Overview of Compost Tea Use in New South Wales, Australia

Overview of
Compost Tea Use in

New South Wales
2007
Second Edition
Recycled Organics Unit
PO Box 6267
The University of New South Wales
Sydney Australia 1466
Internet: http://www.recycledorganics.com
Contact: Angus Campbell
Copyright © Recycled Organics Unit, 2006.
Second Edition.
First Published 2006.
This document is jointly owned by the Recycled Organics Unit

and NSW Department of Environment and Conservation. The
information contained in this document is provided by the ROU
in good faith but users should be aware that the ROU is not liable
for its use or application. The content is for information only. It
should not be considered as any advice, warranty or
recommendation to any individual person or situation.
Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 2

2nd Edition 2007
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................4
1.1 Objectives of the report ............................................................................................................................................4
1.2 Who is the report for?...............................................................................................................................................4
1.3 Terminology .............................................................................................................................................................5
1.4 How to cite the report ...............................................................................................................................................5
1.5 Acknowledgement....................................................................................................................................................5
SECTION 2 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................6
2.1 Definitions ................................................................................................................................................................6
2.2 Benefits of compost tea ............................................................................................................................................7
2.3 Compost tea production techniques..........................................................................................................................10
2.4 Factors affecting compost tea production and its quality .........................................................................................12
2.5 Compost tea characteristics and quality assessment.................................................................................................19
2.6 Application of compost teas .....................................................................................................................................21
2.7 Compost tea production and use in NSW.................................................................................................................23
2.8 Implications for recycled organics industry .............................................................................................................24
2.9 Conclusions ..............................................................................................................................................................25
SECTION 3 REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................................27
SECTION 4 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................29
Appendix 1 Glossary....................................................................................................................................................29

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Section 1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives of the report
Compost tea is emerging as a crop protection tool for organic agriculture for a number of reasons. Firstly it
contains microorganisms which can reduce incidence of foliar and/or soilborne diseases, and nutrients contained
in compost tea support the survival and proliferation of these microorganisms. Secondly it contains nutrients
(extracted from compost) in a readily available form, which rapidly benefit plant growth through direct
contribution to plant nutrition. Thirdly compost tea is easily integrated into existing plant fertility and disease
control programs due to its ease of application via existing irrigation or spray equipment, or as a soil drench.
Finally unlike composts, compost teas do not require transport of large quantities of bulk compost long distances
because compost tea is generally produced at the farm or alternatively compost tea concentrate is purchased and
diluted before application. NSW compost tea producers advise that these are the potential benefits that have
attracted a range of organic and conventional farmers, nursery growers, landscapers and turf managers to begin
to use compost teas.
Research on compost tea began in earnest in mid-1980 in USA, however results from scientific trials are still
scarce. The results of limited research currently available suggest that plant diseases have been suppressed in
some cases by treating plant surfaces with a variety of water based compost extracts, whilst in other instances
use of compost tea either had no effect on disease suppression or has increased disease severity.
The NSW Department of Environment and Conservation has funded this project to provide a concise overview
of the current use, practices and benefits of compost teas in New South Wales. The scope of this report is to
provide a basic overview of compost teas and their current use in NSW to better understand:
What is compost tea?
What are the reported benefits and from what types of products;
How is compost tea made? What are characteristics of product and how is quality assessed? What are
quality issues with production and storage and how is compost tea applied; and
Compost tea production and use in NSW.
1.2 Who is the report for?
This review has been specifically developed for the Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW) and
will be of direct interest to:
Government agencies
Manufacturers and sellers of recycled organics products

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1.3 Terminology
Terms used throughout this report are documented in the Recycled Organics Dictionary and Thesaurus:
Standard terminology for the recycled organics sector (Recycled Organics Unit, 2003a).
This document is freely available from http://www.recycledorganics.com.
In this report, the term agriculture is used broadly and includes intensive horticulture and turf.
1.4 How to cite the report
This publication should be cited in the following manner:
Recycled Organics Unit (2006). Overview of Compost Tea Use in New South Wales. Recycled Organics Unit,
internet publication: www.recycledorganics.com
1.5 Acknowledgement
The Recycled Organics Unit (ROU) acknowledges funding of this project by the Department of Environment
and Conservation (NSW).
The ROU also wishes to thank the following compost tea producers and distributors in NSW for sharing their
experience:
• Mr Ray O’ Grady, O’ Grady Rural, Lismore, NSW
• Mr Luke Maunder, Australian Soil Additives and Products, Lismore, NSW
• Mr Greg Hallet, Footprint Directions, Banglow, NSW
• Mr Stuart Larsson, Maraseeds Pty Ltd, Mallanganee, NSW
• Mr Paul Patten, Soilsmart NSW, Sydney, NSW
• Mr Bart Davidson, Bio Nutrient Solutions Pty Ltd, Moree, NSW
• Harry Wilson, SMS Municipal Services, Artarmon, NSW

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Section 2 Overview
2.1 Definitions
Until recently compost tea has been defined simply as a liquid extract from composted material that may
contain organic and inorganic soluble nutrients, and a large number of organisms including bacteria, fungi,
protozoa and nematodes (ROU, 2003b).
Recent compost tea research (from the past ~5 years) still defines compost tea as a “water extract of compost”
(Ingham, 2005). However contemporary proponents of compost tea use now distinguish compost teas on the
basis of production (or brewing) method, which influence tea characteristics and potential benefits. The
following expressions are now commonly used to distinguish between different types of liquid extracts:
Compost leachate is the dark coloured solution that leaches out of the bottom of the compost pile (compost
windrow leachate). This leachate is most likely rich in soluble nutrients, but in the early stages of composting it
may contain pathogens (Diver, 2002). Compost leachate needs further bioremediation and is not suitable as a
foliar spray.
Compost extract is a centuries old technique in which compost is suspended in a barrel of water for 7 to 14
days, usually soaking in a sack (Diver, 2002). The primary benefit of the extract is to provide a supply of
soluble nutrients that can be used as a liquid fertiliser.
Compost tea is a compost extract that is brewed with a microbial food source (such as molasses, kelp, rock dust,
humic-fulvic acids and others). The compost tea brewing technique (aerobic or anaerobic) extracts and grows
populations of beneficial microorganisms (Ingham, 2005; Scheuerell, 2003; Scheuerell, 2002)
Compost tea is made by two different methods:
• Non-aerated method; and

• Aerated method.
In the non-aerated method {which produces non-aerated compost tea (NCT)} there is no attempt to supply the
organisms with supplementary oxygen (Scheuerell, 2003), resulting in, for the most part, anaerobic conditions
during tea production, which limits growth of microorganisms (Kelley, 2004).
In the aerated method {which produces aerated compost tea (ACT)}, the mixture is deliberately aerated
(Scheuerell, 2003; Kelley, 2004; Ingham, 2005), allowing large numbers of beneficial organisms to populate the
mixture (Ingham, 2005).
For both methods of compost tea production, microbial food may or may not be added. If additional food is not
added, organisms are not typically active and, are less likely to survive the transfer from mixture to soil, or
applications to plant surfaces (Ingham, 2005).

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Aerated compost tea (ACT) can be prepared in 2 to 3 days which enables growers to respond quickly to weather
forecasts or indications of disease outbreak (Kelley, 2004). Aerated compost tea production also creates fewer
odours and reduces the risk of contamination by human pathogens.
Non aerated compost tea (NCT) preparation takes up to 2 weeks, however longer fermentation time enables
accumulation of antibiotics in the NCT which are claimed to activate natural plant defence responses thereby
help in disease suppression (Scheuerell, 2003). Non aerated compost tea may develop odours.
In NSW, aerated compost tea (ACT) is primarily being promoted and used.
2.2 Benefits of compost tea
The main performance objectives for which compost teas being used in agriculture are:
• Enhanced disease suppression or resistance towards diseases, to promote crop health and to
reduce the need for pesticides;
• Provision of water soluble, available nutrients for plants to decrease fertiliser requirements and
associated costs; and
• Increased soil microorganism populations and diversity to improve soil structure, water
retention, rooting depth and plant growth.
The production and application of compost tea is primarily focussed on disease suppression and supplementing
plant nutrients. It is thought that disease control results from beneficial microorganisms that are antagonistic
towards various plant pathogens, microbial by products (metabolites) and plant nutrients present in compost tea.
The mechanisms by which beneficial microorganisms suppress pathogens are (Scheuerell, 2003; Kelley, 2004;
Grobe, 2003a):
• Populating leaf surfaces thereby restricting growth of pathogens;

• Competing for nutrients required by pathogens;
• Secreting secondary metabolites (antibiotics) on plant surfaces;
• Directly parasitising pathogens; and
• Stimulating plants’ natural defence systems.
Internationally, there has been a limited amount of research conducted on compost tea. The results of this
research are presented in Table 1.

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Table 1 Compost tea and disease suppression.
Study Description Benefits

Compost Compost tea Application rate and
preparation method
Anonymous, 1996 Animal manure Used 30 litres of Foliar application Suppressed early grey
Compost teas in and bedding animal manure and mould and damping off on
agriculture. compost bedding compost in a wide range of seedlings.
210 litre drums of Compost tea application
water with 1 litre supplied fertiliser
each of fish and requirements of seedlings.
seaweed emulsion
to brew tea.
Grobe, 2003b Equal parts of Compost tea is Greens were sprayed Mean percentage of turf
Golf courses find woodchips, grass extracted from with about 4 litres of area with microdochium
value in compost clippings, horse compost, molasses, compost tea per 300 symptoms (a foliar fungus)
tea programs. manure and horse sea kelp, cane m2 weekly during was 0.042% for compost
Research results bedding, sugar, rock dust and times of high disease tea treated plots as
from Conforti et al., composted for yeast. pressure and every compared to 0.604% of
2002. minimum four two weeks during untreated turf. Mean root
months times of low disease length of compost tea
pressure. Application treated turf had longer root
method alternated length (6.25 cm) compared
between drench to untreated turf (4.75 cm).
applications in which
tea was watered in for
5-10 minutes and
foliar applications in
which tea was left on
the greens surfaces.
Scheurell and Three types of Aerated compost Compost tea was used The most consistent
Mahaffee, 2004 compost were tea (brewed for ~40 to drench a soilless formulation for damping-
Compost tea a used: hrs) and non- container medium off suppression was ACT
container medium Ground landscape aerated compost tea inoculated with P. produced with kelp and
drench for trimmings (brewed for ~10 ultimum. humic acid additives.
suppressing composted for 2 days) with or ACT produced with
seedling damping- years and 9 without additives. molasses inconsistently
off caused by months; Additives included suppressed damping-off.
Pythium ultimum. Vermicompost were kelp and Heating or diluting the
produced from humic acid or compost tea negated
mixed vegetation molasses disease suppression.
in a vertical flow Across all compost tea
reactor. This samples, there was no
product was cured significant relationship of
for 2 months in an bacterial populations
open container; measured as active, total
Tea compost was and colony forming unit to
a blend of disease suppression.
vegetative and All ACT produced without
animal manure molasses there was a
based compost threshold of bacterial
available in population density above
market was cured which composts were
from 5 months. suppressive to Pythium.
Touart, 2000 Crop residues and Aerated compost Applied compost tea Suppressed grey mould,
Time for compost diary manure. tea (brewed for 1-2 for 2 years on buttercup and tomato
tea in the northwest. days). monthly basis on a blight infestation.
variety of crops as a Increased soil tilth of tight
foliar spray and a soil clay soil.
drench

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Table 1 Continued: Compost tea and disease suppression.
Study Description Benefits

Compost Compost tea Application rate and
preparation method
Gangaiah et al., Vermicompost. Aerated compost tea Compost tea applied No effect of fertigation
2004 from vermicompost, via drip irrigation and (compost tea application
Suppression of alfalfa pellets, as foliar spray 2 weeks via drip irrigation)
Septoria leaf spot molasses, humic after planting and treatment.
disease of tomato acid, fish emulsion compared with However in case of foliar
using aerated and yucca extract. fungicide (Dithane) spray, disease severity was
compost tea. and water. low for compost tea
(26.3%) and fungicide
(31.9%) sprayed plots
compared to water sprayed
plots (45.9%) at trial
termination.
Joslin et al., Windrow Compost teas from Compost teas from Severity of Septoria leaf
Unknown composted WCCM and VCM. WCCM and VCM spot significantly reduced
Control of the foliar Cattle manure compared with control with two Cu treatments.
disease, Septoria (WCCM) and and Bravo plus Cu;
lycopersici, in vermicomposted Quadris plus Cu and
Organic Tomato cattle manure Champion and
production. (VCM). Sernade Cu based
fungicides.
Al-Dahmani et al., Composted cow Aerated composted Applied as foliar Moderate and significant
2003 manure, extracts. sprays. reduction in bacterial spot.
Suppression of composted pine Population of
bacterial spot of bark, organic X.vesicatoria in infected
tomato with foliar farm compost leaves reduced
sprays of compost and composted significantly by composted
extracts under yard waste. cow manure extracts.
greenhouse and Efficacy of extracts was
field conditions. not affected by oxygen
concentrations, compost
maturity, sterilization or
autoclaving. Degree of
disease control by compost
extracts did not differ from
chemical fungicides.
Vossen and Dairy manure Compost tea made Compost tea compared Compost tea was not
Gubler, 1995 compost. for 21 days and with conventional effective in preventing
North Coast apple brewers yeast was fungicides Ziram, scab infection and in some
scab trials 1993/ added 24 hrs prior to Funginex, Benlate and cases appeared to enhance
1994 use. Topsin apple scab.
Plotkin, Compared control, Copper hydroxide
(Unknown) copper hydroxide, and treatment resulted in the
two different microbial lowest disease ratings.
products (Agricola and There was no difference
compost tea) between control and
biological treatments.
Chalker-Scott, L Compost tea Sprayed with compost Little difference between
(Unknown) tea and water. Cherry two treatments. Compost
Compost Tea: trees were sprayed at tea did not reduce brown
Miracle Cure or the developmental rot infection, and in some
Marketing stages when fungicide cultivars tea worsened the
Gimmick? is normally applied. infection rates.
Note: The limited characterisation of production process, filtration or otherwise, and other tea attributes relevant to quality as
defined by compost tea proponents significantly restricts ability to draw conclusions from the published research.

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Compost teas have been used for years as surface sprays to control foliar diseases of plants (Weltzien, 1992;
Yohalem et al., 1994). The results of research have been variable. Some research results have shown compost
tea to reduce the severity of diseases such as: powdery mildew and downy mildew of grape, caused by Uncinula
nector and Plasmopara viticola respectively; grey mould of strawberries and late blight of potato (Elad and
Shtienberg, 1994; McQuilken et al., 1994; Yohalem et al., 1994); buttercup infestation and tomato blight
(Touart, 2000); bacterial spot of tomato’s (Al-Dahmaniel et al., 2003); Septoria leaf spot (Gangaiah et al., 2004);
seedling damping off caused by Pythium ultimum (Scheurell and Mahaffee, 2004); turf Microdochium (Grobe,
2003b). Where compost teas have been compared with conventional fungicides, in most instances, compost teas
have been ineffective. Other research results have shown that the application of compost tea was either
ineffective for disease suppression or resulted in increased incidence of diseases. Compost tea application has
also shown increased soil tilth of tight clay soil; to meet fertiliser requirements of seedlings and increased root
length of turf.
Touart (2000) suggests that compost tea is not a silver bullet and does not provide a complete cure, and that good
regular care and maintenance procedures are equally critical to healthy plant growth. Additionally, the cost of
biological products to control diseases is similar to that of synthetic products, because the biological products
need to be applied more often than the synthetic products (Grobe, 2003a).
However, Scheuerell and Mahaffee (2002) claim that an increased understanding of compost tea microbiology
and the survival and interactions of microbes on plants surfaces should make it possible to modify compost tea
production practices and application technology to delivery of a microorganisms that optimise pathogen
suppression via multiple mechanisms of action.
2.3 Compost tea production techniques
There are numerous variations in compost tea producing equipment. These range from home-designed pieces to
commercially available equipment, and every year efforts to improve efficiency and decrease costs result in
different designs and new tea making processes being introduced and variously tested. Described below are
common compost tea production techniques for which there are many equipment designs:
2.3.1 Bucket-Fermentation Technique
This technique has been used in Europe for hundreds of years. It is more akin to a watery compost extract than a
brewed compost tea (Diver, 2002). For the bucket technique, compost and other non-soluble ingredients are
either suspended in a bag (or a sack) or submerged to soak free in water (Ingham, 2005). Note that when
compost is free in the water, the non-soluble chunks need to be strained out of the tea for application.
The bucket is half filled with water and stirred vigorously for approximately 10 to 20 minutes to de gas any
chlorine. Compost is then added until the container is full, leaving about 3 cm or so from the rim for stirring.
The mixture is brewed for several weeks, stirring periodically with a stick to mix it and add a small amount of
air. After brewing, the solution is strained and applied to the crop.

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This technique of compost tea extraction has limitations. For example, the tea is likely to develop anaerobic
conditions or toxic materials may be extracted into the tea as a result of anaerobic conditions (Ingham, 2005).
2.3.2 Bucket-Bubbler Technique
The Bucket-Bubbler technique allows small quantities of compost tea to be made inexpensively, and is
commonly used by homeowners and backyard gardeners. This is a modern version of the bucket technique. For
this method, a 15 to 20 L bucket is fitted with air bubblers that are attached to an aquarium type aeration pump
(Ingham, 2005). The bucket is half filled with water and air is passed through it for approximately 10-20
minutes from the air bubblers. Compost is then added to fill the bucket to within 2 cm from the top (to allow for
bubbling). The aerator provides a continuous flow of air and creates enough turbulence to mix the brew. The
minimum time for brewing is 2-3 days, but it can be brewed for longer if desired. To harvest the brew, the
aerator is turned off for half an hour or so to allow most of the solids settle to the bottom of the bucket. The
soluble portion of the tea is decanted from the top, leaving the insoluble solids, which can be returned to the
compost pile.
It may be necessary to pass this tea through a fine mesh sieve to prevent plugging of emitters where tea is
applied as a spray.
2.3.3 Trough Technique
For the trough technique, compost is suspended on a wire tray over a large tank of water. Water is pumped from
the tank, sprayed over the compost, and allowed to drip through the compost back into the tank (Ingham, 2005).
The trough can range in size from 20-2000 L. The brewing period lasts for several weeks. The water sprayed
onto the compost does not provide enough force to physically remove the organisms from the compost. The
spraying process aims to enable UV light to kill many of the organisms in the water droplets (where the unit is
located outside) and allows the diffusion of oxygen into the droplets before impacting onto the compost.
However, this commonly does not maintain enough oxygen to keep up aerobic conditions in the tea if molasses,
sugars, humic acids, or some other food resource for the bacteria or fungi is added. Aerators are therefore often
used to increase agitation of the liquid and to maintain aerobic conditions. Evaporation can be a serious problem
for this technique, creating a concentration of salts in the tea.
With the trough technique, some bacteria adhere to surfaces and develop bio-films (by producing extracellular
polysaccharide or in some cases by means of specialised structures producing microcolonies), which may inhibit
the maintaining of aerobic conditions. Bio-films typically establish on the surface of the brewing tea, especially
in the corners of the tank. Bio-films can result in a significant amount of odour for a portion of the brew cycle
(Ingham, 2005). Round-bottom containers are preferable for brewing with this technique.
The diversity of bacteria and fungi is typically quite limited in teas produced using this technique. If the tea has
been brewed for a longer period of time using this technique, it is likely to be predominantly aerobic when ready
for application.

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2.3.4 Commercially available compost tea brewers
Though designs vary, most commercial aerated tea systems consist of a sack or a compost basket with drainage
holes, either of which are used to hold a certain volume of compost (Diver, 2002). The compost filled container
is placed in or above a specially designed tank filled with chlorine-free water. Microbial food sources are added
to the solution to enhance microbial growth and diversity. A pump supplies oxygen to a specially designed
aeration device, which bubbles and aerates the compost tea brewing in the tank.
Commercial equipment is available for the production of brewed compost teas. The names and web addresses of
some suppliers of commercial compost tea brewing equipment are provided below:
Growing Solutions, Inc (http://www.growingsolutions.com)

Soil Soup, Inc (http://www.soilsoup.com)
Microb Brewer (http://www.microbbrewer.com)
EPM Inc (http://www.composttea.com)
Compara-Xtractor (http://www.compara.nl/Compost_Teas_Systems.htm/English)
2.4 Factors affecting compost tea production and its quality
Compost tea can be inconsistent from batch to batch. Therefore it is important to consider the major factors that
influence tea quality. Quality compost that has been effectively pasteurised is essential because pathogenic or
pest organisms present in compost can be extracted into the tea. Minerals and toxins present in the compost are
also extracted, making it critical that salt levels and toxins in the original compost are not excessive (Bess, 2000;
Ingham, 2005; Scheuerell, 2003).
The most influential factors for compost tea production include (Scheuerell and Mahaffee, 2002; Ingham, 2005):
• Compost quality;
• Compost to water ratio;
• Aeration;
• Fermentation nutrients;
• Extraction and mixing;
• Brewing time;
• Abiotic factors; and
• Filtration materials.
Each of these factors is described below. Note that attributes described below are as described in compost tea
literature and are documented here as described as being specifically relevant for brewing compost tea. These
attributes are not necessarily relevant to, or consistent with attributes of composts applied to other purposes.

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2.4.1 Compost quality
The main reasons for compost tea use in agriculture are to suppress plant diseases and to supplement plant
nutrition. This requires that the compost tea should contain high diversity of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and
nematodes, as well as soluble nutrients extracted from the compost. This can be achieved by brewing a known
quantity of compost of known properties in water for a defined period of time.
A quality compost with high microbial diversity has the potential to make a good compost tea, if made properly.
A poor compost will always make a poor compost tea. The transformation of compost into compost tea cannot
improve on the original quality of the compost (Bess, 2000; Scheuerell, 2003; Kelley, 2004; Ingham, 2005).
Therefore compost quality is critical to maximise the number of beneficial species of each group of organisms
(Figure 1) (Ingham, 2005), and should contain all the important groups of organisms that are typically found in
the soil (Figure 2).
Figure 1 Typical compost organism groups (Source: Ingham, 2005).

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Figure 2 Typical soil organism groups (Source: Ingham, 2005).
The beneficial role attributed to each group of these organisms is as follows (Ingham, 2005):
• Bacteria and fungi on the leaf surface compete with disease causing organisms for food, space,
oxygen and water;
• Bacteria and fungi in the soil retain nutrients in their biomass, decompose plant and animal residues,
and build soil aggregate structure;
• Protozoa eat bacteria thereby releasing nutrients for the growth of plants, bacteria and fungi; and
• Most nematodes (except plant feeders which are harmful as they consume root material and harm
plant growth) in the soil feed on bacteria and fungi releasing nutrients; many nematodes also consume
other pest nematodes thereby keep the population of beneficial and harmful nematodes under control
because too many nematodes can reduce bacterial populations below the level needed to suppress
disease, retain nutrients, decompose residues or build soil aggregates.
Composting feedstocks influence the biological, chemical and physical character of finished compost, which in
turn impacts the characteristics and efficacy of the derived compost tea. Early work on non-aerated compost tea
(NCT’s) indicated that the most disease suppressive tea was attained by using animal manure based composts, as
opposed to compost made solely from vegetative materials. The advantage of animal manure compost was
attributed to diversity in microbial populations (Scheuerell, 2003), or higher levels of available phosphorus,
calcium and trace elements, compared to yard and lawn trimmings (Pittway, 2003). However, other research

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projects have since determined that foliar applications of plant based composts were equally effective as manure
based compost for making NCT that inhibited gray mould on foliage in greenhouse studies (Scheurell, 2004).
The selection of compost characteristics depends upon the type of compost tea that is required and the purpose of
its use (Ingham, 2005). Trees and shrubs are reported to benefit preferably from fungal dominated soil (Touart,
2000; Ingham, 2005). Vegetables, turf and row crops are reported to benefit preferably from bacterially
dominated soils (Touart, 2000) or need both bacteria and fungi (Ingham, 2005). Perennials require balance of
fungal and bacterial dominated soil (Touart, 2000; Ingham, 2005).
Compost produced from high woody materials (resistant to rapid decay) with manure and green materials is
considered likely to produce fungal dominated tea. Compost produced from a high proportion of green materials
with manure and less woody materials is considered to produce bacterial dominated tea (Ingham, 2005).
Highly aerobic compost, made from a mix of manure and plant material is favoured (Grobe, 2003a). Aerobic
compost is considered to maintain a habitat that allows beneficial organisms dominate and to out compete less
beneficial and non-beneficial organisms that tend to populate more rapidly in reduced oxygen conditions
(Ingham, 2005). The soluble nutrients and foods in aerobic compost also help organisms to grow in the tea
brewing process.
Compost must be effectively pasteurised to destroy pathogens, requiring the temperature of compost to reach
57°C continuously for 3 entire days throughout the entire pile (Ingham, 2005). Then the outside material must
be turned to inside and the temperature maintained. Well made compost will be dominated by beneficial
bacteria or fungi (Ingham, 2005). If vermi-compost is used, the raw materials must be adequately processed, to
destroy human and plant pathogens. The biomass, diversity and growth (or activity of microorganisms) can be
enhanced in compost by adding organisms and different kinds of foods, or nutrients to improve conditions for
beneficial bacterial and fungal growth (Ingham, 2005).
It is claimed that compost teas made from compost that have decayed past the sugar stage and have ample humic
acid content, are considered “disease suppressive” (Anonymous, 1996). The less disturbed a compost is,
especially in the maturation phase of composting (if bacteria and fungi have gone through growth burst in the
early composting process), then, the greater the likelihood that compost will not reheat and will contain a higher
biomass of fungi and predators (that will help compost maturation), such as beneficial nematodes, protozoa and
microarthopods (Ingham, 2005). It is prudent to use compost that is free of human pathogens. A good aerobic
compost should not contain weed seeds, human pathogens and plant pathogens (Ingham, 2005).
Scheuerell (2003) cites German work claiming that composts should be cured for 2 to 6 months after processing
for use in compost tea production. However, it is not clear whether the shifting microbial community or the
reduction in microbial food was the main factor in relation to compost age. The compost made of only plant
material such as leaves, yard trimmings and straw is not useful after aging for 3 months, while horse and dairy
manure compost can be used until 9 to 12 months of age (Scheurell, 2003). For control of cucumber downy
mildew using NCT, 6 months old horse manure compost was significantly more effective than one year old
compost (Scheurell, 2003).

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2.4.2 Ratio of compost to water
Optimum ratio of compost to water tends to vary, depending upon the brewing process and equipment used. Too
little compost will result in dilute tea with few nutrients or organisms. Too much compost means not everything
is extracted that could be extracted. It may also be possible to overload some of the compost tea making
equipment, so that water cannot flow through the compost and extraction efficiency will be low (Ingham, 2005).
Generally compost tea brewing equipment suppliers provide information on recommended compost to water
ratios. For making a compost tea, the compost to water ratios reported in the literature varied from 2-3 kg of
compost in 75 litres of water to 9-10 kg of compost in 200 to 400 litres of water for the final product
(Anonymous, 1996; Ingham, 1999).
2.4.3 Aeration
It is considered that aerobic conditions maintain the presence and growth of beneficial organisms. Plant and
human pathogens tend to require reduced oxygen conditions in order to be highly competitive, whereas, most
beneficial organisms require fully aerobic conditions. If oxygen becomes limited, human and plant pathogen
populations will increase under anaerobic conditions (Ingham, 2005; Scheuerell, 2003). Brief anaerobic periods
for few minutes, hours or sometimes days may not be undesirable, if the aerobic organisms are not destroyed or
become inactive (Ingham, 2005). In fact brief anaerobic periods may increase diversity of microorganisms.
However prolonged anaerobic conditions may make many beneficial microorganisms inactive or kill them
(Ingham, 2005)
Research with anaerobic, non-aerated compost teas (NCT) has shown that a variety of foliar plant pathogens
and/or diseases have been suppressed by applications of NCT. For example, powdery mildew incidence of
leaflets; grey mould on geraniums, damping off in greenhouse seedlings (Scheuerella, 2003); fungal mycelium
of Botrytis cinerea; Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarrium oxysporum (Nakasone et al.,
1999). When many compost tea formulations were tested including NCT and ACT for damping off of
cucumber, the compost teas that performed most consistently were ACT fermented with kelp and humic acids
(Scheuerella, 2004).
Therefore producers and users must weigh the trade off between the two approaches. Aerobic or aerated
compost tea (ACT) requires aeration in the production process, which adds to the cost and effort. A significant
advantage with ACT is that this method can produce tea in 2 to 3 days, as opposed to NCT which requires up to
2 weeks fermentation (Kelley, 2004; Scheuerella, 2003). The shorter timeframe for ACT production is a
significant advantage that enables growers to respond more quickly to weather forecasts or other indications of
disease outbreak (Kelley, 2004). Aerated compost tea production creates fewer odours than NCT, and ACT
reduces the risk of contamination by human pathogens. However, one of advantage of NCT is attributed to the
accumulation of antibiotics due to the longer fermentation times (Scheuerella, 2003). Such antibiotics are
considered to activate natural plant defence responses and help in disease suppression.

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Ingham (1998) considers that the presence of anaerobic organisms in compost is not a concern, as long as they
are not increasing in total population. The main reason for concern over anaerobic organisms is the production
of volatile organic acids (VOAs), alcohols, ammonia, and phenols produced by anaerobic bacteria and yeast.
These compounds are toxic to the roots of plants, even very small quantities are phytotoxic (Ingham, 1998).
Aeration of the brew helps to maintain aerobic conditions, and the by-products of anaerobic conditions such as
VOA and alcohols are consumed by aerobic microorganisms (Ingham, 1998).
2.4.4 Fermentation nutrients
All fermentation nutrients place selective pressure on the microbial community in compost tea, ranging from
inhibition to an increased growth rate for different types of organisms (Scheurell, 2003). Increasing microbial
populations by introducing nutrients can improve biological control, but nutrients must be used with extreme
caution (Ingham, 2005; Scheuerell, 2003). In an aerobic environment, excess bacterial and fungal growth
resulting from the addition of nutrients can cause higher oxygen consumption that is detrimental to maintaining
aerobic conditions, and the liquid may become anaerobic (Ingham, 2005). If compost tea fermentation is
terminated at the maximum metabolic activity level, it is likely to leave unfermented nutrients available to all
organisms, potentially stimulating pathogens that have an efficient saprophytic phase (when microorganisms
grow and derive their nourishment from host and/or dead or decaying organic matter) which is linked to negating
the suppressive effects of the compost tea (Scheuerell, 2003).
Amending compost tea with molasses has been found to favour the regrowth of human pathogenic bacteria
(Duffy et al., 2004), and to assist the loss of disease suppressive characteristics of compost tea (Scheuerell,
2003). Simple sugars and molasses also have potential to result in increased E. coli and Salmonella in compost
tea brews, if the compost used to brew the tea contains these organisms (Scheuerell, 2003). For example, a
Salmonella population increased from 0 to 1000 CFUml-1 in dairy manure compost tea that was amended with
1% molasses and 0 to 350,000 CFU ml-1 in chicken manure compost tea over a 72 hour period. E.coli
populations increased from 0 to 1000 CFUml-1 in both dairy and chicken manure teas over a 72 hr period (Duffy
et al., 2004). This raises a concern for public health and the potential for contamination of treated crops,
particularly produce intended for fresh consumption. However, others researchers consider that a diversity of
food resources and nutrients will improve as more kinds of plant materials are used in the composting process
and the addition of molasses to compost tea will not favour regrowth of human pathogens if they are not present
in compost to begin with (Ingham, 2005).
2.4.5 Mixing and extraction
Mixing is an important part of the process, assisting the physical extraction of bacteria and fungi from the
compost. However, too rapid or forceful mixing can physically destroy beneficial microorganism populations in
the tea. Mixing that is too slow may not be sufficient to extract enough organisms from the compost. In addition
insufficiently vigorous or slow mixing can allow the development of bio-films and anaerobic conditions, with
resulting formation of phytotoxic compounds in the liquid tea (Ingham, 2005).

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2.4.6 Brewing time
The typical extraction time for aerated compost tea is 24 hours. The optimum brewing time is when most of the
soluble nutrients and organisms have been absorbed into the liquid or extracted from the compost. A long
brewing time will enable greater amounts of soluble material and organism’s to be extracted from the compost
and into the liquid. The greater the amount of soluble material in the tea, the more food resources there are to
grow beneficial bacteria and fungi, and the more nutrients will be available for plants (Ingham, 2005). However,
a long brewing time does not always produce good quality compost tea. For example, if the supply of oxygen is
not adequate for a long brewing time, anaerobic organisms will grow in the tea and can produce phytotoxic
compounds in the tea. A shorter brewing time is less likely to develop anaerobic bio-films (Ingham, 2005).
Therefore the optimum brewing time is the time that allows a balance between the extraction of nutrients and the
growth of organisms, depending on the brewing conditions. Studies conducted by Oregon State’s Soil Microbial
Biomass Service (Anonymous, 1996) have shown that for ACT the maximum amount of bacterial growth occurs
after approximately 18 hours in a 115 litre tank where aeration is sufficient.
Extraction time for non aerated compost teas is about 2 weeks. The longer fermentation time has been reported
to enable accumulation of antibiotics in the NCT which are claimed to activate natural plant defence responses
thereby help in disease suppression (Scheuerell, 2003).
2.4.7 Abiotic conditions
Temperature, humidity, evaporation and other abiotic conditions influence the growth rate of microorganisms.
High temperatures volatilise nutrients and causes evaporation that will concentrate salts, while low temperatures
slow microorganism growth. It is suggested to place tea making equipment inside a greenhouse or shed. In hot
weather, cover tea making units to prevent evaporation and concentration of salts (Ingham, 2005).
2.4.8 Final filtration
Compost tea is usually filtered before application, particularly when applied via sprayers or irrigation systems by
using a fine mesh strainer to prevent the clogging of sprayer nozzles and irrigation systems. Irrigation filters,
particularly in drip systems, also remove suspended particles that can contain part of the microbial diversity
found in compost tea. Filtration does not let a sufficient amount of particulate matter pass through in tea. Some
types of microorganisms like to live attached to particulate matter as a result finely filtered teas tend not to
contain significant population of such microorganisms. That means beneficial fungi and actinomycetes,
prominently active in suitable composts, may be poorly represented because of the necessity to strain out
particulate matter that they would normally be attached to due to the functional requirements of irrigation system
equipment or various sprayers (Bess, 2000; Ingham, 2005).

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2.5 Compost tea characteristics and quality assessment
There are numerous recipes for compost tea. There are also many and varied ideas on improvements for
compost teas, some of which focus on its use for more specific applications. For example, to combat plant
pathogens, compost tea production focuses on maximising microbial diversity, whereas, to supplement nutrients,
manufacturers add nutrients either during production or as a post production addition.
It is yet unknown what teas attributes are effective for specific types of diseases. Unknown also is the
effectiveness of the microbial concentration or the balance of species. For example, does a greater total
population of microbes have a more beneficial effect or is a more microbial diverse compost tea more effective?
It is suggested to be more likely that each plant, each cultivar, each climate and each season requires a different
set of organisms (Ingham, 2005) this is also likely to differ for soil applications and foliar applications. While
there are so many unknown parameters, the most common approach is to use a tea with a diverse microbial
community and let natural selection take over (Ingham, 2005; Scheuerell, 2003). A diverse assemblage of
microbes possesses all the traits needed to effectively colonize plants and inhibit pathogens over a wide range of
conditions (Scheuerell, 2003).
Scheuerell (2003) reports that it is important to understand each pathogen’s biology for optimising the biological
control of pathogens with compost teas including different requirements for growth, multiplication, survival and
infection of pathogens than their antagonists (beneficial microorganisms that exhibit antagonistic properties
towards plant pathogens). Scheuerell (2003) also reports importance of considering different requirements in
microbial diversity and total microbial population in compost teas for foliar vs soil applications to maximise
biological control potential.
Scheuerell (2003) explains how plant pathogens differ in their requirements for survival and infection from
beneficial microorganisms that exhibit antagonistic properties towards plant pathogens. Most bacteria that infect
leaves must multiply or grow epiphytically (on the leaf surface) until a population capable of causing disease
symptoms is reached. Epiphytic growth requires leaf surface nutrients, so colonizing the leaf with beneficial
organisms that are capable of scavenging nutrients can reduce populations and growth of such pathogenic
microorganisms. Such beneficial microorganisms tend to be robust relative to pathogens, better surviving
desiccation and other stresses, growing over a wider temperature range and more effectively using available
nutrients. This enables such beneficial microorganisms to colonise diverse surfaces, and to predate or parasitise
pathogenic microorganisms.
The main characteristics of compost tea for disease suppression, as reported in the literature, are the presence of
a maximum diversity of beneficial organisms, plant nutrients and low salt levels. The compost tea
characteristics needed for different plants and soil types proposed by Soil Foodweb are provided in Table 1.
Trees and shrubs are reported to require a fungal dominated soil to thrive, while row and other crops are reported
do best in bacterially dominated soils. Sandy type soils are claimed to require both bacteria and fungi to build
good soil structure, whilst clayey type soils are reported to require mostly bacteria to form micro-aggregates and
to cycle nutrients (Ingham, 2005).

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Plant nutrients in compost teas help to stimulate growth of beneficial microorganisms and can help strengthen
their structural defences, physically waiving off invading pathogens (Scheuerell, 2003). Antibiotics and other
metabolites, which can accumulate in compost tea during production are reported to activate natural plant
defence responses (Scheuerell, 2003).
Table 1 Compost tea characteristics for different plant types and soil types (Ingham, 2005).
Soil type Plant types

Broccoli, Row crops, Berries Deciduous trees, Conifers
cabbage, cole grasses (Equal bacteria vines (100+ more
(Strongly (Slightly and fungi) (2-10 times more fungal than
bacterial) bacterial) fungal) bacteria)
Need both Need mostly Need to Need to Need to
Sand
bacteria and fungal activity, maximize fungal maximize fungal maximize
fungi to build some bacteria to activity activity Mycorrhizal
good soil build soil fungi
structure structure
Improve bacteria Need both Need to Need to Need to
Loam
significantly and bacteria and maximize fungi maximize fungi maximize fungi
some fungi fungi to overcome including
compaction mycorrhizal
Mostly need Need both Need to improve Need to Need to
Clay
bacteria to form bacteria and both bacteria and maximize fungi maximize fungi
microaggregates fungi fungi including
and get nutrient mycorrhizal
cycling going
2.5.1 How compost tea quality is assessed?
Soil Food web advocates assess the quality of compost tea by testing microbial composition of compost and
compost tea for the following organism groups.
Table 2 The desired minimal ranges for different organisms in compost and compost tea (Ingham, 2005)
Product Active Total Active Total Protozoa (#) Beneficial

bacteria bacteria fungi fungi nematodes
(µg) (µg) (µg) (µg) F A C (#)
Compost 15030 150-300 2-10 150-200 10,000 10,000 20 to 50 50-100

(per gm dry
weight)
Compost tea 10-150 150-300 2-10 2-20 1,000 1,000 20 to 50 2-10
(per ml)
The total microorganism populations will vary for each tea, even if the compost, mixing and amendments used
were the same.

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Bess (2000) suggests that compost tea should be analysed for the same parameters as compost including
beneficial microorganisms: aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, pseudomonades; nitrogen
fixing bacteria; and pathogens such as E.coli and Salmonella.
2.5.2 Compost tea quality during storage
Compost tea does not typically improve with time. For best results, it should be used as soon as possible and
should be stored in a shaded area with agitation and ventilation of the tank (Bess, 2000; Ingham, 2005). Long
storage times negatively impact upon the diversity of microorganisms, as well as nutrients carried by the tea for
plant use (Bess, 2000). Number and activity of organisms reduces significantly with storage (Ingham, 2005).
Reduction in active organisms is acceptable for a soil application but not for a foliar application. Active
organisms are necessary for foliar protection. Continuous aeration and addition of bacterial and fungal food can
extend shelf life of compost tea for a few days only.
2.6 Application of compost teas
2.6.1 Application methods
Compost tea can be applied either to the soil or to the plant foliage.
Compost tea is commonly applied to the soil by drenching the soil, directing compost tea into the root zone and
affects the rhizosphere of the plant. Nutrients supplied with the tea are used by the plants as well as by the
microorganisms. The microbes in the compost tea compete with other soil microorganisms, and in turn, become
part of the soil and rhizosphere microbial ecology (Bess, 2000). Compost tea for soil applications (except when
applied via irrigation systems or sprayers, see Section 2.4.8) does not necessarily require fine filtration before
application thereby retaining microbial organisms in compost teas therefore provide greater total population and
diversity of microorganisms than spray applications.
When applied to plant foliage, compost tea may alter the composition of organisms on the leaf surface, both
through inoculation of organisms from the tea and through supply of foods that help support survival and growth
of leaf-surface organisms (Ingham, 1999). Compost tea applied to plant foliage has immediate impacts upon the
plants welfare. Good quality compost tea that provides beneficial organisms and plant nutrients are essential,
and should also avoid salt burn problems and risk of pathogens. The key is to achieve thorough coverage on
both sides of the leaves.
Leaves are coated in various waxes that tend to repel water droplets. Surfactants are added to the compost tea to
reduce the water surface tension and allowing tea droplets to spread across the waxy surface (Scheuerell 2003).
The sticking agent helps the tea adhere to the surface, also reducing losses from rain. The addition of
surfactants, sticking agents and UV inhibitors (referred to as spray adjuvants) to compost tea can increase the
proportion of leaf area covered by beneficial microorganisms, thereby increasing leaf coverage and prolonging
microbial survival by protecting against desiccation and harmful UV light (Scheuerell 2003). This can

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significantly reduce disease severity of foliar fungal pathogens compared to less effective foliar application of
unamended compost tea (Scheurell, 2003).
Compost tea for foliar applications can be applied with a broad range of sprayers. Tea should be preferably
applied as a fine mist, so the liquid will remain on the leaf and not drip off (Grobe, 2003a).
Compost tea can also be applied via irrigation systems. As discussed in Section 2.4.8, compost tea is usually
filtered before spraying for foliar applications or applying via irrigation systems to prevent the clogging of
sprayer nozzles and irrigation systems. Filtration removes a sufficient amount of particulate matter and some
types of microorganisms tend to live attached to this particulate matter. As a result, these organisms may be
poorly represented in filtered compost tea because of the necessity to strain out particulate material to which they
would normally be attached to meet the functional requirements of irrigation system equipment or sprayers
(Bess, 2000; Ingham, 2005).
Selection of soil vs foliar application method will vary case by case basis depending on disease type, severity,
crop type and environmental conditions. Both these methods have their merits and demerits. For example foliar
applications can be used for immediate impact on disease when noticed on foliage, whilst soil application can be
used to protect against soil diseases reaching the roots. Combination of soil and foliar application are claimed to
provide best results.
2.6.2 Application rate
For foliar disease suppression, complete plant coverage is desirable. Therefore the crop canopy area determines
application rates. For soil applications, sufficient volume should be applied to reach the entire root zone
(Scheuerell, 2003).
Elaine Ingham of Soil Food Web proposes a general theory of covering at least 70% leaf surfaces by at least 60-
70% active bacteria and 2-5% active fungi (determined by leaf examination), as this level of coverage prevents
the colonisation of the plant surface by plant pathoges. This theory needs assessment to validate under different
conditions and for different pathogens that vary in their modes of survival and infection processes (Scheuerell,
2003).
Ingham (2005) also suggests as general guide the application of about 50 L/ha of compost tea for foliar
application and 150 L/ha for a soil drench.
2.6.3 Application time
For foliar applications the best time to apply compost tea is in the evening, when evaporation is minimum and
ultraviolet light, which can be toxic to microorganisms, is minimal (Grobe, 2003a).
For soil applications compost tea can be applied:
• At transplant and seeding stages; and/or,

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• To the base of full grown plants.
Application timing will also depend upon the disease that is being targeted and the timing and conditions that
pose risks of infection by particular diseases.
2.7 Compost tea production and use in NSW
Approximately 20 compost tea manufacturers are accredited through the Soil Foodweb Institute to produce
compost teas. The information provided below is obtained from a number of accredited compost tea
manufacturers in NSW. Contacts details for these producers are available through the Soil Foodweb Institute,
Lismore (www.soilfoodweb.com).
The main production of compost tea occurs in northern NSW at Bangalow, Mallanganee, Lismore and Moree.
There is also limited production in the Sydney metropolitan area. Many of these businesses manufacture
compost tea brewers, compost teas, composts and various inoculants (that are added to compost teas). The
production capacity of these businesses varies from 1,000 litres to 500,000 litres per annum.
Compost tea in NSW is produced from vermicasts, vermicomposts and composts made from a wide range of
materials including: manures, grass, green waste, wood waste and other raw materials. Other products that are
used in compost tea production in NSW are liquid malt, water hyacinths, full fat soyabean, fish hydrolysis, kelp
and molasses. Manure based composts are considered beneficial in terms of number and diversity of
microorganisms, and compost teas are not produced exclusively from garden organics. The duration of compost
processing varies depending on raw materials and may range from 30 days to over six months.
Compost tea preparation requires quality compost as defined by the number and diversity of microorganisms,
nutrient content and low salt levels. Some compost tea manufacturers accredited with Soil Foodweb use
compost supplied by compost producers that have a quality assurance program and who work closely with Soil
Foodweb Institute. These compost tea manufacturers have the Soil Foodweb Institute test the compost for the
number and diversity of microorganisms (particularly aerobic microorganisms) before brewing. In addition,
compost tea manufacturers determine compost quality visually; by colour (brown colour indicates good quality);
smell (no odours) and compost should not still be hot (check compost temperature). Compost tea in NSW is
predominantly prepared by aerated method, the method advocated by Soil Food Web..
In NSW, compost tea is used on a wide range of crops including vegetables, turf, fruit (macadamia, avocado,
mango, olives, blueberries, lychees), vines, cotton, cereals, public parks and spaces, trees (eucalyptus) and
remediation of mining sites, soil salinity and soil acidity (pers. comm. with various producers, sellers and users
of compost teas in NSW).
Compost tea in NSW is used as foliar spray and direct soil applications, and via various irrigation systems. High
quality compost and compost tea is required for foliar applications. Foliar applications and application of
compost tea via various irrigation systems needs filtration before application (to avoid blockage of sprayer
nozzles or irrigations systems) however, such fine filtration also removes beneficial fungi, actinomycetes and

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nematodes. Direct soil applications (except via irrigation systems) do not necessarily need such fine filtration
and as a result higher populations of fungi, actinomycetes and nematodes are applied in the tea.
Compost tea application rates vary significantly depending upon application. Reported application rates range
for foliar application varies from 20 to 50 litres per hectare per application, whilst application rate for soil
application ranges from 150 to 200 litres per hectare per application. Application rate also varies depending
upon the height of foliage (e.g. foliar application of 50 L per hectare for 1m high foliage, higher application rate
of 200 L per hectare for 4 m height foliage). Frequency of application varies depending upon crop and purpose
of the application. Application frequency tends towards 5 to 6 applications per year. However, frequency of
application may increase to weekly or fortnightly in the instance of disease outbreak/infestation.
The benefits of compost tea claimed by compost tea manufacturers and sellers in NSW are:
• Disease and pest suppression and/or resistance;

• Reduced use of pesticides;
• Increased numbers and diversity of microorganisms;
• To improve soil structure and water percolation that helps to improve plant growth
(particularly on compacted soils such as bowling greens which are compacted by continuous
machinery use);
• Nutrient and carbon cycling, providing nutrients for plant uptake;
• Reduced fertiliser applications;
• Improved foliar biology that helps to improve plant vigour; and
• Improved yield.
The use of compost tea in NSW is gaining momentum. Currently it is suggested that up to 5000 farms use
compost tea in NSW/ACT in and around Sydney, Moree, Dubbo, Lismore and Canberra. A national conference
on compost tea use held in February 2005 was attended by 12,000 farmers. NSW compost tea manufacturers
also sell compost tea in Queensland and Victoria.
2.8 Implications for recycled organics industry
The solid compost product from which the compost tea is brewed is usually returned to the composting process
for reprocessing. This is the case regardless of whether the tea is produced by a commercial compost producer
(pers. comm. Harry Wilson, SMS); or, as is most commonly the case, where the tea is produced on farm by the
grower (refer to Section 1.5). Compost tea production is therefore not expected to contribute directly to the
diversion of organic materials from the waste stream.
The recent increase in interest in compost teas in NSW can be tracked back to the first Elaine Ingham Soil Food
Web workshops run in 2000 – 2002, which were jointly organised by Harry Wilson of SMS Municipal Services
with a view to developing awareness and agricultural market demand, and the establishment of the Soil Food
Web laboratory in Lismore in 2001. SMS are not currently producing compost teas, having determined that there
is not currently a real commercial market for the product. SMS characterised current users of compost teas as

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“true believers” in organic farming and philosophy, that growers attending the Soil Food Web workshops were
enthusiastic about on farm production of compost teas, are and that commercialisation of compost tea was “a
long way off yet”. SMS did not see opportunity for commercial return for compost manufacturers in the
foreseeable future with the current emphasis on on-farm production.
Compost manufacturers may choose to manufacture and market compost teas where profits can be generated,
however cost structure of production would include both the production of compost specifically for subsequent
production of the compost tea, analysis of compost and compost tea, and also reprocessing of the compost from
which the tea is brewed.
SMS intends to produce compost tea in the future via Biomass Solutions at Coffs Harbour facility, but not for
sale. Experience has persuaded SMS that compost tea is a useful inoculant for the composting process, and
intends to produce tea exclusively for internal operational use. Previous consultation with quality managers of
commercial compost facilities (pers. comm. ANL) has suggested that leachate collected from the composting site
and reapplied to windrows as irrigation can fulfil a similar function in normalising the duration of processing
required to produce compost of consistent quality, and associated achievement of reliable compost production
schedules. These are operational decisions that may be implemented at the discretion of individual enterprises.
2.9 Conclusions
Compost tea is manufactured and used on a wide range of crops in NSW including vegetables, turf, fruit
(macadamia, avocado, mango, olives, blueberries, lychees), vines, cotton, cereals, public parks and spaces, trees
(eucalyptus) and remediation of mining sites, soil salinity and soil acidity.
Several businesses are engaged in manufacturing compost tea in NSW, including 20 compost tea manufacturers
who are accredited through Soil Foodweb Institute at Lismore. The main production of compost tea occurs in
northern NSW at Bangalow, Mallanganee, Lismore and Moree and some in the Sydney metropolitan area. Many
of these businesses manufacture compost tea brewers, compost teas and/or composts and various inoculants (that
are added to compost teas).
Compost tea in NSW is produced from vermicasts, vermicomposts and composts made from a wide range of raw
materials including manures, grass, green waste, wood waste and others. Manure based composts are considered
beneficial in terms of numbers and diversity of microorganisms and compost teas are not produced exclusively
from garden organics. The duration of compost processing varies depending on raw materials, ranging from 30
days to over six months.
The production and application of compost tea is primarily focussed on:
• Disease suppression,
• Supplementing plant nutrients, and

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• Increasing soil microbiology to improve soil structure, water percolation/retention, rooting
depth and consequently improved plant growth.
The research conducted worldwide on compost tea is scarce and the results are highly variable. Results vary
from suppression of some diseases to no effect in disease suppression at all, or in few cases increased incidence
of diseases. Where compost teas are compared with conventional fungicides, in most instances compost teas
have been relatively ineffective.
The limited characterisation of compost product, compost tea production process, filtration or otherwise, and
other tea attributes relevant to quality as defined by compost tea proponents significantly restricts the drawing of
conclusions on the efficacy of compost tea from recently published research.
Compost tea application also has shown increased soil tilth of tight clay soil; reduced fertiliser requirements for
seedlings; and increased root length of turf.
The cost of disease control with compost tea is considered similar to that of the synthetic chemicals, partly
because compost teas need to be applied more often than conventional biocides.
Compost tea producers estimate that up to 5,000 farms are using compost tea in NSW/ACT, these are mainly
organic farms. Use of compost teas is based on faith or anecdotal evidence rather than based on replicated
scientific research at this stage. Researchers acknowledge that there are significant limitations in our knowledge
of compost teas and its use, and hope that an increased understanding of compost tea microbiology and the
survival and interactions of microbes on plants surfaces will enable compost tea production practices and
application technology that optimises disease suppression.
Compost tea production is not expected to contribute directly to the diversion of organic materials from the
waste stream as compost tea is predominantly produced on farms, and as the solid compost from which the tea is
brewed is returned to the solid compost production process for reprocessing.

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Section 3 References
Al-Dahmani, J.H., Abbasi, P.A., Miller, S.A. and Hoitink, H.A.J. 2003. Suppression of bacterial spot of tomato
wityh foliar sprays of compost extracts under greenhouse and field conditions. Plant Disease. 87:913-919.
Anonymous. 1996. Compost teas in agriculture. BioCycle 37 (12) pp 65.
Bess, V.H. 2000. Understanding compost tea. BioCycle 41(10) pp 71-72.
Chalker-Scott and Angie Cahill. Unkown. Compost tea: Miracle cure or marketing Gimmick? Internet
publication. Available on http://www.puyallup.wsu.edu/~Linda%20Chalker-Scott/
Diver, Steve. 2002. Compost Teas for plant disease control. ATTRA publication available at
http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/comptea.html
Duffy, B., Sarreal, C., Ravva, S. and Stanker, L. 2004. Effect of molasses on regrowth of E.coli O157:H7 and
Salmonella in compost teas. Compost Science & Utilization. 12:93-96.
Elad, Y., and Shtienberg, D. 1994. Effects of compost water extracts on grey mold (Botrytis cinerea). Crop Prot.
13:109-114.
Gangaiah, C., Carey, E. and Tisserat, N.A. 2004. Suppression of Septoria Leaf Spot disease of tomato using
aerated compost tea. Kansas State University. ASHS 2004 annual meeting. Available on
http://www.ashs.org/annualmeeting/conference/index.lasso
Grobe, K. 2003a. California landscape contractor calls it compost tea time. BioCycle 44 (2) pp 26-27.
Grobe, K. 2003b. Golf courses find value in compost tea programs. BioCycle 44 (10) pp 22-23.
Ingham, E. 2005. The compost tea brewing manual. US Printings, Soil Foodweb Incorporated, Oregon.
Ingham, E. 1999. What is compost tea? Part 1. BioCycle 40 No. 3 pp 74-75.
Ingham, E. 1998. Anaerobic bacteria and compost tea. BioCycle 39 No. 6 pp 86.
Joslin, K., Taber, H., Helland, S. and Gleason, M. Unkown. Control of the Foliar Disease, Septoria lycopersici,
in organic tomato production. Iowa State Univeristy.
Kelley, S. 2004. Building a knowledge base for compost tea. BioCycle 45 (6) pp 30-34.
McQuilken, M.P., Whipps, J.M., and Lynch, J.M. 1994. Effects of compost extracts of a composted manure-
straw mixture on the plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 10: 20-26.
Nakasone, A.K., Bettiol, W., and Souza, R.M. 1999. The effect of water extracts of organic matter on plant
pathogens. Summa Phytopathologica 25:330-35.

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Pittaway, Pam. (Year Unknown) Review of Dr E Ingham seminar: Soil Foodweb for Turf Pacific Golf Club
Carindale.
Plotkin, J.M. (nknown). Response of Alternaria spp. Blight and Septoria spp. Leaf Spot to biological disease
control agents in tomatoes. Internet publication available on http://www.ofrf.org/scoar/plotkin.PDF
Recycled Organics Unit, 2003a. Recycled Organics Dictionary and Thesaurus: Standard terminology for the
recycled organics sector. Recycled Organics Unit, internet publication: www.recycledorganics.com
Recycled Organics Unit, 2003b. Buyers’s guide for recycled organics products. Information sheet 6-5. Recycled
organics product categories and standards. Recycled Organics Unit, internet publication:
www.recycledorganics.com
Scheuerell, S.J. and Mahaffee, W.F. 2004. Compost tea as a container medium drench for suppressing seedling
damping-off caused by Pythium ultimum. Phytopathology 94:1156-1163.
Scheuerell, S. 2003. Understanding how compost tea can control disease. BioCycle 44 (2) pp 20-25.
Scheuerell, S.J. and Mahaffee, W.F. 2002. Principles and prospects for plant disease control. Compost Science &
Utilization10:4, 313-338.
Touart, A.P. 2000. Time for (compost) tea in the northwest. BioCycle 41(10) pp 74-77.
Vossen, P. and Gubler, D. North Coast apple scab trials 1993/1994, organic and conventional materials
comparison. Adapted from Plant Protection Quarterly 1995:5 (2), 17 available on
http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/newsltr/v7n4/sa-8.htm
Yohalem, D.S., Harris, R.F., and Andrews, J.H. 1994. Aqueous extracts of spent mushroom sunstrate for foliar
disease control. Compost Sci. Util. 2:67-74.

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Section 4 Appendices
Appendix 1 Glossary
All terms defined in this glossary are given in the Recycled Organics Industry Dictionary and Thesaurus, 2nd
Edition (Recycled Organics Unit, 2003).
Term Definition
A group of microorganisms, intermediate between bacteria and true fungi, that
Actinomycete usually produces a characteristic branched mycelium. The organisms are
responsible for earthy smell of compost.
Aerobic Process occurring in the presence of oxygen.
The science of cultivating soil, producing crops, and raising livestock;
Agriculture
farming.
When a material (such as compost) is added to a substrate (e.g. soil or potting
Amendment
mix).
Anaerobic Process occurring in the absence of oxygen.
Opposition in action between structures, agents, diseases, or physiological
Antagonism processes or interference in or inhibition of the physiological action of a
chemical substance by another having a similar structure.
Microorganisms that exhibit antagonistic properties towards plant and soil
Antagonists
borne pathogens.
A group of microorganisms having single-celled or non-cellular bodies.
Bacteria usually appear as spheroid, rod-like, or curved entities but
occasionally appear as sheets, chains, or branched filaments. Bacteria mostly
Bacteria break down organic materials in composting systems. It is bacteria that
generate the heat associated with thermophilic composting systems. Bacteria
have different temperature optima and are grouped accordingly: psychrophiles
(<20°C); mesophiles (20-45°C), and thermophiles (>45°C).
Control of pests and diseases by disrupting their ecological status, through the
Biological control use of organisms that are natural predators, parasites or pathogens. Also called
biocontrol.
Biomass Total weight, volume or energy equivalent of organisms in a given area.
The biotic factors that have to do with microorganisms such as microbial
Biotic factors
biomass and microbial activity.
To extract something by boiling, steeping, or mixing various ingredients: brew
Brewing
tea.
Colonize Establish a microbial colony in a new ecosystem
An organic product that has undergone controlled aerobic and thermophilic
biological transformation to achieve pasteurisation and a specified level of
Compost maturity. Compost is suitable for the use as soil conditioner or mulch and can
improve soil structure, water retention, aeration, erosion control, and other soil
properties.
Colonize Establish a microbial colony in a new ecosystem
biological transformation to achieve pasteurisation and a specified level of
maturity. Compost is suitable for the use as soil conditioner or mulch and can
Compost improve soil structure, water retention, aeration, erosion control, and other soil
properties.

2nd Edition 2007
Term Definition
The process whereby organic materials are pasteurised and microbially
transformed under aerobic and thermophilic conditions for a period not less
Composting than 6 weeks. By definition, it is a process that must be carried out under
controlled conditions yielding mature products that do not contain any weed
seeds or pathogens.
Composted products biological transformation to achieve pasteurisation and a specified level of
maturity.
The portion of a substance that is not comprised of water. The dry matter
Dry matter
content (%) is equal to 100% minus the moisture content (%).
Extraction Something obtained by extracting
Capable of functioning under varying environmental conditions. Used for
Facultative
certain organisms, such as bacteria that can live with or without oxygen.
Organic materials used for composting or related biological treatment systems.
Feedstock Different feedstocks have different nutrient concentrations, moisture, structure
and contamination levels (physical, chemical and biological).
A group of chemical reactions induced by living or nonliving ferments that
Fermentation
split complex organic compounds into relatively simple substances.
Fulvic acids - the fraction of humic substances that is soluble in water under
Fulvic acids
all pH conditions
A group of simple microorganisms that lack a photosynthetic pigment. The
individual cells have a nucleus surrounded by a membrane, and they may be
Fungus (plural Fungi)
linked together in long filaments called hypae. The individual hypae can grow
together to form a visible body.
The garden organics material definition is defined by its component materials
including: Putrescible garden organics (grass clippings); non-woody garden
organics; woody garden organics; trees and limbs; stumps and rootballs.
Garden organics
Such materials may be derived from domestic, commercial and industrial and
commercial and demolition sources. Garden organics is one of the primary
components of the compostable organics stream.
An organism that cannot synthesize its own food and is dependent on complex
Heterotrophic, fungi
organic substances for nutrition
The dark or black carbon-rich relatively stable residue resulting from the
Humus
decomposition of organic matter.
The chemical or biological compounds composed of dark organic substances
Humic acids
that are precipitated upon acidification of a basic extract from soil or compost.
Humic substances Substances relating to, or derived from humus.
Living organisms or material containing living organisms (such as bacteria or
Inoculum (plural inocula) other microorganisms) which are added to initiate or accelerate a biological
process.
Refers to all faecal and urinary excretion of livestock and poultry that are
appropriate for collection and use as feedstock materials for composting or in
Manure
related biological treatment systems. This material may also contain bedding,
spilled feed, water or soil.
Final stage of composting where temperatures remain steady below 45ºC, and
Maturation
the compost becomes safe to use with plants due to the absence of toxins.
Is related to the level of composting feedstock material receives. A mature
Maturity of compost product is stable and does not cause toxicity to plants. See also Maturation
and Stability.
A substance produced by metabolism.
Metabolite

2nd Edition 2007
Term Definition
The branch of biology that deals with microorganisms and their effects on
Microbiology
other living organisms.
Microfauna Animals that cannot be seen with naked eye.
Microflora The plants and algae that cannot be seen with the naked eye.
Elements that are essential for plant growth but that are needed in very small
Micronutrients quantities. Also called trace elements. These are iron, manganese, boron,
copper, zinc, and molybdenum, etc.
An organism of microscopic or submicroscopic size, especially a bacterium or
Microorganisms
protozoan.
The symbiotic association of the mycelium of a fungus with the roots of
Mycorrhizal fungi
certain plants, such as conifers, beeches, or orchids.
Any of several worms of the phylum Nematoda, having unsegmented,
Nematodes
cylindrical bodies, often narrowing at each end, and including parasitic forms.
Chemical substances of animal or vegetable origin, consisting of hydrocarbons
Organic matter
and their derivates.
An organism that grows, feeds, and is sheltered on or in a different organism
Parasite
while contributing nothing to the survival of its host.
A relationship in which one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the
other, the host or the relation between two different kinds of organisms in
Parasitism
which one receives benefits from the other by causing damage to it (usually
not fatal damage)
Microorganisms capable of producing disease or infection in plants or
Pathogen animals. Pathogens can be killed by heat produced during thermophilic
composting
Organism that causes disease; as, a pathogenic organism; a pathogenic
Pathogenic
bacterium.
Pasteurisation biological transformation to achieve pasteurisation but is relatively immature
and lacking in stability compared to compost.
Toxic to plants. Partially decomposed organic materials or immature composts
are often phytotoxic, but this usually decreases with time. Such products may
be phytotoxic due to a number of factors, including low nutrient content; high
Phytotoxic or phytoxicity
oxygen consumption; presence of fatty acid or alcohol metabolites formed by
microorganisms under anaerobic conditions; or due to excessive
concentrations of salts, heavy metals and other organic compounds.
Predation The act of preying by a predator who kills and eats the prey
Predator An organism that lives by preying on other organisms.
A large group of single-celled, usually microscopic, eukaryotic organisms,
Protozoa
such as amoebas, ciliates, flagellates, and sporozoans.
A group of gram-negative, rod-shaped, mostly aerobic flagellated bacteria;
Pseudomonas
have been identified colonize compost and can suppress plant pathogens.
A property expressed by the total amount of soluble salts present in a soil or
Salinity
water.
An organism, especially a fungus or bacterium that grows on and derives its
Saprophyte
nourishment from dead or decaying organic matter.
A small, usually single-celled reproductive body that is highly resistant to
Spore desiccation and heat and is capable of growing into a new organism, produced
especially by certain bacteria, fungi, algae, and non-flowering plants.
The potential or ability of a material to cause adverse effects in an organism.
Toxicity

2nd Edition 2007
Term Definition
Solid organic material resulting from the biological transformation of
Vermicast
compostable organic materials in a controlled vermiculture process.
Vermicomposting is the composting process, which turns organic waste into a
Vermicompost
black, sweet-smelling, nutrient-rich product using worms.

2nd Edition 2007

Overview of Compost Tea Use in New South Wales, Australia

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Overview of Compost Tea Use in New South Wales, Australia

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Overview of

Compost Tea Use in

Contact: Angus Campbell

Copyright © Recycled Organics Unit, 2006.

This document is jointly owned by the Recycled Organics Unit

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 2

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 3

1.1 Objectives of the report

 What is compost tea?

 Compost tea production and use in NSW.

1.2 Who is the report for?

 Manufacturers and sellers of recycled organics products

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 4

This document is freely available from http://www.recycledorganics.com.

1.4 How to cite the report

This publication should be cited in the following manner:

• Mr Ray O’ Grady, O’ Grady Rural, Lismore, NSW

• Mr Luke Maunder, Australian Soil Additives and Products, Lismore, NSW

• Mr Greg Hallet, Footprint Directions, Banglow, NSW

• Mr Stuart Larsson, Maraseeds Pty Ltd, Mallanganee, NSW

• Mr Paul Patten, Soilsmart NSW, Sydney, NSW

• Mr Bart Davidson, Bio Nutrient Solutions Pty Ltd, Moree, NSW

• Harry Wilson, SMS Municipal Services, Artarmon, NSW

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 5

Compost tea is made by two different methods:

• Non-aerated method; and

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 6

2.2 Benefits of compost tea

• Populating leaf surfaces thereby restricting growth of pathogens;

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 7

Study Description Benefits

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 8

Study Description Benefits

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 9

2.3 Compost tea production techniques

2.3.1 Bucket-Fermentation Technique

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 10

2.3.2 Bucket-Bubbler Technique

2.3.3 Trough Technique

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 11

Growing Solutions, Inc (http://www.growingsolutions.com)

2.4 Factors affecting compost tea production and its quality

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 12

Figure 1 Typical compost organism groups (Source: Ingham, 2005).

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 13

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 14

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 15

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 16

2.4.4 Fermentation nutrients

2.4.5 Mixing and extraction

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 17

2.4.7 Abiotic conditions

2.4.8 Final filtration

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 18

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 19

Soil type Plant types

2.5.1 How compost tea quality is assessed?

Product Active Total Active Total Protozoa (#) Beneficial

Compost 15030 150-300 2-10 150-200 10,000 10,000 20 to 50 50-100

Recycled Organics Unit Overview of compost tea use in NSW Page 20

2.5.2 Compost tea quality during storage

2.6 Application of compost teas

2.6.1 Application methods

What is compost tea?

Compost tea production and use in NSW.

Manufacturers and sellers of recycled organics products