal mass in a building's structure to act as a heat store [62]. A
hybrid application funded by European Commission has been
shown in Fig. 12 [63].
The eutectic sodiumpotassium alloy (NaK) is identied as a
suitable HTF in a storage system that uses metallic PCMs. A con-
cept is presented that integrates the TES-unit and steam generator
into one unit. As NaK is highly reactive with water, the inherently
high thermal conductivity of AlSi12 is utilized in order to create a
safe concept. The plant, which is schematically shown in Fig. 13,
was designed to deliver 100 MW with 15 h of storage [64].
5. Conclusion
Solar energy strongly inuences all the lives on the Earth.
Moreover, it is the basis for almost every kind of energy we
demand and benet. Solar radiation causes several natural events
such as weathering, wind, wave, etc. and seems to be one of the
main points for renewable energy researches. Essential and sig-
nicant developments in the use of solar energy technologies
should be expected in the next few decades. However, some
struggles have been known in utilizing solar energy and in con-
version methods for electricity and process heating more effec-
tively and competitively. Particularly, Stirling Engine or another
external combustion engine should be comprehensively investi-
gated to obtain electricity from concentrated solar power (CSP).
Moreover, it should be taken into consideration that there are
some needs for a plausible combination of the CSP system with
other resources in hybrid, cascade, and cogeneration connections
due to application necessities. Recognizing and application of
passive solar system seems to be more important for building
makers, architects and engineers for current and future time. Some
improvements are expected in photovoltaic semiconductors and
production technologies, which would make the PV system com-
petitive with other renewable technologies. Consequently, solar
energy would play an increasingly integral role in overcoming
energy decits, solution of environmental problems such as global
warming, and secure a future based on clean and sustainable
energy.
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