:>\-

lum
Ministry r
PRENTICESHIP TRAINI
Mlllwrlsm
of lnstffitton
lvlanual

Rlchard A.Ivlichener

Province of British Columbia

Ministry of Labour
Foreword
This manual has been published by the Appren-
ticeship Training Programs Branch, in orderto give
apprentices and journeymen in the Millwright trade
a current, definitive, source of technical informa-
tion.
The original Millwright Manual of lnstruction was
printed in 1965 with the contents designed to suit
the Millwright Apprentice course as taught at the
B.C. Vocational School, Burnaby. There was a
minor revision in 1973.
The current revisions have been made in re-
sponse to changes in the content of the millwright
course now taught at the regional college level.
The material in this manual is generaland is not
meant to apply to any specific machine or installa-
tion.
lnstallation, operating, or service manuals for
specific items of equipment should be followed
when doing any routine maintenance or general
overhaul work as the manuals usually give step by
step routine for tear down and re-assembly, plus all
needed clearances. Copies of the service manuals
Director of Apprenticeship Training Programs Branch
should be readily available to the millwright crew,
not locked away in the engineering office.
Mr. Richard Michener, the auihor, who is a
certified tradesman and millwright instructor, has
performed an exceptional service for his trade in
the development of this manual. His dedication,
perseverance, and technical knowledge have
resulted in the production of a manualwhic-h willbe
of inestimable value to the Millwright trade.
Mr. Michener was assisted in the project by many
of his former associates in the vocational training
system, by members of the provincial Millwright
Trade Advisory Committee, and by manufacturers
of machinery and equipment ass6ciated with the
trade.
It is my pleasure, on behalf of the staff of the
Apprenticeship and lndustrial Training Branch to
thank-all of those persons who gave so iiberallyand
unselfishly of their time and knowledge in tne
development, printing and publishing oithis very
fine manual.
Acknowledgements

Canadian Timken Ltd. North American Packing Standards Association

Canadian SKF Co. Crane Packing Co. Ltd.
Cooper Split Ball Bearing Co. Warner Electric
FAG Bearings Ltd. LaFarge Concrete Ltd.
lmperial Oil Ltd. US Government Printing Office
CAE Machinery Ltd. Sperry Vickers
Dodge Manufacturing Corp. Flexco Fasteners
Denison Engineering Division, American Brake Westinghouse Canada lnc.
Shoe Co. Coppus Steam Turbines
Parker-Hannifin (Canada) Ltd. Terry Steam Turbines
Diamond Chain Co. Canadian Construction Controls
Bi ngham-Wi lamette Ltd.
I
Workers' Compensation Board
Falk Corporation of Canada Ltd. Pacific Vocational lnstitute:
Rexnord Canada Ltd. Millwright Division
Lovejoy Flexible Coupting Co, Machine Shop Division
Mainland Manufacturing Division of Bow Valley lronworkers Division
Resource Services Ltd., (Foundry) Heavy Duty Mechanics Division
E. F. Houghton Canada lnc. American Anti-friction Bearing Manufacturers,
Federal-Mogul Canada Ltd. Association
lngersoll-Rand Canada lnc. David Brown Corporation
Mintex (Scandura Canada Ltd.) A-1 Steel and lron Foundry Division of Ardiem
Uniroyal Ltd. lndustrial Corp.
Fawick (Eaton Yale Ltd.) Norgren Pneumatic products
 Table of Contents

1 Safety Education 1

2. Shop Practice .. 6
3- Rigging and Hoisting . ... 28
4. Shafts, Keys, Hubs, and Fits 66
ri. Lubrication 82
+6. Friction Bearings ..... 100
7- Anti-friction Bearings ...... 117
8" Couplings ...... 143

l?3::,?'::::: ::::
12. Roller Chain
::::::: :::: : :::: : :: lll,
.. . 235
13. Hydraulics .....250
+14. Sealing .. 318
#5. Centrifugal Pumps .... 331
,\.16. Compressed Air and Compressors .... .. 352
17. Conveyor Belting .. .. . 367
18. Chain Conveyors ..... 399
19. Material inMotion ....414
-*20. Preventative Maintenance . . .. ..... 427
21. Steam Turbines . .. ... 436
22. Machine Foundation .. 451
lndex ....461

'tr
. Safety Education
S af ety in a plant is the concern of government,
-anagement, and of labour. A healthy safety
- je toward accidents will benefit the employ-
: . frelping to avoid injury, Ioss of time, and loss
' ) \/
r millwright is possibly exposed to more
-=::rds than any other worker in the plant. He
-:
' _-ld
be familiar with the general Workers'
- : pensation Board rules and regulations
-:a rng with both his own personal safety and the
:cial safety rules applying to each job.
Legal and Administrative
Aspects
C orporate Responsibility
Accident prevention and the provision of safe
.',orking conditions are the responsibility of
-anagement. The company is responsible for:
> The provision and maintenance of safety
equipment;
> The provision of protective devices and cloth-
ing;
> The enforcement of safe working procedures;
> Adequate safeguards for machinery, walks,
cranes, riggings, etc.; and
> Observance of all accident prevention regula-
tions.
Government Regulations
The Workers' Compensation Board assumes
responsibility for periodic inspection of the
operation to ensure that regulations for industry
are being correctly observed.
For his own protection, the millwright should
be familiar with the lndustrial Health and Safety
Regulations a booklet issued by the Workers'
-
Compensation Board of British Columbia. ln
SAFETY EDUCATION
particular, the following seciions relating to the
job of the millwright should be noted:
8 -
Places of Employment - General Require-
ments
12 - Harmtul Substances
13 - Health Hazards
14 - Personal Protective Equipment
16 - Machinery, Equipment and lndustrial Pro-
cesses - Guards: general
i8 - Welding, Burning and Soldering
30 - Ladders
32 - Scaffolds, Swing Stages
54 - Rigging
Appendix D - Standard Hand Signals for Control-
ling Crane Operations
Appendix J - Correct Spooling of Ropes on
Drums
Lockout Procedures (Section 16.102) should
be thoroughly understood and followed. Actual
lockout routine will vary from plant to plant, but
each routine must be acceptable to the WCB.
Each millwright should have a copy of the
lndustrial Health and Safety Regulations and use
it as a source of reference.
lndividual Responsibility
The employee is responsible for:
> Knowing, and working in accordance with, the
safety regulations pertaining to his own job;
and
> Working in such a way as not to endanger
himself or his fellow employees, even where
specific safety regulations are not in force.
Regardless of rules, regulations, or commit-
tees, the major {actor in safety is the individual
employee and his persorral outlook on safety and
the approved safety regulations.
 : j:=-,,/ EDUCATION

Housekeeping they are extinguished immediately, the millwright

In the Shop should know:
:rcper housekeeping means maintaining The company regulations concerning welding
>
- :; saf e work area, and a clean workbench,
a and burning, including the plant,s ,,wet down
I scarded nuts and bolts, broken chain, etc., before burning" routine;
> The location of fire fighting equipment (port_
::long in the scrap box. Unused new nuts, boits,
able, stand pipes and hydrants); the location of
' r,ets, etc., should be returned to storage. Solvent
containers must be kept covered when not in use.
the nearest alarm boxes in the event that the
spot f ire cannot be controlled;
Solvent dropped on the f loor and bench should > The specif ic use of each piece
be wiped up. Oily and greasy wiping rags should of equipment in
terms of:
be put into approved metal containers.
o The class of f ire for which it is designated;
Company tools and equipment such as o Its coverage capacity in square feet (square
spanners, power equipment and chain blocks
metres):
should be cleaned and returned to proper o lts range in feet (metres):
storage. Any damaged or unsafe equipment
should be sent for repairs.
r The length of time it will f unctron before it
discharged:
On the Job r The f ollow-up procedures for the unit after it
is discharged;
lf the repair work is to be done on location, > The special procedures for cold weather,
the surrounding area should be cleaned before > The procedures and routes for evacuation
starting the job. lt iseasierto work on a clean floor of
personnel from each work location; and
than one where the millwright must stumble over
> The company policy governing the
obstacles or wade through sawdust or iitter. circumstan_
ces under which a main fire alarm should be
When a job is finished, all scrap metal and
ru ng.
wood should be removed to junk boxes,and all
unused parts returned to storage. Principal Causes of Fire
Company equipment should be cleaned and
put back in its proper place. Welding and Burning
Spilled grease or oil should be wiped up and > Flying sparks or slag, which resuit in fires
that
rags disposed of in proper metal containers. are immediately evident;
lf burning and welding have been done, all > Welding against a wooden backing, or dust,
lines should be coiled up and machines moved to which may result in a fire that does not ignite
their proper storage place in the mill or welding until several hours after the job is completed; or
shop. > Poor grounding during welding, which
some_
Any boards or planks with nails should have times causes electrical motor f ires.
the nails removed or bent over as the boards are
Electrical Sources
taken off. Lumber should be piled and not left
scattered around. > Motors burning;
Portable f ire extinguishers must be checked > Broken electrical wiring;
and recharged regularly, and kept in designated > Light bulbs in contact with f ine dust or oily
places close to the work area. All fire hoses su rfaces; or
should be coiled and kept in their designated > Unprotected bulbs and unshielded
switches in
places. dust areas.
Friction
Fire Prevention
> Fallen material resting on fast-moving equip_
Minor spot fires can occur at any time. They ment, such as a belt;
are particularly likely to occur during mainten_ > A belt running off-centre and rubbing
against a
ance operations, when a millwright is operating a fixed surface; or
welder or burner. > Hot bearings igniting oil or dust.
To reduce the risk of fires, and to ensure that
 SAFETY EDUCATION 3

I -,*" Scurces which is suspended in an enclosure, it may ignite

instantly, causing an explosion. The dust in grain
:- --_. elevators is a constant hazard for this reason.
- r'eAS , OI
| - '. .'s E noring company-designated gas- Rules for Using Hand Extinguishers
.-' ='.:. and dust-abatement regulations.
As indicated in the section entitled "Classes
Sasic Requirements for of Fires", extinguishers must be appropriate to
C ombustion the class of f ire being fought.
-':e components are required to start a f ire; The standard technique ls as follows:
" . .-: cften described as the "fire triangle": > Stream the extinguisher at the base of the fire,
> | -: the combustive material; combined with working f rom edge to centre; do not direct the
n -'. - nozzle at the general location of the flames;
- the
, -:.:-:en the
catalyst of combustion; and
specific temperature at which the > Position yourself where any breeze or draft is
- ignite.
'-= ,vill moving away from you toward the fire, so that
H the f lames are not fanning toward you; and
> Always make sure that you have a means of
escape in the event the fire is not brought under
:

I
l
con tro l.
o/ \r
Classes of Fires j

Fire Triangle
Fires are classif ied into four main types:
I
> C/ass-A paper, wood, rubbish or natural fibre
Basic Principles of Fire Fighting material;
-
The main principle of fire fighting procedures > C/ass-8 petroleum products (gasoline,
s :o reduce or eliminate one or more of the three
-
diesel fuel, oil, etc.), and naturalfats (oils, etc.);
: lmponents of the f ire triangle: > C/ass-C live electrical equipment; and
> C/ass-D - metals (magnesium and magnesium
> Remove the fuel material; -
alloys, sulphur, etc.)"
> Displace oxygen, or create a barrier to the
access of oxygen; this can be accomplished The class of fire determines the type of
simply by covering a small f ire with a wet blanket extinguisher to be used.
or sheet, or with sand or dirt. Types of f ire Class-A Fires
extinguishers that displace oxygen are COe or
fog nozzles (using water and steam). Types of Class-A fires are best extinguished with
extinguishers that smother a fire by preventing water or water solutions, which have the effect of
oxygen access are dry chemical or foam cooling the f ire to below the ignition temperature.
(organic or chemical); and/or Steam, which is generated during the process,
> Remove the source of heat, or reduce the heat tends to displace oxygen. Dry chemicals or COz
to less than ignition temperature; this usually may be used; however, they do not have a cooling
involves the use of water in the form of steam, effect and the residual heat can cause the f ire to
spray or fog, or water-base components. break out again.
Effect of Fuel Material Density Class-B Fires
The "density" of the f uel material, or the mass Class-B fires are best extinguished by
per unit of surf ace area which is exposed to smothering or displacing the oxygen in the
oxygen, has a critical bearing on whether a fire vicinity of the fire. Recommended extinguishers
will start and the speed at which it will burn. A a re:
single block of wood is diff icult to ignite, but if the > Fog nozzle;
block is chopped into smalt pieces, it wiil ignite > Dry chemical;
more easily and maintain combustion readily. > Foam; or
Furthermore, if the wood is ground into dust, > COz.
 4 SAFETY EDUCATION

FIRE EXTINGUISHER RATINGS

Underwriters' Laboratory (UL) ratings show the relative hazard, coverage and travel
distance specifications of the extinguisher:

UL Rating Code Class-A Fire Class-B Fire Class-C Fire

Light hazard - 3,000 Light hazard 10 Suff icient for

ft (0.93 m'?)-
1-A 10-B:C
sq ft (27 m'?) of sq Class-C
Class-A fire; 75Jt of Class-B fire; cond itions.
(23-m) travel distance. 50-ft (15-m) travel
d istance.

Ordinary hazard * 10
sq ft (0.93 m'?)
of Class-B fire; 30-
ft (9-m) travel
d istance.

UL Rating Code Class-A Fire Class-B Fire Class-C Fire

Light hazard - 6,000 Light hazard 10 Suff icient for

2-A 10-B:C
sq ft (0.93 m'?)
- Class-C
sq ft (55 m'?) of
Class-A fire; 75-ft of Class-B fire, 50- cond itions.
(23-m) travel distance. ft (15-m) travel
d istance.
Ordinary hazard -
3,000 sq tt (27 m'?\ Ordinary hazard - 10
of Class-A fire; 75-ft sq ft (0.93 m'?) of
(23-m) travel distance. Class-B fire; 30-ft
(9-m) travel distance.

UL Rating Code Class-A Fire Class-B Fire Class-C Fire

4-A 40-B:C Light hazard - 11,250 Exceeds Class-B Sufficient for

sq ft (1045 m'?) of
Class-A fire; 75-ft
(23-m) travel distance.
Ordrnary hazard -
6,000 sq ft
(557 m'?) of Class-A
fire; 75-ft (23-m)
travel distance.
requirements for light Class-C
and ordinary hazards. cond itions.
Extra hazard
- 40
sq ft (3 m'?) of
Class-B fire; 50-ft
(15-m) travel distance.

Extra hazard
- 4,000
sq ft (371 m'?) of
Class-A f ire; 75-ft
(23-m) travel distance.

il

ti
 I
SAFETY EDUCAT]ON

Gb-C Fires
Class-C fires are effectively extinguished by
OOz foam, or dry chemical extinguishers. For
rmaxmum safety where high voltage is involved,
ffire fighting should not be commenced until the
,orrrcuit has been disengaged. COz is recommen-
ued- as it leaves no deposits.
Note: COz or Freon should notbe used in the
u,lrcrnit17 of hard vacuum tubes, due to thermal
snock, which will cause the tubes to implode.
Glass-D Fires
Class-D fires should be extinguished by
special dry chem ical exti
n g u ishers or, alternative-
ly. by shovelling the chemical onto the fire. The
extinguisher is marked by a "D" on a yellow star
on the nameplate.
The first minute of a fire fighting effort is a
critical time because the person attempting to
operate the extinguisher may fail to keep suffi-
ciently calm to follow the instructions. For a large
number of portable extinguishers marked "ABC"
or "A", the steps are:
> Pull the pin; and
> Squeeze the lever.
It is not uncommon for an amateur to pick up
an extinguisher and attempt to use it before
pulling the pin.
Extinguisher Markings and Ratings
The nameplates of fire extinguishers desig-
nate by means of a rating code the type(s) of f ires
forwhich the equipment can be used; e.9., 1-A 10-
B:C.
 SHOP PRACTICE

2. Shop Practice

Twist Drill Drilling and Reaming

f
Generally, round holes must be made in
metal, wood, plastic and other rigid materials.
I
Many methods are used, including: drilling,
I
boring, reaming, punching, electro-discharge
Shank
jaxis machining (spark erosion), electro-chemical
Length U machining, laser machining and electron-beam
1 ,"
Straight Shank machining.
l', Drilling
I I

I The most common method of originating

l'i
Overall and/or enlarging a hole is by drilling. For precise
Length hole location and sizing, and/or for good hole
L finish, drilling is often followed by boring and
I
reaming operations. Most drilling is done with

Fl
li
ute
Fl utes
"twist drills" such as the standard type shown in
the diagram.
Length
Twist Drills
l'l Twist drills are made of tool steel, with two

Body
lt flutes cut along about two-thirds of the length, in
a "helix," or twist. One-, three-, and four-flute
! drills are also available. At the cutting end of the
drill is a cutting edge for each f lute. The standard

! Chisel Edge
Margin drill point included angle is 118 degrees and the
clearance angle is 12 degrees, but both can be
varied with the type of material being cut.
A twist drill consists of a point, body, neck
1l and shank. ln some cases, the neck is omitted.
Point
>
- refers to the cutting end of the drill,
made up of the ends of the lands and the web
forming the lips. ln form it resembles a cone but
it departs from a true cone in order to furnish
relief behind the cutting edges;
> Body
- isthe portion of thedrillextending f rom
the shank or neck to the outer corners of the
cutting lips, in which the helical or straight
 SHOP PRACTICE

:: :" ' _::S are CUt Or fOrmed;
: section of reduced diameter
' ::dy and the shank of the drill;
:-a: part of the drill by which it is
-
- .:n. There are a numberof different
;:i^tard shanks, some of which are
] :: CW:
;-: Snank Drills cylindrical
- havef lats,
. : ,,. :n or without driving tangs or
.:s They are used in a "Jacobs'Ltype
. r3mmon up lo 1/2 inch in diameter;
- S'ank Drills fit into a taper sleeve
-: , e an end "tang"- which engages with a
-: sioove in the sleeve to preventturning.
:=cer is self-locking, and a "drift,,, or
:: rs needed to remove the drill;
-:-:- Square Shank Drilts have tapered
-
: -: - {s with f our f lat sides for f itting ratchets
-.'i is the flattened end of the shank
- to f it into an ejection slot in the drilt
=-ded
-: ler or socket. Tangs are most common on
=::r shanks. The taper drives the drill; the
:,^g is used to eject the drill f rom the slot;
.l,,erall Length is the length from the
: {:reme end of the- shank to the outer corners
:' the cutting lips,
There are many other special types of drills
-: ,,,ding: straight-f lute drills (good for sheet-
-::al); core drills (to produce cored holes in
: =sri ngs); multiple-diameter drills (to produce
',,.3 or more concentric holes of different
diame-
-:'s); gun drills (to produce straight, deep
hotes);
and trepanning drills (for large diameter holes).
Boring tools and reamers are considered in
detail later in this chapter.
Drilling Machines
To drill holes, twist drilts (and other drills)
must be mounted in some form of machine which
will rotate the drill about its axis. Common
machines used are:
> Hand drills;
> Portable drills;
> Sensitive drill presses;
> Standard (or upright) drilling machines;
> Radial drilling machines;
> Lathes; and
> Special machines.
Principal features of these machines are;
Hand Drills
Hand drills are small twist drills, for drilling
under low-pressure requirements.
Except for home use or locations remote
from power supplies, hand drills have been
replaced largely by powered portable drills. Hand
drills are useful for small holes (i.e., up to 3/g_
inch in wood and plastic and 1/4-inch in metat).
Portable Drills
Portable drills are electric- or air-powered,
handheld or stand-mounted, for light work.
Electric portable drilis are very common in

Slandard Shanks

n
m'""' li lln

!
t=J
n)
U tl

er Shank
m
Staight Shank-
fr
Straight Shank
Taper Short Length
Length or
Series Jobbers' Drill
 SHOP PRACTICE
chuck capacities o't 1/4-inch,3/8-inch, and 1/2-
inch. They are powerf ul, versatile, and convenient,
and are now available in self-contained battery
models and variable-speed models.
Air-powered portable drills are f requently
used in manufacturing plants but require a supply
of compressed air.
Both electric- and air-powered portable drills
may be mounted in stands which convert them
into a form of drill press.
Sensitive Drill Presses
Sensitive drill presses are electric-powered,
for light work.
These are the most common type of station-
ary drilling machine. They are hand-fed, so that
the operator can feel the rate at which the drill is
cutting and can regulate it according to cutting
conditions.
These machines have spindle speeds of
about 300 to 6,000 rpm, and sometimes to 30,000
rpm. Their size is designated by twice the
distance from the centerline of the spindle to the
column; e.9., a 16-inch drill press can drillto the
centre of a 16-inch diameter disc. They are also
designated by the chuck capacity, 1/2 inch being
common.
Sensitive drill presses are available in floor
and bench-mounted models.
Standard (or Upright) Drilling Machines
Standard (or upright) drilling machines are
electric-powered, for large, heavy work.
They are similar to the sensitive drill press in
Sieps in Machining an Accurate Hole
Centre the drill to locate the hole;
Bore the hole true;
\-
appearance, but have a power feed and are of
heavier construction.
Radial Drilling Machines
Radial drilling machines are electric-power-
ed, for large, heavy work.
For large or heavy workpieces which would
be inconvenient to move for precise location
under the drill, radial drills are advantageous,
with the feature of a movable drill head travelling
on a radial arm which can be moved up and down
and rotated about a vertical axis.
The size of radial drills is designated by a
radius in feet of the largest plate in which a
centre-hole can be drilled. Sizes commonly run
from 3 to 12 feet.
Lathes (Engine and Turret)
Lathes are quite satisfactory drilling machines,
especially for drilling a concentric hole in a round
piece of material.
Special Machines
"Special" machines are electric-powered, for
special high-volume jobs:
> Gang Drilts - are made up of a number of
upright drill presses mounted side by side with a
common table and base to facilitate sequence
operations in volume production;
> Multispindle Drill Heads
- can be attached to a
single spindle ntachine to drill several holes at
one time. They may be of adjustable or fixed
type;
Drill to originate and enlarge the hole;
Beam to the f inal size.

" -.'-:cntained Drill Heads - have an electric
- :::r providing spindle-drive and automatic
.=: and are usually mounted in a high-volume
. -::natic machine for quantity production.
?eaming
rlthough drilling is the most common meth-
;: :' originating and enlarging a hole in metal
i-r many other materials, it does not produce
-
- es with good surface f inish, highly accurate
: =^1eters, and accurate location.
The diameter of small drilled holes, for
.':mple, will usually be oversize, from 0.001 to
- 105 of an inch for a 1/8-inch diameter drill and
":m 0.004 to 0.010 of an inch f or a f -inch
: ameter hole.
Reaming is the hole-sizing or finishing
-peration in which the diameter of an existing
-ole is increased by 0.003 to 0.030 of an inch by a
rultiple-tooth end-cutting tool called a reamer.
-he diameter of a reamed hole is more accurate
:nan that of a drilled one. Reamed holes under l
nch in diameter may be held to *0.0005 of an
,nch and those over 1 inch in diameter may vary
+0.001 of an inch in diameter. Along with
accuracy of diameter, reaming produces a good
surface finish. However, reaming does not
improve the accuracy of the location or angular
alignment of drilled holes, as a reanter tends to
follow the direction of the existing hole; therefore
it is important that the initial drilling be accurate.
Holes to be finished by reaming should be
drilled undersize,leaving only a small amount of
material to be removed by the reamer. Up lo 1/2
Special Drilling and Boring Operations
SHOP PRACTICE
inch in diameter, a drill diameler o'f 1/64 of an inch
less than the reamer size is suitable, andtor 1/2lo
1 1/2 inches in diameter, the size of drill diameter
can be 1/32 of an inch less.
There are many types of reamers:
> Hand-operated,
> Machine-operated:
> Solid;
> Shell;
> Adjustable;
> Straight; and
> Tapered.
High-speed reamers should be run at about
half the speed (sf m or rpm) of a drill of the same
material and size, and the feed should be two to
three times that of a drill of the same size.
Boring
Boring is a hole-enlarging operation for
obtaining accuracy of either the diameter or the
location of a hole, or both; it also improves the
surface finish.
Boring is usually applied to a previously
drilled or cored hole. Drills tend towanderordrift
and to cut oversize; boring the drilled hole will
correct these conditions.
Boring tools are single or multiple-tooth end-
cutting tools held in rigid boring bars.
Boring operations are performed by any of
the following machines: lathe, milling machine,
horizontal boring mill, vertical boring mill, or jig
borer.
Spotfaci ng Spotfacing
 1' SHOP PRACTICE
Special Drilling and Boring Tools
Cenire Drill
A centre drill is a short, stable, often double-
ended combination drill and countersink.
Centre drilling is done to originate a hole
prior to drilling with a standard twist drill, and
greatly aids in accurately locating a drilled hole,
inasmuch as a standard drill will wander f rom the
axis of rotation upon contact with the workpiece.
Countersink
A countersink cuts a tapered recess at the top
oi a drilled hole to provide a recess for the tapered
head of a flat-head screw or bolt.
Counterbore
A counterbore cuts an enlarged concentric
bore at the top of a drilled hole to provide a recess
so that the head of a bolt will be flush with the
su rf ace.
Spot Facer
A spot facer smooths the surface around a
hole to provide a level surface for a washer, bolt-
head, or nut.
Tool Materials
Carbon Tool Steels
Carbon tool steels were used exclusively for
all tools before the development of high-speed
and alloy tool steels; they are still widely used in
industry today. They are manufactured in a
number of carbon ranges and in different grades.
The low-carbon range (0.7 to 0.9 percent) is most
suitable for tools subject to shock, and the high-
carbon range (1 .10 to 1 .30 percent) is most
suitable for cutting tools where a keen edge is
req u ired.
High-speed Tool Steels
High-speed tool steels are alloy steels that
contain tungsten (17 to 19 percent), chromium
(0.35 to 0.45 percent), vanadium (0.9 to 1.2
percent), and carbon (0.65 to 0.75 percent). This
composition remains a major tool material
despite the development of carbides.
Alloy steels possess the characteristic
known as "red-hardness" - meaning the ability
to retain hardness at high temperature with high
abrasion resistance and a comparable degree of
shock resistance.
t
Carbide Tools
Carbide tools are initially formed by powder
metallurgy. This material is relatively high in cost,
but tool bits retain their effectiveness at excep-
tionally high cutting speeds. The principal
carbide is tungsten; others include tantalum and
titanium. To grind carbide effectively, diamond
wheels must be used.
Diamond Tools
Diamond tools are effective, but not common-
ly used.
The diamond cutter gives a high standard of
finish, provided it is properly set and mounted. lt
is particularly good for machining hardened
materials.
Drill Materials
TI
Carbon-steel Drills (High-carbon Tool Steel) ']ilI
Carbon-steel drills are cheap but lose their ''ilI
edge f rom hot cutting. They are unsuitable for 'il
production work. ]t
fit
High-speed Steel Drills 1I
High-speed steel drills contain tungsten,
chromium, vanadium, and carbon, and retain
their hardness at high temperatures. They have
largely replaced carbon-steel drills ior produc-
tion work as they have double the cutting speed.
They are identified by the letters "hss" or "hs"
near the size markings on the shank.
Cemented Carbide Drills (Solid Carbide or
Carbide-tipped) g
Cemented carbide drills are capable of high rfr
production rates if conditions are correct and '1[
care is used. $
Drill Sizes fi
t
American standard twist drills include frac-
E
tional sizes. As fractional sizes do not provide
sufficient range in the smaller sizes, the Stubbs
drill and wire gauge sizes are used. Letter-size
drills are also used to provide a selection of drills
larger than the number drills. All number, letter lIMIfi
and fractionaldrills uplol/2 inch in diameterare sg
available with a straight shank. Fractional drills
over 1 /2 inch in diameter are made with a taper
shank only. s
o1
fi{
 SHOP PRACTICE 11

, :' r'rlis are available in four diameter size heavy a feed is being used. The rapid wearing of
* , : ".::iOnS: the corners of the cutting edge indicates too great
a speed.
:' :tal sizes 1/64" lo 3 1/2"
- to Z (0.413"); Recommended Drilling Feeds
-:e r or wire sizes B0 (0.0135") to
- 1

-.: t, and Size of Drill (inches) Soft Metals (ipr) Hard Metals (ipr)
--: sizes 0.75 mm (0.0295") to 77 mm
- Under 1/8 0.002 0.001
)
1/B to 1/4 0.004 0.002
S peeds and Feeds 1/4 to 1/2 0.007 0.004
1/2 lo 1 0.015 0 007
: - Speed Over 1 0.025 0.015

-'e
speed of a drill is the rate at which the
:' J ^r'! of the drill moves in relation to the Point Angle
.-. : ece, expressed in "surfacefeet per minute" The point angle of a twist drill should be
: - For convenience, this sf m is best converted varied to suit the material to be drilled. The
" * ":volutions per minute" (rpm). The correct following are typical point angles:
" :f a twist drill depends upon:
Recommended Angles and Clearances
r --3 diameter of the drill;
r -'e steel used in the manufacture of the drill, Angle
Point Lip Clearance
p -^e material being drilled; Material to be Drilled (degrees) (degrees)

'> -'ie type of hole desired;

-le way in which the workpiece is set up or Mild and medium steel 118 12
Tool steel 140 10
^eld; and Brass and bronze 118 15
> -ne quality of the machine itself . Copper 100 12
Cast iron 90 12
To calculate the rpm of a drill, the same Aluminum 100 12
"
: "m ula that will be used for the lathe is applicable. Stainless steel 11B 14

rpm 4xcuttingspeed
diameter of drill Cutting Fluids for Drill-press Work
As the drill cuts into the metal, the cutting
Becommended Drilling Speeds edge becomes heated. This may soften the
cutting edge and ruin the drill; therefore, a cutting
CarbonSteel High-Speed fluid should be used. lts main purpose is.
'.'laterial Drill (sfm) Steel Drill (sfm)
> To cool the drill, making thedrill-cuteasierand
'llld and medium steel 30 70 - 100
smoother;
iool steel 35 57 - 70
>
Stainless steel 30 - 40 To help retain the cutting edge on the drill;
Cast iron 35 - 70 70 - 150 > To help wash away the chips;
Aluminum 125 200 - 300 > To prevent undue f riction;
Copper 60 - 70 > To permit faster cutting speeds;
Brass and bronze 60 - 120 200 - 300 > To improve the hole finish; and
> Tocool thehotchips, minimizingthedangerof
Drill Feed bu rns.
The feed of a drill is the distance the drill Recommended Cutting Fluids
moves into the workpiece per revolution, expres- lor Drilling, Reaming and Tapping
sed in "inches per revolution" (ipr).
While the knowledge of the best feed to use Metal Drilling Reaming Tapping
can come only f rom experience, a moderate, Mild and medium
steady feed is good practice, and caution must be steel Soluble Lard oil Lard oil
observed near the completion of drilling each Tool steel Soluble Lard oil Lard oil
hole. lf the cutting edge of a drill breaks, too
 12 SHOP PRACTICE

Recommended Cutting Fluids

lor Drilling, Reaming and Tapping (cont'd)
Metal Drilling Reaming TaPPing

Brass and bronze Dry Soluble DrY

t
Copper Soluble Soluble Solubie F
Aluminum Kerosene Lard oil Soluble @
Cast iron Dry DrY Lard oil tt
part oilto 40 parts water) is generally m
Note: Soluble oil (.1
used. d
ffi
) @
Thread Cutting s
Dies Adjustable and Removable Screw-plate Dies
frt
) iA
A threading die is a tool used for cutting Adjustable and removable screw-plate dies
external threads. Dies are made in a variety of are made in halves and are f urnished with screw- ffi
sizes and shapes, each suited to the particular plate sets which are easily removed when chang- * '1i'

work for which it is intended. ing f rom one size screw to another. The dies are ir
Some dies are solid, with a f ixed size; others held in a collet, which contains the adjusting ) ,!l
are split on one side to permit adjustment. Others SCTEWS. n
are made like chasers and are held in a collet. f
Hand threading dies are used to cut threads r+
on bolts, screws and other pieces which do not Collel
require precision threading.
>q
Adjustable Round-split Dies
Adlustable round-split dies may be adjusted
slightly over or under the given size and may be
removed from the stock without changing the
setti ng.
Adjustable and
Bemovable
Adlustable Screw-Plate Die
Round-
split Die
Die Holder or Die Stock
A die holder or die stock is used for hoiding
round adjustable dies. The dies are usually held
in the die stock by means of small setscrews. ?re

:^^
j:U

Round-split Dies
Tal
Round-split dies can be adjusted in the die
holder to cut threads either slightly over or under
.\,,\- \- set
the standard depth. The dies are held in the stock ------_) and
by setscrews, which also adjust the size of the
\/
ofo
dies. Round-split dies must be reset every time
Thir
they are changed in the holder. Die Holder or Die Stock

I
 SHOP PRACTICE 13

Threading a Bolt percent weaker than j 00 percent thread engage-

:he procedure for threading a bolt is ment. With some tough steels which are difficult
as to tap, 60 percent thread engagement is suffi_
'cllows:
cient. The tap drill size is larger than the minor
' Apply cutting oil to the screw blank; diameter of the male thread in order to give
> 3 ace the chamfered side of the die
on the end clearance to the crest of the internal thread.
:f
the screw blank, holding the die stock lf tables are not available, a usable tap drill
sq uare ly; size for NC and NF (see section entitled,,Thread
> press down firmly and start turning the die Series") over 1/4 inch in diameter and ISO metric
stowly until the first threads take hold. After can be found by using the following formula:
:rat, the die will follow without pressure;
> Cut three or four threads. Then stop and make Tap driil _ od _ t/n
sure that the threads are being formed and that
od - nominal or major diameter;
:he die is square with the work; n - threads per inch; and
> ,After squaring the die, use a generous amount
1/n - pitch as an actual distance.
of cutting oil; otherwise, the threads are likely Example 7; Find the tap drill of a3/8,'NC thread.
:o tear, Tap drill od - t/n
> Tu rn the die back f requenily (a quarter or half a - - od - 1/n
3/8" _ 1/16" -_ 3/8" _ 1/16"
-
turn) in order to break the chip;
- 6/16" _ 1/16"
> After cutting a few threads, back the die off the 5/16"
- 0.375 _ 0.0625
work and test the th reads f or size. Always clean
- - 0.3125
the threads before testing them for size. Blow - 5/16"
Example 2: Find the tap dritt for a M 5 X 0.8
the chips out of the die.
th read.
lf the thread is foo large: Tap drill od - pitch
> Release the spreading screw slightly and
- 5-0.8
tighten the setscrew; 4.2 mm
> Run a die over threads again and test for size; lf the answer does not match the standard
> Repeat this operation until the desired fit is size drill, pick the next larger size drill for easier
obtained. tapping.
Tables for correct drill speed, point angle and
lf a large diameter bolt is being threaded, it is
lubricant can be found under the section entitled
::st /irsf to back off the adjustable die and start "Drilling and Reaming".
*,, :h a shallow cut, and then to make progressively
:eeper cuts until the correct thread depth or fit is Hand Tapping
:ctained. This procedure will result in a better
Hand taps come in sets of three:
:^read form.
Solid die nuts commonly used by millwrights > Starting
:'e only a means of thread-recovery, and as such, - about 7-g deformed threads on a
leading taper;
;,ve about a Class-l thread, or worse. A die nut > Flug 3-5 deformed threads on a leading taper;
srould not be used to check the thread on a stud and
-
:"at is supposed to be a "tight fit" in a tapped hole. > Bottoming
lnternal threads are cut by a tap or series of - 1 1/2
leading taper.
detormed threads on a

:aps being turned in the correct diameter tap-

Taps for various classes of fits can be bought,
Jrilled hole.
but for the average millwright, the tap to be used is
Taps and Tapping supplied by the company and the fit corresponds
with the tap supplied.
Tap drill size is usually found by consulting a
set of tables which is common to most machine
NPT is cut with one lap only. Refer to the
"Screw Thread Theory" section for the correct size
and millwright shops.
tap drilland the recommended amountof threadto
The common tables used are for the purpose
be cut.
of obtaining 75 percent f ull thread engagement.
Taps should be used with the proper size tap
This amount ofthread iseasytotapand isabout5
wrench and turned carefully, as they are easy to
14 SHOP PRACTICE
break and usuallY hard to remove'
The procedure for hand tapping is as follows:
> Apply the recommended cutting oil to the hole
and taP;
> Align the tap and press it down firmly;
> Turn it until threads start to form;
> Turn the tap back f requently to break chips and
clear flutes,
> Lubricate it as needed;
> When resistance to turning reaches its limit'
remove the taper tap and start the plug tap' A
plug tap should be sufficient to finish an open
note, Uut it is common to alternate starting and
plug taps to reduce the chance of tap breakage;
> Use bottoming tapstofinishthethread in a blind
hole. A blind hole must be cleaned out f requent-
ly to prevent cuttings f rom building up and
blocking the taP.
Poor Thread
Poor thread can be divided into two groups:
> Loose fit - can be caused bY:
o A drill sharPened off-centre; or
o Drilling with no rigid suPPort.
> Rough surface - can be caused bY:
o Dull taps;
o Lack of lubrication: or
o Allowing a tap to slip when starting the thread'
Tap Breakage
Tap breakage can be caused bY:
> Careless handling;
> The use of a spanner or ad justable jaw wrench;
> A tap drill that is too small;
> Chips jamming;
> Work material hardening by overheating
during drilling;
> Too much muscle on the tap wrench; or
> Starting the tap when it is not parallel to the
bored hole (the tap is rigid and will not bend as
the threaded section is deepened)'
Special Removal Tools
Specialtools have been designed to aid in the
quick and easy removal of taps, studs, bolts,
screws or pipes which have been broken off at, or
below, the surface of a Piece of work.
Tap Extractors
Broken taps may be removed by means of tap
extractors, which are made of good quality steel
and are designed to withstand shearing strain'
Tap extractors are available in sets which
con{irm to standard tap sizes, ranging f rom 1/8 to
1 1/2 inches. Some extractors will handle two or
three sizes of taps and as such, the whole range of
tap sizes is covered.
A tap extractor consists of f our parls: holder,
collar, s/eeve, and f ingers. The holder is similar in
design to a hand tap, having straight f lutes and no
threids through its entire length. One end is
squared to accommodate a tap wrench' The
fingers which f it into the flutes of the holder are
held together by the collar, but are f ree to slide up
and down the flutes as required. The sleeve is
designed to fit over the f ingers and to slide, so
that it gives rigid support to the fingers when
moved in place.
Sectional
View of the
Fingers of
the Extractor
Tap Extractor
The method of removing a broken tap ls as follows:
Examine the situation, and prepare the work so
that the broken tap may be removed with the
least difficultY;
Ensure that the correct size and type of
extractor is used. Check the number of f ingers
to make sure that they correspond to the
number of flutes in the broken tap' Extractors
are available with two, three, or four fingers;
Remove all loose chips from the holes around
the broken tap. lf compressed air is used to do
this, wear safetY goggles;
Remove any sharp projections which may
prevent the fingers of the tap extractor from
sliding into Place;
> Place a few drops of cutting oil in the hole;
> lf the tap is broken into two or more irregular
 SHOP PRACTICE 15

i-: --=.. sometimes act as locknuts against

)llif',,i
The "prick punch and hammer" method is as
Jfir'T _ = T.',i ry +^ro move the top piece slightly so
-i=r+ -'-:-
follows:
* : ur -:: happen;
* -: : _ ;r(.)r.
,""! _:-:j
ir,,
^^+ +^
Lo damage the threads in > lf the tap is broken off below the surface of the
' I ": :: :- s will make removal of the broken the metal, try to remove it by using a prick punch
I ^ ,tr,
tap
' 1 - -Ull.. and hammer to force it out, turning it in a
* *,i -:: :-= extractorfingers so that they project counterclockwise direction.
rry; - - t :-e holder, and slide them down
into
"'1"i - _:= .{ the
broken tap as far as they will go
u ili* I _i .orcing;
* .r -:- :-= holder down until it touches the
l ': { i- :ap (this is very important), and slide the
. *, : :3wn until it touches the work. Remem_
r,: - - - f : the f ingers of the tap extractor
m ust be
; - :: :.ied along their entire length, either
in
'*n '_:es of the holder, or in the flutes
of the
:-: ":- tap; otherwise they may become twis_
'i: : -: of shape;
* .r:: _, a tap wrench to the squared outer end,
i - : :.,, rst it back and forth a few times to loosen
- -^en back out the broken tap.
:-: -:re chief difficulty with a tap extractor is
'::- : s a very fragile tool and may easily
. :-:(en if the tap sticks too tighily, orbeifbent
too
r -:- Dressure is applied.
--ree other methods may be used to remove
i:! :ut extreme care must be exercised in all
:::,=s The most suitable method for extraction "Prick Punch
- -:: ce ascertained before starting. and Hammer"
Melhod

--: method of working a broken tap /oose is as

.: ,WS; The heat softening method is as follows:

' a piece of tap extends above the hole, take

> Heat the stock with the broken tap to a cherry_
- old of it with a pair of pliers, red color and then allow it to cool slowly. This
or vise grips, and
,., crk it back and forth to loosen
will remove the hardness f rom the tap and it can
*i'le it (see diagram).
cause of a broken tap is generally a chip then be extracted by one of the methods
:aught between the teeth and the side of the described in "Removing a Broken Stud,,.
"ole. lf this chip can be loosened to drop into a Stud and Screw Extractors
' ute, then the broken part of the tap will come
cut easily. Removing broken sections of studs, screws,
or pipes does not present as many problems as
removing broken taps unless the broken piece is
rusted, and tends to tear apart when attempts are
made to remove it.
A stud or screw extractor is similar in shape
to a taper-pin reamer. The jl:wer portion contains
ridges designed to bite and hold onto softer metal
when pressure is applied (in a counterclockwise
direction, with a wrench) on the squared outer
end. These extractors are made of heat_treated
Working a Broken steel, designed to withstand considerable torque
Tap Loose
strain
16 SHOP PRACTICE
Standard screw extractors are available in
sets which will handle all standard sizes of bolts,
cap screws, and stud bolts. Each extractor is
numbered and stamped, showing the size of drill
to be used in conjunction with it.
The method of extracting a broken stud or
screw ls as /o//ows;
lf possible, apply a penetrating oil to the broken
stud or screw and allow it to soak into the
threads before attempting to remove it;
Check the size of the broken part and calculate
the size of hole that can be drilled through the
centre, allowing enouEh metal for the extractor
to bite without expanding the remaining part:
Select an extractor stamped with the same size
as the drill used:
Locate the centre of the broken part, make a
prick punch mark, and drill a hole deep enough
to permit the extractor to grip evenly; and
lnsert the extractor into the hole and turn it
counterclockwise with a wrench, maintaining a
steady pressure, until the broken part moves'
f/-
Tap Wrench
Extractor
Stud
Workpiece
Bernoving a
Broken Stud
Pipe Extractors
For removing broken pieces of pipe, there is a
special extractor which has a steeper angle of
spiral ridges than the stud extractor. The ridges
are designed so that the extractor will take a
shallow grip on the broken piece of pipe, thus
preventing excessive binding pressure.
Pipe extractors are made in sizes to accom-
modate most standard pipe sizes, with the
squared end large enough for a heavy duty
wrench to be used.
Screw Thread Theory
Delinitions
Screw Thread may bevisualized as a flexible
-
f orm that has been wrapped around a cylinder,
or inside a cylindrical hole, at a uniform rate of
advance, producing a f orm known as a "helix";
External Thread a thread on the outside of a
member;
-
> lnternal Thread - a thread on the inside of a
member;
' Major Diameter - the largest diameter of a
screw thread. This term applies to both internal
and external threads;
. Minor Diameter - the smallest diameter of a
screw thread. This term also applies to both
internal and external threads;
, Pitch Diameter (simple effective diameter)-
the diameter of the surface, which is the
diameter of an imaginary co-axial cylinderthat
passes through the thread profile at such
points as to make the width of the thread equal
to the width of the groove. The pitch diameter
is equal to the major diameter less the single
depth of thread;
> Pitch the distance f rom a point on a screw
-
thread to a corresponding point on the next
thread, measured parailel to the axis;
> Lead - the distance a screw thread advances
axially in one turn. On a single-start screw
thread, the lead and pitch are the same. On a
double-start screw thread, the lead is twice the
distance of the Pitch;
> Crest - the top surface joining adjaceni sides
or f lanks of the thread;
> Roof - the bottom surface joining adjacent
sides or f lanks of the thread;
> Slde or Ftank - the surfaces of a threacl
connecting the crest to the root;
> Slng/e Depth of Thread - the distance f rom
the crest to the root, measured perpendicular
to the axis;
> Thickness of Thread - the distance between
the adjacent sides of the thread, measured
along the pitch line;
> Fit - the relationship between two mating
parts with respect to the amount of clearance
 SHOP PRACTICE 17

'.'.y are assembled, or with respect to studs, nuts and screws etc. ("V" -form threads
- - -nt of interference preventing assernbly; and rolled threads); or
-ie the total'*' permissible
r"' variatlon, > To form a pressure-tight joint (tapered pipe
-
,=-ted by the given maximum and mini- th reads).
:es of the parts;
-ce Left-and Right-hand Threads
- an international difference in the
:ns of mating parts. Right-hand threads are easier to produce on
a lathe than left-hand threads. For this reason,

.1,n".. ]
I most screw threads are right-hand. That is, a nut
must be tu rned to the right to enter the thread. For
certain applications, however, where a directional
I
_t
nread rt Crest change is required, or where a better locking
i effect is required, a left-hand thread is used.
- Single Depth Both the threaded shaft and the nut must, of
- Angle course, be either left- or right-hand.

Lelt-Hand Thread

: : * f11g6d

3urpose of Threads
. - - 'ansmit power and increase lts e/fecl as
- a lead screw or automobile jack (ACME,-
Raght-Hand Thread
:r -are, buttress and worm threads);
, -- aontrol movemenl as in a micrometer
, -form threads); -
i : convey material-asinafoodgrinder(cast
: 'al th reads);
, -: nold parts together with the use of bolts,
=

-
Multiple Threads

Single Thread Double Thread Triple Thread

Most screw threads are of the single type.
-^rs means that the screw thread consists of a
. .gle ridge and groove. A double thread differs
"cm a single thread in that it has two threads and
l'ooves, starting f rom diametrically opposing
r,rections, as shown in the double thread diagram.
A triple thread has three grooves, starting at three
equally spaced points around the circumference.
The object of using multiple threads is to
obtain an increase in lead without weakening the
thread by an increase of pitch and depth.
18 SHOP PRACTICE

Maior Diameter > 10" - the number of threads per inch or

pitc h;
As is noted under "Definitions", the major > UNC - the thread style (in this case, Unified
diameter is the largest diameter of the screw. On
National Coarse);
fasteners, however, the major diameter and the >2 - the class of fit;
shank diameter are usually not the same. >a - the external thread;
For example, if a rough machine bolt and a >b the internal thread; and
semi-f inished cap screw of 314-inch nominal > 1" dp- - i.e., 1" depth - the amount of
diameter are fitted into a neat 3/4-inch drilled tapped into the blind
usable thread
hole, the threaded section of each fastener will
hole.
slip into the hole. However, the shank of the cap
screw may be a light tap f it, and the shank of the Note;
rough machine bolt might be a heavy drive or o Right-hand thread is always understood,
press fit. unless left-hand is specified in the drawing;
Some rolled fasteners have a shank diameter r Some plant drawings may omit the 2aand2b
smaller than the major diameter. and leave the class of fit to the discretion of
the machinist.
Pitch
Pitch can be expressed in two general ways:
Thread Series
At the present time there are over 100 thread
> As threads per inch (tpi) - the number of forms throughout the world. However, there are
crestsmeasured in one inch of a scale rule, not
on ly 1 0 to 12 wh ich the m illwrig ht uses in general
counting the first thread under the end of the
maintenance work.
scale, such as 10 tpi; or
> As an actual measurement - such as 1/10 or American National Thread
0.10 of an inch.
There are two designations for this thread
Thread Symbols National Coarse (NC), and National Fine (NF).
-
This thread has a 60-degree angle, with f lats on the
Basic print detail for a threaded assembly is
crest and root.
as follows:
Unified Screw Thread
Machine drawings of threaded assemblies
There are two designations for this thread
indicate the following factors: -
Unified National Coarse (UNC) and Unified
> 3/4" the size of the major diameter; National Fine (UNF). This thread has a 60-degree
-
Drill and Tap

3/4" - 10" UNC-2a

3/4" - 10" UNC-2b 3/4" - t0" UNC-2b-1" dp

 SHOP PRACTICE 19

ri ,., -- j .ounded root and a rounded or flat National Pipe Thread (NpT)
- 'i ". : a.rd the UNC series The usual fault when hand threading pipe is
are interchange_
. - = s zes, but the NF and UNF have a to put on too many threads.
- . :-- : :a1 in the
l-inch diameter:
UNF - 12 tpi
NF - 14 tpi

Rounded
or
Flat Chest

Root * Deltberate American National pipe Threads

or from
Tool Wear lnside Diameter
b= Outside Diameter g Depth of Thread
-
-r -':a and American National Screw Threads c : Length of Effective Thread
r,- : I -ensions d : Length of Normal Engagement
e : Root Diameter at the Small End of the Thread
f - 0.125 f Outside Diameter at the Small End of the Thread
No. threads per rnch tc - 0.10825
-
-a - tr -
0 88603 0.14434 lnternational Metric Thread
0 61343
This thread is most f requenily found on older
3onstant Pitch Series imported European machines. lt is also found on
spark plugs.
Tnis thread form is the same as the American
'.:: 3nal Thread. The pitch remains the same for
: I ameters. Two common sizes are:
> '2-thread a continuation of National Fine
-
NF), for diameters of over '1 1/2 inches, such
as in shaft nuts; and
> ,t6-thread for diameters of over 2 inches,
-
such as in bearing nuts or collars.
lnternational Metric Threads
Acme Thread
This thread is used mainly as an adjusting lnternational Organization for Standardization
screw on a machine such as a lathe. lt is nota (lSO) Metric Series
iastener. This is the base for the standard metric
thread shape, pitch and sizes used throughout
the world. The proposed ISO series has only 25
thread sizes, ranging f rom 1.6 to 100 mm.

Acme 29" Screw Threads

No. of threads per inch

d : 1/2 pitch + 0.01"
wi -0.3707xpitch
w2 : w1 -0.0052" ISO Metric Threads
20 SHOP PRACTICE

Commonly Used ISO Metric Pilch Diameter Combinations

Nominal Thread Nominal Thread

Diameter Pitch Diameter Pitch

1.6 0.35 20 25
2.O 0.40 24 3.0
2.5 0.45 30 3.5
3.0 0.50 36 4.0
3.5 0.60 42 4.5
4.0 0.70 48 5.0
5.0 0.80 56 5.5
6.0 1.00 64 60
8.0 1.25 72 6.0
10.0 1.50 B0 6.0
12.O 1.75 90 6.0
14.0 2 00 1 00 6.0
16.0 2.00 Hex-headed Cap Screw, Loaded by a Nut

The new ISO thread has a 60-degree inclu-
ded angle and a crest equal to 0.125 times the
pitch. The main differences are:
> The depth of thread is less; and
> The root is 0.250 X pitch.
The increased root diameter will allow an
increase in the tensile strength of the fastener.
Basic print detail for a metric fastener is as
follows:
M8 X '1.25
> M - the symbol for metric;
> 8 - the nominalmajordiameter in mm;and
> 1.25 - the pitch in mm.
Note: The ISO metric system is developed in
further detail in the section entitled "Metric Pitch
Nomenclature" at the end of this chapter.
Fastener Use
Threaded fasteners are classified as either
screws or bolts. The general distinction is that a
screw is loaded by a head, and a bolt is loaded or
tightened by a nut, but some fasteners can be
used either way. Using a cap screw as both a
machine bolt and a cap screw will reduce the
necessary parts inventory.
lnstallation of Fasteners
Practically all fastener failure takes place
when the assembly is being torqued or tightened.
ln the tightening process, there are three problems
that may occur:
> The bolt can break;
> The bolt thread can strip; or
> The nut thread can strip.
Bolt breakage can be avoided by following
manufacturers' torque values for the assembly, or
by breaking a sample assembly and then using a
lower value on the torque wrench.
Thread stripping can be avoided by using
thicker nuts so that more threads take the load.
For example, if a bolted assembly is torqued
to 100 ft-lbs (140 N/mm) to suit specifications,
several factors are involved during the tightening
procedure:
> Torque
- ororturning force, set by the wrench;
> Tension elongation of the bolt;
> -
Compresslon
- of the material between the
bolt head and nut; and
> Dilation
- the tendency of the wedge shape of
the thread to enlarge the diameter of the nut.
After torque force is taken off the assembly,
the major force remaining is the tension set up by
the fastener.
Tensile Force
Tensile force on the material can be classed as:
> Elastic Limit - the amount a fastener can be
stretched and still return to its original length
after tensile forces are removed. Proof-load
figures for fasteners are frequently given; they
are slightly less than the yield load of the
fastener, but within the elastic limit;
> Yield Point - where the fastener begins to take
a permanent set; or
> Ultimate Tensile Strength (uts) the failure or
breaking point.
-
The forces for the above groups are given as
slress psi
- a length of material with a cross-
section of one square inch that will break at a
 SHOP PRACTICE 21

certain tensile load in pounds.

A 1/Z-inch diameter SAE (Society of Automo_
\
tive Engineers) Grade-1 cap screw has a tensile /\\/-\ |

strength of 60,000 psi, a yield stress of 36,000 psi,

and a proof stress of 33,000 psi. The actual timit
.1 \(
load on the cap screw can be calculated by the
- Four-bolt
>
following formulas:
The failure load
of a
_ actual area X psi The area
1/2-inch diameter is 0.19635 of a square
o Bearing

inch. \
The failure load 0.19635 X 60,000 \\
- #
The yield load
-_ 11,781
0.19635 X 36,000
#
- 7068
The proof load
- 0.19635 X 33,000 \
6479 #

The torque to get the calculated proof load in

tension can be approximated, using the formula:
<(d
t-0.2xdxt
,t
the torque in inch-pounds; Bolt Assembly
0.2 the correction factor;
d the nominal diameter in inches; and
t the tension in pounds.
loading each bott torqued to get
0.2xdxt
. -!1oOer
'1600# tensile load:
-
:- 0.2x0.5x6479 Holding force of fasteners
- 647.9 inch-pounds - 4 X 1600 - 5000
Separating force on fasteners
6400 #
= 54 foot-pounds Effective loading - #

The 0.2 correction factor takes into consid_

deration the fact that about B0 percent of the
torque force is used to overcome friction and only
20 percent is used to put the fastener in tension.
Bolted Assemblies
Types of bolted assemblies generally fall into
two groups:
> Where the load on the fasteners remains con_
stant; or
> Where the load on the fasteners is a variable
amount.
ln a variable-load assembly, the tension on
the bolt due to torque should be higher than the
forces tending to separate the components. The
bolt is then considered to be preloaded.
Drive starts chain pull
Dead weight-
3000
14OO# -
With the preload of 6400*, the fasteners wiil
remain a constant iength.
The figures represent a theoretical problem;
. actual
in use, the bearing assembly with the
lightly loaded bolts soon show polished surfaces
on the bearing base and beam. The fasteners are
slightly stretched as the drive starts, ailowing the
bearings to move a litile. When the drive stops,
the bearings are again in tight contact with the
beam. Welding stopper biocks at each end of the
bearing will keep the bearing in alignment, but
will not prevent the fastener from elongating.
Proper preloading of fasteners is eslential in
any machine with ott/on loads so as to reduce or
prevent early fastener failure.
Torque Values
Torque values shown in service manuals are
#

2000 # desig ned:

Total force separating assembly 5000 # > To give proper preload on fasteners;
Holding force of fasteners 3200 # > To prevent shear across the threads when
Effective holding force is short by using
1800# similar or difficult materials in assembly;
22 SHOP PRACTICE

To ensure a uniform loading on all the fasteners

when assembling; and
To prevent failure or cracking of metals, e.9. a
cast Browning bushing or an equivalent, used
with steel cap screws.
Tables given usually apply to a new threaded
assembly
lubrication.
- Class 2a/2b - with very light
t:fXr t= fXr
Lubrication -5X12in. : 5X1
- 60 in-lbs = 5 ft-lbs
Lubrication can have an eifect on the torque
value of any fastener assemblY. Torque Calculations
Lubricaiion is often a matter of choice or
company policy. lf the assembly is fastened "for
life", a lubricant is not critical, but if the assembly
is to be taken apart f requently, a commercial anti-
seize compound should be used. Some manuals
give a definite torque figure for lubrication and
specif ic correction factors for common lubricants.
Proper torque values dePend on:
> Accuracy of the torque wrench;
> The thread f inish; t:fXI t= fXr
> The class of fit; - 5X 25 : 5X10x250
> The age of the fasteners; 100 1 000 h--
> The type of surface f inish on the f ixed and - 1.25 m/kg 'I
25 N.m
ffiE
turning metals;
Torque Calculations
> The positioning of the holes, and 0-e
> The correct amount of thread for the assembly. Radius in centimetres is converted to radius in
Torque wrench readings are given in: metres. *:
> in-lbs (inch-pounds) - for small diameter > For convenience, 1 kg mass is taken to be 10 ;r:
fasteners or lighJly loaded assemblies; Newtons of force.
> ft-lbs (foot-pounds) - for general use; > lt is preferable to indicate dimensions in milli- ,=
> mlkgs (metreslkilograms)- the old metric metres, rather than centimetres.
system;
> N.m (Newton metres) - the new Systdme Preload
lnternational, which will be standard. Preload may be obtarned by several methods
Torque is calculated by the formula: in common practice:
t-f Xrwhere t-torque; > Turn of Nut
- used mainly with structural steel
f force in . lbs; assembly. The nut is tightened until the
- o kg; or assembly is snug and then the nut is turned a
a Newtons specif ied amount. For example, with a fastener
r radius . in; ot3/4 - 10 inches UNC using hex nuts, a turn of
- o ft; or one flat will stretch the bolt 1/16 X 1/10 0f an
am. inch toequall/60 of an inch (0.0166 of an inch);
> Preload tndicating Washers - designed to
crush on the high points. A feeler gauge is used
to measure the remaining gap A set of tables
will be needed for each washer, and care must
be taken during assemblY;
 SHOP PRACTICE

> Load Distribution per Thread _ contrary to

general belief, all threads do not take equal
amounts of loading in an assembly. ln thread
fasteners, the f irst f ull thread of the nut
next to
the f lat washer takes about 50 percent of the
f ull load; the next thread
about 25 percent; and
the remaining threads share the rest of the
load. The percentages are approximate,
but
generally accepted;
> Measured Elongation of Fasfeners _ the
method by which unif orm elongation of fasten_
ers is obtained. A micrometer reading is taken Lock Nut
for the length, and on assembly,
is stretched to a specified length. "uch-frrt"n*,
This gives
uniform tension of each fastener. > Siotted or Castellated Nuts -- used with a hole
drilled through ihe bolt or screw, and a
cotter
key. These are used in two general fashions:
o A hole is drilled in the ..r*;
then the nut is
tightened to torque value and backed
J off to
the nearest aligned slot,
-t lll c A nut is torqued to specif ied value,
and a hole
is drilled through the screw for a cotter
key;
> Special Nuls to suit machine design.
-
Leng th
The nut can be round, as with anti_friction
bearing nuts or hexagonal standard nuts.
"s" is cut from one siJe, depth A sloi
fuleasured Length of Fasteners to.rit unOu not"
'h" drilled and tapped into one part. in pracilce,
Locking Fasteners Ine nut is tightened to tne final pcsition,
then a
hoilow-head setscrew or a cap screw
Properly fastened machine assemblies should is installed
in the hole and tightened.
not separate if fasteners become loose. Where
locking means cannot be used, a frne thread
wili
Studs
give better holding power and resistance
to A sfud is a length of round stock
vibration than a coarse thr.ead. with threads
on either end of an unthreaded section:
Single positive locking of a nut/bolt assemblv
can be done by welcirng the nut to the bolt, u ,f thread can be of same style on each
or " end,
rrveting the bolt over the nut. This is guaranteed t.4,.
to
hold, but destructive removal wiji be necessary 1/2" NC X 1/2" NC; or
replacing the fasteners.
in r The thread can be of different thread
style to
Where fasteners must be removed to work suit machine and nuts available or Ioading
on
an assembiy, the following choice of lockino required, i.e..
rneans can be used: 1/2" NC x 1/2" NF; or
> Lock Washers; 1/2" NC X M12.
> Lock Nuts or Jam Nuis (thin nuts)_ in theory,
Studs are f requently used as a f ixed
threaded
the jam nut goes on first, followed by the member in a casting as a means
full of protecting the
nut; but in general mill use, the opposite internal tirread.
sequence is used; Two possible fasiener designs are.
> Defarmed fuuts; >
w Self-Locking Nutt; * using nylon, fibre, Cap Screu,,s which will i:e tightened and
wjre -
other inserts. The machine specifieationsor renioved fr"equenily, thus shoriening the iife of
the threaded hoie; and
should be checked to see if ti-r*se nuts p
can i:e Sflros
taken off and reused: - rryhich '.*iii be locked in ilre threadeC
hlie so that the ivear virili be oil ihe nr-li and
24 SHOP PRACTICE

stud. ln the case of thread damage, it is usually Metric Pitch Nomenclature

faster and easier to replace the stud than to try
and recover any damaged internal thread. ln the ISO system, there are coarse threads
called "regular" threads, and there aretwo series
of f ine threads.
ln the ISO system, the pitch is the distance
between the crests of two adjacent threads in
millimetres, so that a f ine thread metric cap screw
which is 10 mm in diameter, 75 mm long, with a
pitch of 1.25 mm, would be described as M 10 X
1.25 X 75. However, a coarse thread metric cap
screw would simply be described as having a
nominal diameter x and a length y; e.9., M 10 X
75. The table below is a reference for selecting
cap screws in the metric field.

METRIC THREAD PITCH

Screw Diameter Thread Pitch Designation

-Coarse Pitch
(millimetres) Fine Pitch

M 3x0.5 ..M 3 x 0.35

3
M 4x0.7 ..M 4 x 0.5
4
a
5 M 5x0.8 ..M 5 x 0.5
Cover Plate with a Drilled Casting with a Drilled and
6 M 6x'1 ..M 5 x 0.75
Clearance Hole Tapped Hole
8 M 8 x 1.25 ..M Bx1
M 8x0.75
Cholce ol Fasteners lor a Cover Assembly M10x1.5
..M'10 x 1.25
10
Where lhe Cover Plate is Frequently Removed M10x1
12 M 12 x 1.75 M12x1.5
--M 12 x 1.25
M 14 x2
.-M 14 x 1.5
lnternal Thread RecoverY 14
M 14 x 1.25
M16x2 ..M 16 x 1.5
lf thethreadsof thetapped hole inthecasting 16
M18x2.5 M18x2
18
(see diagram above) are stripped, thread recovery .-M 18 x 1.5
can be done bY: M20x2.5 M20x2
..M 20 x 1.5
> Tapping the existing hole deeper, or drilling M 22 x2.5 M22x2
and tapping to get another diameter of new -.M 22 x 1.5
thread (1/2 inch NC requires 1/2 inch of M24x3 "M24x2
'SIli
thread); M24x1.5
M30x3.5
-.M30x2 ',
Using the correct drill and helicoil taps in order M30xl.5
to obtain the sPecified helicoil; M36x4 -.M36x3
36
Welding, redrilling and tapping the hole (this M 36 x 1.5 Smt
can be time-consuming due to the necessity of I
heat control for cast iron);
Coarse metric thread fasteners designations nor-
Filling the hole with plastic steel or an equivalent mally do not include the thread pitch listing They
epoxy (this is good only if the base metal is are listed above for basic information only.
clean and free of rust, oil or grease. Full
These are the most widely used of the two metric fine
strength may not be obtained); or
Drilling and tapping the hole to a larger size
pitch series. f
(this also means that the correct matching hole
in the cover must be drilled to clearance size for crf,

the larger fastener). ilt

Er
 'i

SHOP PRACTICE 25

Comparison of Strength Grades
and Head Markings
*rere
is an important, basic difference
.s. inch markings:
" n the inch system, there are
-rarkings for bolt strengths less than
no strength grade
SAE
Grade 5. (Grade-3 botts ire marked with
two
rarks but are not common, so are discounted.)
r n the metric system, however, bolts with
strengths tess than g.g (equivalent to Grade
5)
?1ay or may not be marked.
Non-Heat_Treated Metric Fasleners
and Hex-Head Bolts (Cap Screws)
ers have a single listing system for strength
g rades.
There are basic differences between the
in metric strength grade designations of the ISO
metric
bolts and the SAE bolts: the ISO metric
system
uses a multiple numeral designation,
whereas the
SAE system uses a single nuri-reral desiqnation.
ln
ISO metric, the first numeral(s) indicates
the
ultimate tensile strength, anO ine number after
the decimal indicates the yietd point as
apercen_
tage of tensile strength.
For example, an ISO_4.6 bolt has a strength
equal to 60 percent of its ultimate tensile
strength,
and an tSO-S.6 bolt would also have a yield
strength equal to 60 percent of its ultimate
tensile l

strength. However, an ISO_5.g bolt would

. ::.CXIMAtE SAE have a
ISO Metric Head yield strength equal to g0 percent
I

r- I ASTM Grades Strength Grade Marking

of its ultimate
tensile strength, and an ISO_10.g bolt would
have
: -: Grade i/ a yield strength equal to 90 percent
:STM 4-307, Grade of the ultimate
A 4.6 4
tensile strength.
4.6
.During the period of changeover to ISO
N.ote:
46
4.8 4,8
standards, there will be Ootts witn non_lSO
48 markings.
none
5.6 5
Some countries do not use a numeralfollow_
5.6 ing the decimal point, and this can lead to a
::E 56 certain degree of confusion, i.e., a metric
Grade 2 5.8 bolt
5.8 marked "5" on the head does not have
5B the same
strength as an SAE Grade_5 bolt; it is equivalent
none
6.6 6
to an SAE Grade-2 bolt. A metric bolt marked ,,g,,
6.6 on the head is not the same strength as an
SAE
66 Grade-8 bott; it is equivatent to ariSRe Grade_5
6.8 6.8 bolt.
68
none Metric Strength Grades for Nuts
6.9 6.9
69 ln the metric system, it is essential that the
none nut is equal to or greater than the ultimate
SAE Grade S/ tensile
ASTM 4-449 strength of the bolt with which it is assembted;
8.8 B
i.e., f or a bolt with a 6.6 strength, the
8.8 nut should be
6 or stronger; and for a bolt with an g.g
SAE Grade 8
B8 strength,
the nut should be g or stronger.
ASTM 4-354, Grade BD 10.9 10 The f unctional tensile stiength of a
10.9 bott and
nut assembly will actually be no greater
109 than the
ASTM A-574 12.9 weakest element in the assem btyl i.e.,
tz if a 10.9_ or
12.9-bott is assembled to a meiric
129.9 irale_e nut,
the assembly will only withstand tne
same tensile
Metric Strength Grades for Bolts load as an 8.8 bolt assembled to a
metric Grade_g
nut.
Unlike American specif ications, which in_
clude both American Society for Testing ISO specif ies one-nut thickness for
and each
Materials (ASTM) and Society of Automotive nominal size, as opposed to the American
stan_
Engineers (SAE) strength grades, metric dards which are of a standard two_nut
fasten_
thickness.
There are two approved ISO metric
strength
26 SHOP PRACTICE

grade marking systems the numeral system There are other ISO metric strength values but
- they are all of lower value than the ones generally
and the "clock" system.
replaced, such that strength grade 12.9 or the
Numeral System equivalent in SAE is alwaYs used.
> Some strength Grade 6 are marked with the Because the inch system, socket head cap
numeral "6"; screws are of only one strength, it is not necessary
> ISO metric units, 6 mrn or larger, with no to mark them. This is not the case in the ISO metric
strength grade marking are always lower in system because of the many grades. lt is manda-
strength than Grade 8; and tory that all heat-treated grades (8.8, 10.9, 12'9\ ot
> lt is also possible that the "8", "10", or "12", socket head cap screws be marked with their
strength grade marking may be f ound on the f lat strength grades, as illustrated. The location of the
or side of the nut. mark is optional. Cap screws (metric) without
marking are of low strength and are not heat-
treated.

Numeral System

Clock System Socket Head Cap Screws

For proPer identif ication, the nut must be
positioned so that the "dot" is at the toP (12
o'clock) and the dash is to the left of the "dot"
Metrie Conversions for Screw
Tlrreads
The foilowing table illustrates the size
relationship of the metric vs. the inch system in

oo
screws. The M-24 screw must noi be called a "1-
inch metric", nor a M-B or M-10 screw a "3/B-inch
metric".
Metric Size Maior lnch Screw Size
Diameter, Diameler, Number Sizes and
(millimetres) ( i nches) Fraction Sizes

0111
Clock Sysiem l\l 3 0117
0 124 5

Metric Strength Grades for Socket 0 r37 6

4 0.1 57
Head Cap Screws N,,'!

0 163
0.189 10
ln the inch system, there is only one strength
M5 0 196
grade of socket head cap screw, namely,170,000 0 215 12
- 180,000 psi. ln the ISO metric system, there are M6 0.235
four strengths in PoPular use: 0.250 1/4
M7 0 275
6.6 - 85,000 psr a 312 51 16

8.8 120,000 psi MB 0 314

10.9 -- 150,000 psi 0 375 3i8
12.9 175.000 psi N4 10 0 392
0.437 / / to
The 12.9 metrrc strength is the only one M 12 0 471
1i2
s00
comparable to the inch system socket head' 0.
 SHOP PRACTICE 27

MetricSize Major lnch Screw Size lnch to Metric

Diameter, Diameter, Number Sizes and 1 inch - 25 mm (millimetre)
(millimetres) (inches) ft-lb - - 2.5 cm (centimetres)
Fraciion Sizes 10 1.4 kg/m (kilogram/metre)
- 14 N.m (Newton
metres)
1000 psi - 0.7 kg/mm: (kilograms/square millimetre)
M 14 0.550 7 Mpa (Megapascals)
-
0 562 9/16 1 pound 0.45 kg (kilograms)
0.625 - - 4.4 N (Newtons)
5/8
M 16 0.628 Metric to tnch
0.750 3/4 1 mm - 0.04 in
M 20 0.786 .10
N.m 1.1 kg/m 7.5 ft-lb
0.875 7tB 1 MPa 0.1 kg/mm, - 14S psi
M 24 0.943 toN - 1.1 kg : 2.3 tb
1.000 .t Abbrevrations: (mm) millimetres, (kg) kilograms,
(m) metre, (N) Newtons,
(MPa) Megapascals, (N.m) Newton metres.

Metric Conversions for Torque

Values strength for metric strength B.B bolts and 10.9
bolts, 6 mm in diameter through 36 mm in
The following two tables list the torque diameter. The torque values are listed in three
recommended to Eive a clamping force equivalent different units of measure, as illustrated in the
to 75 percent of the minimum specif ied load table on the previous page.
ISO Metric Strength 8.8

Diameter Clamp Load, Torque,

( pou nds) foot-pounds ktlogram-metres Newton-metres
ft-lbs kg-nr N_m

6 mm (M6) 2000 8
.t.1 '1
1
8 mm (M8) 3800 20 2.8 27
10 mm (M10) 5900 39 55 53
12 mm (M12) 8600 68 9.5 92
14 mm (M14) 11700 107 l5 145
16 mm (M16) 1 4900 156 22
20 mm (M20) 23300 306 +J 415
24 mm (M24) 33600 qro
74
30 mm (M3O) 53500 1 050 147 1424
36 mm (M36) 77800 1 835 257 2488

Nole:rTorque values based on dry, zinc-plated cap screws. These values will be approximately
30 percent less
if lubricated cap screws are used.
?Clamp loads equivalent to 75 percent of fastener proof
Load strength.

ISO Metric Strength 10.9

Diameter Clamp Load Torque

( pou nds) foot-pounds kjlogram-metres Newton_metres
ft-lbs kg-m N_m

6mm 2730 11 1.5 14.9

8mm 5120 27 3.8 Jb. b
10 mnl 81 00 53
12 mm 1 1800 93 13 126
14 mm 16100 148 21 201
16 mm 21900 230 32 312
20 mm 3420A 449 63 60s
24 mm 49400 777 109 1 054
30 rnm 78s00 1544 216 2094
36 mm 114200 2696 3556
 RIGGING AND HOISTING

3. Rigging and Hoisting

Wire Rope Wire Rope Grades

The lifting means most commonly used in a
plant is wire rope. lt is better adapted for haulage
and transmission purposes than are natural and
synthetic ropes.
Wire Rope Construction
There are over a thousand possible combina-
tions of cores, wires, and strands, each with its
own characteristics.
The general rules (there are exceptions) for
the use of wire rope in a plant depend upon the
following factors:
Grades of wire rope used in hoisting run from
"traction" grade, with a breaking load of 80 to 90
tons per square inch of wire material, to "special
improved plow" grade, with a breaking load of
120 to 130 tons per square inch. "lmproved plow
quality" grade, with a breaking load of 110 to 120
tons per square inch, is the most common grade
used in a mill.
Wire Rope Cores
A core is built into a wire rope during
construction to support the strands of the rope
and maintain the basic rope shape.

> > Fibre Cores are usually made f rom sisal, but
Crush Besistance
- - from polypropylene or other
can be made
o Steel core rope resists crushing better than
fibre core rope; synthetic rope material if the wire rope will be
> Abrasion Reslstance - subject to weathering. They are identified by
o Large diameter wires on the outside or
"fc" for f ibre core and "hc" for sisal core;
> lndependent Wire Rope or Wire Rope Cores
contact layer have better abrasion resistance
are used when wire rope is subject to sudden
-
than small wires;
> Flexibility - heavy loads, crushing, or heat. ln small
r The larger the number of wires in the outer diameter wire ropes, the wire rope core is
gallery (layer) of a strand, the more flexible replaced by a strand core. These are identified
the strand will be; and by the designations "wrc" or "iwrc".
r The larger the number of wires in a wire rope, Wire Rope Lay
the more flexible the strand will be;
> Strength - > Right-Regular Lay or Right-Ordinary Lay
the most common wire rope used. This con-
-is
r Steel core rope is strongerthan fibrecore; and
o The larger the number of wires in a rope, the sists of a number of wires twisted to the left
lower the strength; around a small core to form each of six strands,
s Lay- which are then twisted to the right around the
o Right-lay ropes are the most common style main core to form the final rope.
> Left-Regular Lay consists of wires twisted to
used; and -
the right in the strands, which themselves are
o Left-lay ropes are used for special applica-
tions. twisted to the left.
Wire ropes of six strands are the most
common, but other constructions are available.
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 29

, -ang Lay (or Lang's Lay) is laid with the Preformed ropes do not fly apart when cut,
,.,,ires - the
and strands twisted in same direc_ can be spliced without sizing each strand; and
: on, The core design is the same as that of the where there are broken wires, they willlie flat in
'egular lay. position with the rope.
Advantages of Lang lay are:
r lt is more flexible.
r it has more area in contact with the drum or
:he spools and the sheaves, thus wearing
;onger; and
o lt has more resistance to crushing and
C isto rtion.
)isadvantages of Lang lay are:
. Both ends must be permanenily fastened;
o lt must not be used with a single-part lift;
r lt must not be used with swivels; and
o lt cannot be used for slings.

Preformed
Wire Ropes

Wire Rope Classification

Left Lay Lang Lay

Wire ropes are classified by four factors:
Right Lay Lang Lay
> The number of strands;
> The number of wires per strand;
> The arrangement of wires in a strand, and
> The type of core; e.g.,
o 6 x 19 group specifies wire ropes having 6
Left Lay Regular Lay Right Lay Regular Lay strands lvith -1Z to 26 wires per strand, and
{vire Rope Lays either a fibre or a steel core;
o 6 x 37 group specifies wire ropes having 6
strands with -27 to 4g wires per strand, and
Preformed Wire Ropes
Pretormed wire ropes have a,,hetix,'or twist either a f ibre or a steel core. Fibre core
set in each wire and strand to eliminate internal construction is not generaily included in this
S: TESS, grouping.

Common Wire Rope Designs

X 26 Warrington Seale Right Heguiar Lay, Fibre Core

6 X 16 Warr Seale 6 X 41 Filter IWRC 6 X 41 Seale Filter 6 X 49 Seate Fiiler

Fibre Core Fibre Core IWRC
 RIGGING AND HOISTING
Wire Rope Size
Wire rope is measured across its greatest
diameter, and is usually very slightly oversize. For
this reason, all holes in the flange or body of the
d ru m m ust be d ril led oversize i n order to al low the
rope to be inserted.
Correct lncorrect
Measurlng lhe Diameter ol Wire Rope
Wire Rope Drums
Wire rope should be stored rolled, or on
drums, in a dry place away from extremes of heat
and moisture.
UnwindinE Wire RoPe on a Drurn
When taking a length of wire rope from a
spool, the spool should be rotated either on a
spindle or turntable, or else rolled along the f loor
or ground. The wire rope should not be taken off
thsside of the spool a wrap at a time, as this often
results in kinks. A quick way of mounting a spool
is to use a length of pipe and some blocking'
When unwinding a cable, an assistant should
be on hand at the spool to keep the wire from
Uncoiiing or Coiling a Length
Correct Method
slacking back on the wraps and the spool from
over-run n ing.
Pull off Block
from the
bottom
Unwlnding a Cable
Before cutting a length of wire from a reel,
each side of the proposed cut should be "seized"
or wrapped. Friction tape, or, if the end is to be
welded, light wire, should be used. lf one end o{
the wire is to go through a hole in a drum, a good
practice is to "braze" or weld the end and then
remove the seizing.
Seizing
Selzlng Wire Before Culting
lf using an impact cutter to cut the wire rope,
the cutter should be kept in the sa;ne position
throughout the cut. lf thc cut is partially made and
the cutter is moved to start at a new spot, short
ends of wire will lly around, creating a hazard'
of Rope Cui from a Spool
lncorrect Method
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 31

After removing a length of rope f rom a spool: Rule ol "Hand" for ihe Correct Attachment ol Rope
> Wind the slack back onto the spool and tie
down the free end;
> Put the spool back into its proper storage; and
> Make a note of the amount removed, to keep
records straight.
A cut length of wire should be coiled or
uncoiled by rolling the wire rope along the f loor. lf
the cut length of wire rope is to be used at once,
there is no trouble keeping track of it. Overwind
lf there is a special length of wire rope that Right to Left
Left-Lay Overwound
Use Left-Lay Rope -
has been cut for future use:
> Tie it securely; Start Rope at I
> Firmly attach to it a label giving its specif ica- Right Flange
tions; Right
> Store the coil in a def inite holding area, rather
than with the rest of the stock wire rope; and
> Store the rope in a dry area where the coil will
not be exposed to weathering, and where it will
not be abused by having machine parts piled Underwind '| I t

on it. Right to Left Right-Lay Underwound

Use Right-Lay Rope
-
Spooling Wire Rope on a Drum
lmproper attachment on a drum will result in
excessive rope wear, usually concentrated in one Left
or more places, as the loaded rope attempts to Hand
climb over the next wrap and pile up on itself.
To obtain good drum winding, the rope must
be started from the proper flange, this willdepend
on whether the rope is left-lay or right-lay, and
whether the rope leads from the top or from the
U nderwind
bottom of the drum. Left to Right Left-Lay Underwound
Standing behind the drum, you should ob- Use Left-Lay Rope -
serve the following: Start Rope at
Left Flange
> Wind left-lay rope leading from the top side of
Right
the drum, starting at the right flange; Hand
> Wind left-lay rope leading f rom the underside
of the drum, starting at the ielt f lange;
> Wind right-layrope leading fromthetopsideof
the drum, starting at the /eft flange; and
> Wind right-lay rope leading f rom the underside
of the drum, starting at the right tlange. Overwind r\ I t'
Left to Right Right-Lay Overwound
> The human hand represents the lay (right-lay Use Right-Lay Rope
-
or left-lay) of the rope and either over- or un-
derwound;
> The index finger shows the approach of the
Use the right fist for Right-Lay Rope, left fist for Left-
rope; and Lay Rope. For overwound rope keep your fist back up.
> The thumb shows where the rope is attached to For underwound rope, palm up. lndex fingerpointed to
the drum. the drum will indicate how the rope should lead from
the drum and from which flange.
 : \, 1 :OlS-'NG

2" Fleet Angle

is changed f requently; and
> Permanent sockets
Fleet of the rope - are installed for the life
Smooth Sheave
Drum

I ncorrect
Drum
Fleet Angles for Drums

Fleet angle
centerline through- isthethat angle between the
first f ixed sheave, the
centre of the drum and from the inside of the Correct
flange to the centre of the sheave. lnstalling Wire Rope Clips
Excessive f leet angles can cause serious
damage to wire rope, sheaves and grooved
drums. Severe scuffing will occur when rope
wears against the grooved walls, grinding them
down and causing the rope itself to become
bruised or crushed.
The fleet angles on equipment should there_
fore be kept as small as possible, preferably Correcl
between one and one-and-a-half degrees. For
smooth drums, the fleet angle should never
exceed two degrees. For grooved drums, the f leet
angle should never exceed four degrees, depend_ -"''
ing on the equipment being used. Excessive drum -.-'t'--+
wear or poor spooling will result if these toler_
ances are exceeded. lncorrect Method
lnstalling a Wedge Socket on a Wire Rope
Attachment Devices
U-bolt c/4os, commonly called Crosby ctips, Wire Rope Sheaves
are probably the most common way of attaching A sheaye is a grooved wheel or pulley.
the free end of a wire rope toa piece of equipmenl Sheave grooves should provide side support
or an anchor. All clamps (clips) should be without pinching the rope. Too wide a groove
in stalled: decreases the service life of the rope.
> With the saddle on the live end and the U_bolt As a general rule, the larger the sheave
on the dead end ',a cowboy saddles a /iye diameter, the longer the life of the cable, due to
horse, not a dead -one.', reduced bending and flexing. The minimum
> Spaced to suit WCB regulations; and sheave size also applies to the diameter of hoist
> With nuts torqued to suit manufacturers, drums.
specifications or WCB regulations (see WCB Wire rope should not be run over sheaves
lndustrial Heatth and Saf ety Regutations, smaller than the minimum size specified by the
'1978, for new wire rope manufacturer This sheave size varies
specifications on s[acing and
torque valves). with the size and construction of the wire rope but
> Double saddle ctips must be used in the the sheave/rope diameter ratio should be an
same number and with - the same spacing; average of:
> Eyes made by ctips have about g0 percent of
the strength of the -rope;
35:1 for 6 x l9 and fewer wires;
30:'l for 6 x 20 to 6 x 25 wires; and
> Wedge sockets-are used wherethemain line 20.1 for 6 x 36 and more wires.

U
 RIGGING AND HOISTING

To obtain the sheave diameters for a specific Sheave Checks

rope, consult the appropriate wire rope catalogue. A sheave should be checked on a regular
Groove prof ile can be checked by the tem- basis for:
plate of a groove gauge
- which can be bought
either as a single or in a set, or custom-made in > Free turning on the shaft if it is bushed; or free
the plant. turning in the bearings if it is keyed to a shaft;
> Rope wear on the bottom of the groove; or
Reverse Bends > Cracks or breaks in the flange or outer rim.
The reverse bends illustrated in diagram A
put excessive bending strain on the rope. lf the Wire Rope Wear
design cannot be avoided, increasing the dia- Wire rope wear can be caused by a large
meter of the sheave and the distance between the number of factors, ranging from normal service
sheaves, as shown in B, will reduce excessive
life to operator neglect.
flexing. Mechanical damage can be caused by:
> Wire being kinked, due to careless handling or
excessive slack;
> Loaded rope being dragged over sharp edges;
> Rope being run over by moving equipment;
> An operator allowing a sheave to fall over, then
making a lift;
Rope being in contact with f lame f rom a torch
or a stinger when welding is in progress;
Shock loads;
lndividual wire failure, due to excessive
bending, running the wire on flat rollers, worn
sheave grooves, etc.;
Pitting or corrosion, due to weathering or
chemicals; or
Rope running over misaligned sheaves (either
offset or angular).
Loss of diameter can be caused by:
Reverse Bend in Wire Rope Wear on individual wires creating flats, which
reduce the diameter of the rope;
Checking Groove Protile

Tight Loose Correct

 34 RIGGING AND HOISTING
> Excessive stretching, due to overload, or
> Deterioration of the f rbre core.
Lubrlcation of Wire Rope
Lubricating wire rope used in hoistrng will
increase the life of the wire by reducing friction
over sheaves and preventing rust in areas
exposed to the weather.
The lubricant used m ust penetrate the
strands to lubricate the core and inside wires. The
use of too heavy a lubricant can prevent this and
result in the core area of a rope rusting out. The
methods of oil application shown in the diagram
are good only if used well away from the nearest
sheave.
Application
Lubricating a Wire Rope
Wire Rope Replacernent
The amount of allowable wear on a wire rope
will be determined by:
The safety standards set by the WCB (see
pages 54 to 56, 1978 edition); and
Company policy which must set standards
equal to or better- than the WCB. ln addition,
company policy may have a set normalservice
life (nsl) for when rope must be replaced
regardless of wear. - strands, and the strands into rope, in varying
Fibre Rope
Fibre ropes are divided into two broad
groups: natural and synthetic f ib res.
Natural Fibre Ropes
These are made from several different fibres:
hemp, sisal, jute, and cotton (in decreasing order
of strength). Hemp is the most common natural
fibre rope used in industrial rigging and will be
the example used in the descriptions that follow.
Fibre Rope Constructlon
Reverse twisting
- gives
keeps it f rom twisting under
rope stability and
a strain. This method
of construction is as follows:
> Fibres f rom 6 to 20 feet in length are combed to
bring them parallelto each other, and a def inite
number of f ibres are right-hand tv.risted to form
a yarn;
> A number of yarns are then left-hand twisted
into a strand; and
> Finally, three or four of these strands are right_
hand twisted to form the rope.
Fibres
Yarns: Made up of fibres twisted
to the right
Strands: Made up ol yarns twisted
to the left
Right-lay Rope:
Made of of strands twisted
to the right
Cross Section
of a 3/8" rope
Make-up ol a Fibre Rope
This twisting pattern produces a right-tay
rope. Reverse order of twisting produces a left-
lay rope.
The yarns of a rope can be formed into
degrees of tightness to make hard-laid, medium-
/ald ("common" or "standard,,) , or soft-laid rope.
Soft-laid rope has the greatest tensile strength
but gives poor service if run over sheaves, and it
does not withstand abrasion well.
Fibre Rope Size
Rope is measured in two ways: by diameter
or circumference. Sometimes ropes up to one
I
inch are measured by the diameter and ropes
over one inch by the circumference. This must be
clearly understood, in view of the fact that a rope
one inch in diameter has a circumference of
approximately 3 inches, while a rope one inch in
circumference has a diameter of 5/16 of an inch.
Rope by diameter
*1"
Rope Circumference
-or 33"X diameter,
L-;
Rope-size Designations
Synthetie Fibre Ropes
Synthetic fibre ropes are used extensively in
industry, due to their strength, shock-loading
capacity, and resistance to natural weathering.
Nylon Rope
Nylon rope is very strong and elastic, and is
used where shock loading is common or a rope
smaller than hemp but of equal strength is
-
needed.
- the coil;
Nylon resists mineral oils and greases, but is
affected by paint, linseed oil or acids. Nylon rope
becomes slippery when wet and loses a small part
of its strength, but it will not rot or mildew.
Nylon is also the most expensive of the
common industrial synthetic ropes.
Poly Ropes
Polyethylene, polypropylene and others of
this group are used as an inexpensive substitute
for nylon rope. Poly ropes have the advantage of
buoyancy and are therefore used a great deal
around water. The tensile strength varies slightly
among the poly ropes.
Most industrial synthetic fibre ropes are the
standard three-strand, right-hand lay rope, but
braided and other special construction styles are
also available.
Braided Synthetic Rope
ln recent years, the use of braided nylon
ropes has been increasing steadily. Braided
nylon rope does not stretch as much as other
types, and certain types of braided rope are
stronger than many laid ropes of the same f ibre.
RIGGING AND HOISTING 35
The four main types of braided rope are:
Solid braid;
Plaited braid (parallel core, with a braided
outer cover);
l-lollow braid; and
Spliceable braid.
Comparative Strength or Breaking Strength
(uts in Pounds) ot Synthetic Ropes
Spl i ce-
Bope able Braided
Size Braided Braided Laid Braided Poly-
[inches] Nylon Nylon t{ylon Dacron ethylBne Manila
1t2 8,000 6,000 6,500
3t 4 17.250 13 500 13,500
4 850 2,650
10 800 5,400
1 29 000 22,500 24 000 23,000 18,000 9,000
These tensile capacities will vary from one manulacturer l0 another,
General [.!se of Fibre Rope
> Select the appropriate rope for the particular
job;
> Select the proper size rope for the load (know
the breaking strength of the line);
> Take a rope from the inside of a coil, lifting it
out rather than dragging it over the top edge of
> Work any kinks out of the rope;
> When a line is snarled up, don't take the loose
ends and pull the snarl into a compact mess.
Keep the snarl as loose as possible and work
the slack line out one twist or wrap at a time;
> Remember that new rope should be removed
f rom a f reely rotating reel; never attempt to pull
rope from a reel which is lying on its side.
> Apply whipping or seizing before cutting the
rope to the required length;
> Whenever possible, prevent the rope from
coming into contact with acid, oils and grease,
paint, solvents, and washing compounds -
any of which will be injurious to the f ibres (see
"Synthetic Ropes");
> Keep your line clean; foreign objects imbed-
ded in the fibres abrade and shorten the
service life of even the best rope;
> Synthetic ropes are pre-lubricated "for life" at
the factory; do not apply any other lubricant, as
it wlll only shorten the life of the rope;
> Do not drag a rope over concrete, sand, or
other abrasive material; this wears out the
outer fibres very quickly;
> Do not extend rope around sharp corners or
angles unless padding is used. lf possible, use
r
RIGGING AND HOISTING

chain, rather than rope under such conditions;
Do not overload a rope. For new rope, use a
safety factor of f ive ti mes the b reaki n g stren gth
of the new rope. For a used rope, depending on
age and condition, increase the safety factor;
Apply loads with a steady strain. A sharp heavy
jerk will break a rope more readily than a
steady pull;
Remember to reverse a capstan's direction of
rotation frequently, this helps keep the rope
twist in balance and avoids kinks;
Even out wear on the line by reversing the ends
With natural fibre ropes, such as manila,
splicing is the most effective way of keeping the
rope ends from f raying.
Synthetic fibre rope ends can be kept from
fraying by seizing, but the most common method
is to "fuse" or melt the ends of the material.
Several wrappings of friction tape or plastic
tape can be used as a substitute for whipping, but
they have a tendency to pull off after the rope
becomes wet.

d&
f rom time to time (this.is the same principle as
rotating the tires of a car):
ln wet weather, slack off natural fibre ropes
that are used as guy lines or pulled tight
between fixed objects out of doors. Shrinkage
will damage the rope or even damage the
su pports;
> Store rope in a dry room away f rom moisture
and any extremes of heat. lf possible, hang a Eye Splice Thimble
rope on a large wooden peg to ensure air
When a rope is spliced to a hook, ring, or
circulation. Dry out wet rope thoroughly pulley block, a thimble should be placed in the
before storing it, or it is almost sure to mildew.
eye to reduce wear and stress that develop when
"Whipping" or "seizing" is the common way of a rope is bent around a small diameter.
preventing unravelling. This method is fast, and, A common test to determine the material in
more importantly, it does not increase the an old rope is to apply a match f lame to the end of
diameter of the rope which can therefore be it; if the rope burns, it is made of natural fibre; if
reeved through a block without difficulty. the rope melts, it is made of synthetic fibre.

Specilication Table
All weights, footage and tensile strength figures shown on this list are approximate and are subject to the
Standard 5 Percent Tolerance.

Size Tensile Strength Weight (lbs/100 ft)

(inches)
Poly- Poly-
Diam. Circ Manila Nylon propylene Manila Nylon propylene

3/16 9/16 450 960 725 1.5 '1

.1 0.75
1/4 3/4 600 1,500 1,250 2 1.7 1.1
5/16 1 1,000 2,400 1,925 2.9 2.9 1.6
3/8 1 1/8 1,350 3,400 2,550 4.1 4 2.8
1/2 1 1/2 2,650 6,200 4,1 50 7.5 6.7 4
5/8 2 4,400 10,000 6,500 13.1 11.4 I
3/4 21/4 5,400 14,000 8,700 16.7 15 '1
1.5
7/8 2 3/4 7,700 19,000 11,000 22.5 ZJ 15
9,000 24,000 14,400 tt 17.5
1/8 3 1/2 12,000 31 ,500 18,750 36 36 26.5
1/4 3 3/4 13,500 36,000 21,000 41.8 42 32
5/16 4 15,000 42.000 24,000 48 47 34
1/2 4 1/2 18,s00 51,000 30,250 60 58 40
5/8 5 22,500 62,000 36,400 75 oo 5l
3/4 5 1/2 26,500 75,000 43,600 90 84 54
6 31 ,000 89,500 52,000 108 110 60

Note.'Weights and strengths vary with different constructions.

T

RIGGING AND HOISTING 37

A check for age or weathering of a fibre rope the standing part;

is to back-twist or open up a section of rope and > Overhand Loop
- made when the running end
compare the colour of the outer fibres to the is passed over the standing part of the rope;
colour of the inner fibres. An aged poly rope also > Underhand Loop - made when the running
tends to develoP "whiskers". end is passed under the standing part of the
rope;
Property ComParison Chart > Knot or Bend
- the interlacing of one or more
Poly- pieces of rope:
Manila Nylon propylene o To form a loop;
o To tie two pieces of roPe together;
RelativeStrength Least Strongest H igh
r To act as a stopper to prevent a rope from
RelativeWeights Heaviesl Li g hter Li g htest
passing through an oPening; or
Elongation at o To fasten a rope to a ring or a looP.
2Oo/o Load Least G reatest Medium
Relative Resistance Overhand Knot
to lmpact Load Least Greatest Great
Excellent Excel lent
ln addition to being the starting point of
Mildew Resistance Poor
many knots, an overhand knot is f requently used
Acid Resistance Poor Fair Excel lent
as a stopper at the end of a rope.
Alkali Resistance Poor Excellent Excellent
Fai Fair To tie an overhand knot:
Sunlight Resistance Fair
Organic Solvent > Make a loop near the end of the line;
Resistance Good Good Fai r > Pass the running end through the loop; and
Melting Point 380" F 410" F 300" F > Pull it tight.
Buoyancy None None Floats
indef in itely

Knots, Hitches and SPlices

Definitions of Parts and
Formations of RoPe OYerhand Knot

Rope, either f ibre or wire, is sometimes called Figure-of-Eight Knot

"line". Either designation is correct. A f igure-of-eight knot is used at the end of a
> Running End the f ree or working end of the line to prevent the end from slipping through a
rope;
- fastening or loop in another line.
> Standing Part - the balance of the rope, To tie a f igure-of-eight knot:
excluding the running end;
> Bight - a U-shaped curve in a rope, or the > Make a loop in the standing Part;
angle of a rope running through a lead block > Pass the running end around the standing part,
that changes the direction of the pull; back over one side of the loop, and down
> through the loop; and
Loop
- a fold or doubling of the rope through
which another rope can be passed to form a > Pull tight.
knot or hitch;
> Permanent Loop - made by a splice or some
other permanent means;
Turn the same as a loop, but usually used to
-
describe the placing of a rope around a
specif ic object such as a post, rail, or ring, with
the running end continuing in the opposite
direction f rom the standing Part;
Round Turn - the same as a turn, with the
running end returning in the same direction as Flgure-of-Elght Knol
38 RIGGING AND HOISTING

Square or Reef Knot

A square or reef knot is used for tying
together two lines of the same size so that they
will not sliP.
To tie a square or reef knot:
> Pass the right-hand running end over and
under the left-hand running end, as shown;

> Bring the two running ends together' as

shown: and

Pass the left-hand running end over and under

the right-hand running end, and pull tight'

Granny Knot
A granny knot is unsafe and should never be
used, as it will sliP'

Thief Knot
A thief knot is unsafe and should never be
used. The running ends are on opposite sides'
and the knot will sliP.
x
r
RIGGING AND HOISTING 39

Bowline
A bowline is the knot most commonly used
for forming a loop in the end of a line. lt is easy to
tie, will not slip, and can be used wherever a loop
is required.
To tie a bowfine:
> Make a loop, as shown;

> Pass the running end up through the loop;

> Pass the running end behind the standing part;

> Then pass it down through the loop; and

ffi
$
> Pull the knot tight.
 RIGGING AND HOISTING

Spanish Bowline
The Spanish bowline is a non-slip attach-
ment knot.
To tie a Spanlsh bowline:
> Hold a doubled portion of the rope in the left
hand, with the loop up, and fold the centre of
the loop back, as shown;

> Cross the two looPs, as

Grasp the loop nearest you and bring it down

toward the left hand, rolling it and forming
another loop;

Bring down the remaining loop in the same

way, forming the fourth looP;

Turn the lower left-hand loop one half turn and

insert it from front to back through the upper
left-hand loop;

Turn the lower right-hand loop one half turn

and insert it from front to back through the
upper right-hand loop; and

Grasp the two new upper loops and pull them

tight.

L
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 41

Bowline-on-the-Bight
A bowline-on-the-bight is used for putting a i
non-slip loop anywhere between the ends of a
rope.
To tie a bowline-on-the-bight:
> Take a doubled portion of the line, make a
loop, and pass the bight end up through the
loop, as shown;

W
> Pull the bight down, separating the double
rope to make a loop;

> Pass the Ioop around the entire knot, as shown;

and

> Pull tight.

ffi
 RIGGING AND HOISTING

Single and Double Sheet Bends

Sheet bends are used for tying together two
dry lines of unequal size or for tying a line to an
eye (for light loads only). A double sheet bend is
better than a single, as it will not slip or jam under
load.
To tie a single sheet bend:

,*ffi' >a Pass the remaining end of the thinner rope up

through the bight of the thicker line, as shown;

> Pass it around both parts of the thicker line;

ffi
Pass the running end of the thinner rope under
the same line and over the thick rope, as

W
-W
shown; and

> Pull tight.

.W >
To make a double sheet bend:
Pass the running end of the thinner rope twice
around the bight of the thicker rope, as shown.

L
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 43

Carrick Bend
A carrick bend is used for heavy loads and for
joining large hawsers or heavy line. It will not
draw tight under a heavy load.
To make a carrick bend:
> Form a loop, as shown;

Pass the running end of the other line through,

as shown;

> Weave it under one side of the original loop;

Cross the end over the standing part of the

same line, as shown; and

> lnsert it under the loop, and pull tight.

 RIGGING AND HOISTING

Round-Turn-and-Two-Half -Hitches
A round-turn-and-two-half-hitches is one of
the most efficient and most used knots. lt can be
used wherever a line must be made fast.
To tie a round-turn-and-two-half-hitches:
> With the running end of the rope, take one
complete turn around a f ixed object; make two
half hitches around the standing part - one
right and one teft;then seize the running end to
the standing part to keep it from slipping.

Fisherman's Bend or Anchor Bend

A fisherman's or anchor bend is commonly
used to make a line fast to a ring of an anchorora
ring belt. This is a very efficient knot because it
will never slip or jam and can always be untied
easily.
To make a fisherman's or anchor bend:
> The method is the same as the round-turn-
and-two-half-h itches.

Cat's-paw Hilch
A cat's-paw hitch is often used as a temp-
orary means of attaching a line to a hook. Done
properly, it will hold.
To make a cat's-Paw hitch:
> Fold the bight of a rope down over the running
ends, as shown;

Take a loop in each hand and twist ittoward the

hand, in opposition to the other loop, for a
number of twists; and
Pass the two looPs over a hook.

t
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 45

Blackwall Hitch
A Blackwall hitch is used as a temporary
means of fastening a line to a hook.
To make a Blackwall hitch:
> Make a loop around the hook;

Take another turn around the hook with the

running end of the rope and tuck it under the
standing part of the rope, so that it will be
jammed by the tension of the line.

Becket Hitch
A becket hitch is used for making a line fast to
the becket of a block or to a ring.
To make a becket hitch:
> Pass the running end of the line through the
eye of the becket or ring and bring it back
around the standing part of the line;

> With the running end, take a complete turn

around the standing part and tuck it into the
loop formed; pull tight.
46 RIGGING AND HOISTING

Rolling Hitch
A rolling hitch is commonly used for the
moving of pipes or poles.
The method of attachment is as follows:
> Take one turn of the rope around the pole, as
shown:

With the running end, take two turns around

the standing part of the rope on the pole;

Reverse the standing part of the line so that it

leads in the direction in which the pole will be
moved;

Take two turns around the pole with the

original running end;

On the second turn around the pole, pass the

running end under the f irst turn to secure it;

To make this knot more secure, tie a half hitch

with the standing part of the line one ortwo feet
above the rolling hitch,
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 47

Scaffold Hitch
A scaffold hitch is used to support the end of
a scaffold plank by means of a single line.
To make a scaffold hitch:
> Pass the running end across the top of the
plank and around it, then up and over the
standing part;

> Bring a doubled portion of the running end

back under the plank to form a bight at the
opposite side of the plank;

Take the running end back across the top of

the plank and pass it through the bight, as
shown;

> Pull it tight.

To attach the plank to the hoist line, make a

loop in the standing part of the rope above the
plank and tie a bowline.

.A
RIGGING AND HOISTING

Whipping
Whipping is a means ol fixing the end of a
rope so that the strands will not unravel.
The method ls as fol/or,rrs:

Make a loop on the rope with the whipping

material:

> Take several turns around the loop and the

rope; and

> Pull both ends of the whipping tight.

?
RIGGING AND HOISTING 49

Eye Splice in Fibre Line

An eye splice is used to make an eye in the
end of a line.
The method ls as fol/ouzs:
> Unlay the three strands at the end of the rope
enough to make at least three tucks - about
one turn for each tuck
laying the opened strands- and form an eye by
on top of the
standing part of the roPe;
> Take strand A and tuck it, f rom right to left,
underneath the nearest strand of the standing
part;
> Pick up strand I and tuck it - again f rom right
to left under the next strand to the left of the
-
one under which A is tucked;
> Turn the whole splice over, then takestrand C
and lead it over to the right of the third strand,
so that the third tuck can, again, be made from
right to left;
> There should now be one end coming out f rom
under each strand on the standing part. lf two
ends come from under the same strand, the
splice is wrong. Pull each end tight enough to
make a tidy and snug fit. This completes the
first round of tucks;
> For the second round, take each end over one
strand and under the next towards the left. Pull
each end tight;
> Repeat for the third round . Never use /ess fhan
three rounds of tucks if the eye is to bear any
strai n;
> lf desired, for neatness, the splice can be
tapered by adding additional rounds of tucks,
first with halved strands and then by halving
again before the f inal round.
50 RIGGING AND HOISTING
Rigging and Floistlng Plant
Practice
Regular maintenance operations in an in-
dustrial plant f requently involve the moving and
lifting of heavy parts or equipment. The following
factors must always be considered beforehand:
> The qualities of the object to be moved;
> Where it is to be located;
> The kind of equipment available; and
> The safety factors rnvolved.
The weight of the machine will determine the
size and type of hoisting tackle used. A light load
may be handled with rope blocks, but heavier
loads will call f or the use of chain blocks or
"come-alongs".
The construction of the object to be moved
will determine the ease of handling and the
degree of care required in handling; e.9., a motor
or large block casting does not require the caref ul
handling and slinging that is required for a
complex machine with protruding parts. The
overall dimensions of the load should be caref ully
noted; otherwise, the shortest and easiest way to
the f inal location may turn out to be too narrow or
too low to permit passage.
Skids
Moving a heavy load along the floor can be
done by securing the load on a pair of skids and
then either dragging or rolling it as close as
possible to its final location.
Typical Skid Design
Counter-sunk bolt or lag
> Short lengths of pipe or peeler cores (three-
inch diameter and larger) make good rollers;
> All rollers should be equal in diameter and
extend past the sides of the skids;
> The skid must suit the base dimensions of the
load, and should be suff iciently long and wide
to keep the load from being top-heavy;
> Material for skids should be substantial enough
to support the load without bending. The exact
dimensions of the skids will often be determined
by the material available;
> Consideration should be given to the cross-
sectional shape, and flat flexible skids should
be avoided; 6-inch x 6-inch skids, for example,
are much safer than 2-inch x 6-inch skids.
..lacks
Hydraulic and screw jacks are used for short
lifts of heavy machinery or building foundations.
Jacks should sit firmly on a solid pad or
footing. A tirnber post reaching from the jack to a
cap or object to be lifted should have both ends
square and be strong enough to stand the strain.
A steel plate with a diameter larger than that of the
timber and at least 1/2 inch thick should be
placed between the timber and the bottom of the
jack, especially if the timber pad is soft and the lift
is heavy.
A screw jack will hold a load indef initely,
whereas a hydraulic jack, unless it is in very good
order, may bleed fluid and not hold the load.
Hydraulic jacks should never be relied on to hold
a load for longer than the period of the actual lift,
and the object should be properly blocked.
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 51

cap

Ends Square

Post

Straight Line
Through the Jack and
the Post Figure a

The sheave changes

1/2" Plate (Minimum) the direction of travel
but not the amount
of force
Jack
maf:1
Pad

Correct I ncorrect

Loading Loading
Screw Jack Figure b

The sheave changes

Rope Bloeks the amount of force
but not the direction
Mechanical Advantage of Rope Blocks of travel

A set of rope blocks is used to lift a large load mat-2

with a small amount of effort. The ratio of
load/effort is called the "mechanicaladvantage of
force" (maf), and !s found by counting the
number of ropes on the moving block. For the
sake of simple explanation, friction will not be
taken into account here.
e - effort or force applied
r - resistance or resistance to movement
# - pounds (or Sl newtons)
Figure a: The sheave changes the direction of
travel but not the amount of force:
> lf 50 # e is applied, 50 + r is moved;
> lf 20 feet of rope is pulled ale, r will move20
feet, and the direction of movement is reversed;
> lf e is a 200 * millwright and r is a 300 # load,
the millwright cannot lift the toad. Buf, if the
supports under r are knocked out and e is
firmly attached to the iine, e will move.
Note: For safety, a iifting line should never be
wrapped around the hand or wrist.

Skip Loading

Correct: The skid suits the lncorrect: The load

dimensrons of the load is top-heavy

Correct: The skids will lncorrect: The skids will not catch the roll;
.iAa
rruE ^,,^-
vvEr trtE ruI the ioading end must be pried up to catch
each roll
r--

52 RIGGING AND HOISTING

Figure b: The sheave changes the amount of f orce Figure d: This is a line sketch for a double set oI
but not the direction of travel: blocks. Figure e illustrates the same blocks:
> lf 50 # e is applied, 100 # r is moved; > lf the number of ropes on the moving
> ll20 feet of rope is pulled, r will move 10 feet; block - 4;
The gain in force - 10 r 100 2 The maf - 4; then
e - 10 - 1
;

50 + e wilt lift 296# ; and

20 feet of line at e will move r 5 feet'
The maf 2i and
The number- of ropes on moving block - 2'
The single sheave used in this position gives
a gain in force ol 2:1, but there is an equal loss in
distance: Figure e

> lf 50 # moves 100 # gain;

> - 10 feet
lt 20 feet of rope pulls - loss'

Figure c; This is a combination of f igures a and b:

> lf e and r move in opposite directions;
The number of ropes on moving block - 2;
The maf - 2; then
50 # e will move 100# r;
exmaf-r; and
50x2-100.

Figure c 1, 4,3,5,2,
The sheaves change
both the direction
of travel and the
amount of force
Palr ol Double RoPe Blocks
mat-2
These examples have not taken into account
the f riction factor in the calculations' A rough rule
of thumb is to allow a 10 percent friction loss per
sheave.
Allowing for friction, the answer lo figure d
will be considerablY less:
4 sheaves - 4 x 10 - 40 percent loss and 60
percent recovery; and
Figure cl 60 percent of 200+ - 120#
ln practice, 50 * will lift 120 # and the actual
Double Blocks maf-120-2.4
mal-4
Friction loss depends on the components
and condition of parts in the blocks' Consider the
following sets of hand blocks:
7I
RIGGING AND HOISTING 53

> Set A - a new, polished steel pin, lubricated Setting Up Rope Blocks
needle bearings, and a soft, correct size nylon
line;
When making up a set of rope blocks, the
> Sef B - length of line required should be estimated when
an old, rusted steel pin, a rusted cast
iron sheave, and a hard, oversize manila line. the free end of the rope is at floor level and the
blocks are at extreme positions.
Nofe: Sets A and B will not have the same friction lf the number of sheaves in each block is
loss. equal, the rope should be spliced to the becket of
Blocks used horizontally have two possible the standing block. lf the number of sheaves is
maf's:
unequal, the rope should be spliced to the
becket of the block with the fewest sheaves.
With the pull at E1 on the moving block,
maf 4;
With-the pull at E2 on the fixed block,
maf - 5.

Outer Strap
lnner Strap

Correct I ncorrecl
Rope Rope Length
Length

Setting Up Rope Blocks

Sheaves
The end of the fall line can be crowned to
Centre Strap keep the end f rom untwisting and to prevent the
// line f rom going through the block. ln some cases,
Sheave Pin Becket a small eye can be spliced onto the end of the line,
Bolt and the fall line used as a hand line to pull down
Rope Block

Blocks Used Horizontally

+
-tsr)
'>4

L-\ -41,
\:!-/) E2

ri"v
pt
)t
A_Y
L>.__\

maf=4
*79 maf=5
 RIGGING AND HOISTING

Triple and
Dou ble
eliminates any chance of the bottom sheave
"falling over" or twisting the rope runs.
Snubbing - refers to taking two or more
turns of rope around a fixed object in order to
hold a load or lower it slowlY.
To lower the load connected to the upper
line, the rope should be slacked off gradually until
it starts to slip around the anchor. When slacking
off the snubbed rope, both hands should be used
in hand-over-hand fashion. The number of wraps
around an anchor needed to hold a load cannot
be given exactly, but if in doubt, one extra turn
should be added.
lf possible, an anchor should be used at right
angles to the load line.
The rope cannol
be slacked off

Recommended
Sequence
1.5,6,2,4,3

lncorrect Method Correct Method:

Rope will jerk when the Two or
load is stacked off more turns
are taken
Threading RoPe Blocks
"Snubbing" a Line

the bottom block when the blocks are close

together.
Rope blocks can be put up partially, fully Steep Angle:
extended, or with the blocks close together' lf the The rope slides
up
anchor sling, chain, or eye bolt is over or near
movinE machinery, it is easiest and safest to put
up the rope blocks with the sheaves close
together, therr to pull them apart with a hand line
or the end of the fall line' This method also t \. Pinch Pinch
Load Point Point

Steep Angle Better Angle

Snub Line Angle

Note: Both hands should be kept away f rom the

Rolling Out a RoPe Block pinch point of a lrne. The load can be held in any
position by a snubbing hitch.

i
7
5
lll

lil
RIGGING AND HOISTING 55
I
;
ri

Safe Hoisting Check List

Hoisting the machine or piece of machlnery
involves several problems:
> How many slings will be needed to balance the
load?

Correct Method: Correct I ncorrecl

Using the middle Method: Method
of the rope Using the
end of the
rope
Snub Hiiches

Storage of Rope Blocks

Rope blocks when not in use should be
coiled or wrapped in a standard fashion and
stored in a cool, dry place.
Slinging For Balance
An evenly shaped load can be lifted with only
one sling, but a load that is uneven in dimen_
sions or weight will require a minimum of twr:
slings. A long toad that may be damaged by
bending will require the use of two separate
chain blocks, or come-aiongs.

Chain Block

Hook
Operation 1

Slinging to Preveni a Load From Bending

> Will the average mill tools be heavy enough to

Operation 2 Operation
Operation 3
handle the load? The tools generally requirecl
Standard Method ol Coiling a Rope Block
for moving and hoisting are chain blocks or
come-alongs of sufficient capacity, slings,
grab chains, shackles, snatch block, rope
A standard method of coiling is important. lf
blocks, and long pry-bars. As a rule, these mlll
every millwright on a crew has a different way of
tools wilt handle all routine jobs, but lifting a
coiling a set of falls, it can be confusing.
piece of major machinery might call for rented
equipment for safer liftinq.
Note. Don't overload and don't stand underneath
the load.
56 RIGGING AND HOISTING

Snub Line

Correct

Sate Loading

> Will a come-along or short-lift chain block give

enough lift and drop, or will the job require an
extra long-lift chain block?

-,r-
3' Chain
J
Lilt and Sway Hoist

Salety Measures for Hoisting

> Sfay away f rom underneath the load: Keep
J L!'i1-i hands and feet away from underneath the load
when lowering it into its final position;
Shof,-tloist Chain > llse a pair
Use nair of tongs
tonos or a wire hook to line up
uo any
anv
loose bolts in the base holes;
Roughly the same problem will arise in hoist-
ing equipment to an elevated mounting. Will
the chain block lift the load high enough?
Will the present bearns or trusses support the
Ioad and are they in a suitable position for
attaching lifting equiPment?
Will the load be lifted up and set in position
with very little horizontal movement, or will the
load need to be moved horizontally for some
distance while being suspended?
What hazards will show up during moving and
hoisting? Will conduit, steam, water, or air \,/ ./ \r ,

lines be in theway? Can thejob bedoneduring \z -1

l
I

plant operation without endangering the plant \-/,/: .. .''

- ------l
--l -
,

crew? How safe will it be for millwrights on the

job if it is done during operating hours? Lining Up l-oose Bolts in the Base Holes
Y
> Stay clear of the swing if the load is lifted off an
elevated base by the lift line at an angle;
I
I
I
I
I
I
Danger: Swing Arc ol the Load
> lf necessary, barricade the entire work area to
keep out production workers;
> Ensure thal hand signals are standard and
understood by every member of the crew.
When hoisting or skidding is being done with a
large crew, one man should be responsible for
all signals. When a BB winch or powerwinch is
being used out of sight of the job, a helper
relaying signals should be in sight of both the
operator of the winch and the supervisorof the
job.
(See Appendix D of lhe lndustrial Health and
Safety Regulations for approved hand signals.)
Chaln Blocks
RIGGING AND HOISTING 57
Chain Blocks
Chain blocks and come-alongs are used
where a load must be iifted and held suspended
for a period of time, or where very slight vertical
movement is needed. Because a deviation from
the vertical makesthe pullchain harderto handle,
chain blocks are used for vertical lifting. Come-
alongs can be used in any position from vertical
to horizontal, and work just as well in an inverted
position.
The lower hook of chain blocks is deliberate-
ly designed weaker than the top hook so that it
will distort and provide a warning if there is a
possibility of overload. A hook strained by
overloading should not be forged back to shape;
it should be replaced with a new hook.
A salety latch on the hooks is stock equip-
ment on most chain blocks or come-alongs. The
latch is to prevent sling eyes or shackles coming
off the hook when there is sudden slack. A
"mouse"
- several strands of light wire wrapped
between the back and point of the hook
used as a substitute for a latch.
- may be
Chain blocks are meant to be used by one
man. Two or more men in unison on the hand-line
indicates that the block is being overloaded, or is
in a bad state of repair.
The addition of a "cheater" or short length of
pipe to the handle of a come-along is not
recommended.
Overhaul of lifting equipment should not be
done on a casual basis
- either repair to
specifications with the correct parts or send out
to a qualified repair shop.
Grab Chains
E
a
H'
ffi
Sllngs
58 RIGGING AND HOISTING

Nofe; When using a chain block, the load must be

less than the rated capacity of the block.
A load must not be choked with the lift chain.
A s/ing or grab chain should be used.
The lift hook should not be used to hold two
slinE eyes unless they are both in a vertical lift. lf
the sling legs are spread, they should be shackled
together and the shackle placed on the lift hook.
For maximum safety, two or more eyes should
always be held in a shackle, even if they are both
in a vertical lift.
When loading a hook with two sling eyes,
care should be taken so that one eye does not lie
on top of the other, and that both eyes are at the Fllp-lock Snatch Block
bottom of the hook.
Winches
lf the load is to be moved a considerable
distance, the use of a power- or hand-operated
(BB) winch and snatch blocks will make tne
movrng operation faster and easier.

Correct

lf the winch line runs along or across a

Recom mended
Two Slings on a Hook without a Latch
Snatch Blocks
A snatch block is a single sheave made so
that the shell opens at one side of the base of the
^ook allowing a rope to be slipped over the
sneave without having to thread it.
The flip-lock style snatch block in the
ustration should be checked every time the line
s slackened off . Positive locking styles will stay
: osed regardiess of the annount cf slack put in
:-: line or the position of the block.
recognized walkway or passage, it must be
marked or guarded. Wiping rags or waste may be
hung from the line as markers. A guard railing or
barrier may be needed to detour production
workers. lf the winch line is used where there is
any chance of a vehicle passing, the area must be
blocked off.
Slings
Slings are perhaps more comnronly used and
abused than any other item of lifting equipment.
After being used on a job they should be
cleaned and carefully inspected for flaws. lf rn
good shape, they should be put away in a proper
storage area. lf in defective condition, they
Tft
if
I
,jll
:i
rli
should be destroyed and an order put in fora new
sl i ng.
Note; Do not put away a damaged sling for f uture
USE.
Field-made slings (made on the job) should
be spliced by a specialist. Cut wires are ahazard;
splices on wire rope slings should therefore be
covered by tape.
Commercial slings have an eye formed by a
"swaged" or pressed fitting. Although this adds
bulk to the sling, the danger of projecting wires is
eliminated.
When lifting sharp-edged toads, slings
should be protected by suitable padding such as
pieces of belting or wood blocks.
Sling Sling
Padding Sharp-edged Loads
When lifting smooth-finished objects, fibre
rope slings, bands, or straps made from belting
are preferable to wire or chain slings. lf wire rope
is to be used, the surface must be suitably
protected with belting, wood slats or other similar
materials which will not be crushed between the
sling and the load. Some plants use slings
SlinE Use
RIGGING AND HOISTING (o
covered with high-pressure hydraulic hose that is
slid over the wire between the eyes before they
are formed.
Temperature Restrictions for Slings
> Fibre rope slings should not be used at
temperatures above- 180. F (82. C). For practi-
cal purposes, this temperature is too high for
poly-type ropes;
> Wire rope slings should not be used at
temperatures over: -
o 212" F (100" C) for f ibre core ropes; and
o 400" F (205" C) for wire core ropes:
> Chain s/ings should not be used attempera-
-
tures above 500" F (260" C) unless specif ically
designed by the manufacturer for "hot use".
Sling Use
A single sling can be used in three ways: as a
single vertical lift, a choker or a basket hitch. For
maintenance work, a two-part bridle sling may be
used. This consists of two slings of equal length
attached to a shackle. The choker hitch is shown
with the recommended choker attachment *
which is easier on the sling than passing the wire
rope through the eye.
The strength of a sling varies according to
the way it is used. As a rough estimate, a choked
sling has about 75 percent of the tifting capacity
of a single sling, while a basket sling has twice the
lifting capacity; e.9.,
Using 3/8" diameter - 6 x 19 iwrc (independent
wire rope core), the lifting capacities will be as
follows:
Two-part
Bridle Sling
 RIGGING AND HOISTING

> Vertical- 2000 #

> Choker * 1500 #
> Basket - 4000#
However, the actual safe lifting capacity of a
choked or basket sling depends on the angle
between load and sling. ln these diagrams, all
slings have the same load, but b will have a
greater stress per sling than a, due to the angle of
the sling. lf there is only one sling per lift, b in
each case will always be safer than a, due to more
wrap on the load.
Bridle Slings
The load or strain put on a two-part bridle
hook-up varies with the angle of the slings,
measured either between a sling and the load or
between the two slings at the hook.
ln f igure e below, the load per sling is equal to
the dead weight of the load. The angle between
the leg and the load is 30 degrees and the angle
between the slings at the hook is 120 degrees.
This is often called the "critical angle" for bridle
slings.
For an easy physical fest that demonsfrates fhe
strai n I an g le re I atio ns h i P:
> Hold a weight in your hand, hanging vertically;
then
> Gradually swing your whole arm to the hori-
zontal position. Bridle Slings

soo# ti rooo #

AAI
LillilE
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 61

Chain Slings or Grab Chains
A grab chain is better than wire rope or f ibre
rope slings for lifting rough or sharp-edged
material because it is better able to withstand
Chain slze is the diameter of the round stock
used to make the link; Le., a 318-inch chain uses
links with a round stock diameter of 3/8 of an
nch.
i

sharp bends and heavy abrasion. An added Chain slings must be used with caution as
advantage is that the same chain may be used for
they can become unhooked with any slack. For
a variety of lengths.
this reason, some plants will not allow chain
A common grab chain usually consists of slings to be used in general maintenance work.
a
metal eye, a length of chain, and a hook.

Common Grab Chain

Another style of grab chain has a hook at

each end of the length of chain. This type gives
large variety of usable lengths.
Hook styles can be:
> An open hook or eye hook, which will allow the
chain to slide; or
> A lock hook or grab hook which fits over a link
of the chain and holds the chain in a def inite
position.
a
Chain materials vary greatly in th'eir tensile
strength; e.9., proof-coil chain has a lowertensile
strength than wire rope, while crown-grade chain
has a higher tensile strength than wire rope.

Sale Load in Pounds

I I

t\ /\ A

il n tl
t
X
/\ ,/\
4----\
2 Vertical
Rope lVertical Slingswith 2Slingsaia 2Slingsata 2Slingsata 2Slingsala
Diameier (inches) Sling Spreader Bar 30" Angle 60" Angle 90. Angle 120., Angle

1/4 900 1,800 1,740 1,560 1 900

'On
5/16 1,360 2,720 2,620 2,360 1,920 1,360
3/B 2,000 4,000 3,860 3,460 2,820 ) n.nfi
7 /16 2,660 5,320 5, tou 4,620 3,780 Z,OAU
t/z 3,660 I,JIU 7,080 6,340 5,180 3,660
9/16 4,440 8,880 8,560 7,680 6,260 4,440
5/8 5,550 1.1 ,000 10,620 9,520 7,764 5,550
3/4 7,944 15,880 15,320 13,760 'r
1,200 7, S40
7/B '10,660 20,600 18,460
21 ,3?0 15,C60 10,660
1 13,860 27.720 26,900 24JAA '19.600 13,860
Values for lmproved Piow Steel, 6 x 19 Fibre Core Wire Ropes
62 RIGGING AND HOISTING

Chain wear shows: The eye bolt should be forged, not cold-
formed.
> Surface nicks, cracks, pits, or gouges -
reducing the diameter of the round stock;
> Distortion of physical shape of the link
(warped or elongated Y-links), due to:
c The material or round stock stretching and
causing a loss in diameter; or
o The physical shape of the link changing and
causing the links to pinch. A highly stressed
O
Eye Bolt
chain may have links so badly stretched that
the chain will not bend. It should be welded by a qualified welder,
For allowable loss in diameter before reject- then stress-relieved and put through a test lift
ing chain as unsafe, refer to Table.1, pages 54-55, with an overload bef ore being used. Some
!ndustriat Health and Safety Regulations, 1978 companies will not permit the use of welded eye
edition. bolts, due to possible hazard.

Tensile Strenglh ol Low-carbon Steel Bolts,

Showing No Salety Factor

Ultimate Tensile Sirenglh: 55,000 psi

Size
Bolt Tension Bolt Size Tension
(inches) (pounds) (inches) (pounds)

3/B 4,450 /8 7 26,400

1/2 8,150 1 35,500
5/8 13.270 1 1i8 38,200
3/4 19.400 1 1/4 49,000

A large safety factor should be allowed for an

eye bolt, to allow for any stress or welding
weakness.
Washer Steel Plate

4" or 6" Deckino l=l

" r=l

Beam Beam

New

Allowable l-oss ol Chain Dimensions

Any chain subjected to heat from a torch or

struck by an electric arc should be considered
unsafe.
Eye Bolts
Deck
Eye bolts may be used as substitutes for Reinlorcing //
chains or slings for suspending lifting equipment
such as chain blocks, come-alongs, or rope Solid Eye Bolts
blocks. They are used in under-f loor areas where
there is no possibility of using a sling. The size of > When lifting a piece o{ heavy machinery, such
the eye bolt will vary f rom job to job, but it must be as a large motor, by means of two eye bolts
heavy enough to carrY the load. tapped into the frame, the lift force must be
 RIGGING AND HOISTING

applied to the bolts in a vertical direction.

Correct
Method

Bar and Sling

I ncorrect
Method

End Result
Broken Bolt
to be Removed

Hoisling with Solid Eye Bolts

> Wherever possible, some form of spreader

Spreader Bar
should be used.
A spreader bar with a series of holes drilled in
the bottom edge can lift a wide range of sizes.
Large Rod or Connecting means can be slings and shackles, or
specialS-bars of high-tensile steel, forged to suit
a specific lift.
Cast Lifting Lugs
Machinery with lifting /ugs is usually lifted
with slings at an angle to put minimum strain on
the lug and to keep the slings from coming off if
Use ol a Spreader
the machine is bumped.
> To allow for slight bending in the rod, the nuts
should not be tightened against the eye bolts.
The pipe spacer should be tight against each Nofe: Some plants will not allow the use of lugs
eye bolt. for overhead lifts.
64 RIGGING AND HOISTING

swl-d, X8 X 2000#
_ 5X5X8X2000-6250#
88
> Chain Sling ( Proof Chain )
swl-drX6X2000;
-
Find the swl for a 3/8-inch diameter chain:
swl-d2X6X2000
3X3 x 6 x 2000 - 1687#
- 88
Casl Lilting Lugs > Shack/es
- swl -
(diam of pin in 1/4-inch units), X 2000
Rigging Trade Science
J
> Ultimate Tensile Strength (uts) is the
breaking load; - Find the swl for a 1/2-inch shackle:
> Sale Working Load (swl) swl- (1/4-inch units), X 2000
load on the line
- is the allowable
always a fraction of the uts;
and
- J

> Safefy Factor (sf ) is the ratio of uts

2' X2000 - 2666 #
- 3
Swl
A safety factor of five is the minimum for A rule of thumb for wire rope capacity is that
general rigging; a factor of six is better. A safety 3/8-inch diameter rope will support one ton. Each
factor of ten to one is used where personnel are 1/8-increase in diameter is equal to a one-ton lift
increase.
moving.
Example 1: A 3/9-inch diameter wire has a Example 2: Find the swl for a S/8-inch diameter
nominal breaking load of 6 tons. lf used with a rope:
safety factor of six, find the allowable maximum 5_3+1+1
load. 8888
sf - uts _i+1+1
swl
- 3 tons or 6000 *
swl- uts
- 6 tons -1 ton Calculation for wire rope in this problem is an
sf6 acceptable load of 6250 # .

Note:
Calculations to estimate the approximate
safe working load when tables are not available > The above calculations are approximate, but
are as follows (d - diameter in all cases): include a safety factor of f ive or more; and
> Manila rope swl d, X 2000; > These apply to vertical lift only.
-
Find the swl for a -3/4-inch diameter manila lf the slings are used as twin slings, the carrying
rope: capacity decreases as the spread between the
slings increases.
swl-d,X2000 To determine the capacity of each sling in a
_ 3 X 3 X 2000 - 1125# bridle hitch:
44 > Measure the distance along one sling for the
> Wirerope- swl -drX8X2000; same number of units as the capacity of the
Find the swl for a 5/8-inch diameter wire rope: sling in tons (- distance a);
> Measure the vertical distance from the point
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 65

located by distance a to the load (- distance b).

The number of units in this vertical distance b
is the working load for the sling.

carrying Capacity ol Twin Slings

Nofe: Use the same unit for measuring both

distances. The unit may be feet, half-feet, or any
other convenient unit.

Wire Rope Capacities

Diameter Weight Working

in -
Per Foot Capacity
lnches Pounds Pounds

3/8 0.23 2,000

1/2 0.40 3,660
5/8 0.63 s,550
3/4 0.90 7.940
7/8 1.23 10,660
1 .60
1 13,860
11/8 2.03 17,530

These working capacities are for a new rope.

For used rope in good condition, they should be
reduced by 25 percent.
66 Sl-.:=-S KEYS, HUBS AND FITS

4. Shafts, Keys, Hubs, and Fits

Shalting
> Bending - due to the weight of the shaft
between the bearings. Bending under a load
occurs when a belt or chain pulls at right angles
Standard mild-steel shafting has a smooth,
to the axis of the shaft.
polished surface, is straight, and is easily ma-
ch i ned. Standarci shaf ting to meet specif ied load
The diameter of shafting is held to a close conditions usually has a diameter that will
toleran ce. prevent excessive def lection in ordinary installa-
tions. The greater the diameter of the shaft, the
Diameler Tolerances - Mild-Steel Shafting more rigid it will be.
(inches)
On ordinary line shafting, bearings are
Shalt Size Oversize Undersize placed at about eight-foot centres, but this
distance is usually shortened if a heavy drive is
I and under 0.000 0.002
taken off the shaft. Large-diameter shafts can
1116-2 0.000 0.003
2 1.16 - 4 0.000 0.004 have the bearings Lrp to ten feet apart.
41 16-6 0.000 0.005 Couplings, pulleys, or gears should be
mounted close to a bearing to minimize bending.
Shafting is available in a wide range of sizes, For heavily loaded sections, an oversized
from 1/.16 to 35 inches and larger. Certain sizes shaft carrying a puiiey or sprocket can be "turned
are recommended for general use and are down" to standard size at the bearings to reduce
therefore standard sha{t sizes. the possibility of the shaft breaking or twisting.
This is common practice f or heavy conveyor
Recommended Shalt Diameters d rives.
(inches)
(__-__--.------ll\
15/16 111/16 27/16 37/16 415/16 V -
1 3/16 1 15/16 2 11/16 3 15/16 5 7/16
17/16 23/16 215/16 47/16 6 Turned Down Shalt

A turned down shaf t design is also f requently

Collars, couplings, and bearings, etc., are
stocked as standard to fit these shaft sizes.
Special shafting such as hollow shafting,
alloy steel and high-carbon steel, stainless steel,
monel or brass are used to meet special demands
for weight, strength, or resistance to corrosion.
Shafting is subject to two major stresses tn
combination:
> Torsion or Twisting Stress - when the shaft
overcomes the resistance to turning set up by
the driven parts; and
used with long belt conveyors, where there are
two or more sizes of shafting used to support the
pulleys or main rolls. The larger diameter shafting
is turned down at the bearing locations to match
the smaller shaft diameter. This means that the
same size bearings can be used for two or more
pulleys, thus cutting down on parts inventory.
The shaft design in figure a is nof recom-
mended. The sharp 90-degree cornerwillset up a
stress pattern under load which can lead to
cracks starting at the corner.
 SHAFTS, KEYS. HUBS AND FITS 67

"chambers" or sections; and

> Woodruff where one side rs a semi-circular
shape.
-

lncorrect Correct

Shoulder Design

The fillet shown in figure b is the most

common way of reducing stress concentration at
the corner. Rectangular Key
Any hub or part assembled tightly against the /'\
shoulder must have a matching radius that wili
clear the f illet.
The necked shaft shown in figure c is an
alternative design to reduce stress concentration.
The rounded groove has a small diameter that
slightly reduces the effective shaft diameter but
Woodrull Key
which will allow any hub or bearing lo liltightly
against the shoulder. Rectangular Keys
Line shafting or any length of shafting will
expand with increases in temperature. The shaft Rectangular keys are classified as square,
should be anchored near the main drive pulley or flat, or gib-headed. Any of these three can be
sprocket and allowed to float in the oiher bearing standard (straight) or tapered.
or bearings. With a long line shafi, the anchor or ry
fixed bearing should be near the centre of the J rl_
wj!l--.i
2

shaft in order to keep the amount of expansion in

each section nearly equal.
A ten-foot Iength of shaft expands approxi-
mately 0.008 of an inch f or each 10-degree rise in
temperature. ln actual practice, shaft collars used
to hold shafting in position are not set tightly
against a journal bearing and there is usually
enough play to take care of any expansion.
Shafting held in anti-f riction bearings must have
only one bearing held and the others loose.
Lengths of shafting are joined by rigid
couplings of the f lange or compresslon type.
Key Styles
Keys are pieces of metal inserted between
shafts and hubs to prevent relative rotation. They
f it into keyways, parallel with the shaft axis, in one
or both members.
Keys are also used to secure gears, sprockets,
pulleys, cranks, and other machine parts to the
shafting so that there rs no slippage between the
shafting and the part attached to it.
Keys are made in two basic forms:
> Rectangular
- the most common form, where all
sides are straight lines that create rectangular
=I T_T_
Parallel Key Square Ends Parallel Key Round Ends
-7* k Taper 1 8' in 12"
H [----l
l=-
Taper Key
The main force on a key is the shear f orce on
the line of the shaft/hub assembly. As a rule, two
keys of the same width and degree of f itting in the
assembly will have equal shear strength. The
choice of a square or flat key is a matter of
engineering design. The use of a square key will
deepen the groove in a shaft or hub, slightly
reducing the strength of either component.
The slot in a shaft is the key seat and the
corresponding slot in the matrng part is the
keyway. Quite ofien the term "keyway" is applied
to either siot.
Keys should fit tightiy on the sides, with a
recommended maximum slack of 0.002 of an
inch. Any clearance over the top of the key should
be obtained by increasing the depth of the
keyway in the hub; if the key seat depth - w or h
the keyway depth should be wl2 f c or hl2+c
,

.
 SHAFTS. KEYS, HUBS AND FITS

> To prevent the hub from turning; and

> To hold the hub in position with the pressure
m exerted by the taper or wedge when the key is
driven home.
q
Hub
The standard taper in a key is'1/8 of an inch in t
12 inches or 1 inch in 96 inches, with a standard
key dimension at the large end. A tapered key
requires no setscrews and must be driven in
Shaft Key seat
tightly. With cast iron hubs, care must be taken
not to drive the key too hard and split the hub.
Key Assembly Unless they are located on the end of the shaft,
these keys require a long key seat - usually one-

,il| and-a-half to two times the length of the hub - to

Sq uare Flat
l,i, allow the key to be put into the keyway, then
HJ hammered home. lt is diff icult to drive a hub onto
; a tapered key with enough pressure to get it to
hold tightly; therefore tapered keys should be
fitted for each application.
Gib-headed Keys
Both straight and tapered gib-headed keys
have an enlarged head on one side to permit easy
Standard Square and Flat ToP KeYs extraction. They are used mainly on machines
where a gear or sprocket must be taken off at
The dimensions above are recommended frequent intervals.
standards for general use. Some machines may Another form of "quick extraction key" is a
-se larger dimension keys, according to design standard key with a hole drilled and tapped into
specif ications. the exposed end. A bolt is screwed into the hole
The length of the key is generally determined and the key pulled out by this means. This
:,/ the hub width. method is good only when the hub is at the end of
the shaft.
Tapered Keys Keys are often anything but standard in size
Tapered keys are used: (see diagrams).

Tapered Key
Drive ln
(-
Hub
Drive Out
:
ll I

_t_t__ --L--
\

Hub
 SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS

Woodruff Keys
Woodruff keys have the advantage of having
stock-standard dimensions and can be boughtas
finished keys from dealers.
Tapped Key Woodruff keys come in two basic forms, but
the dimensions "w" and "d" are the critical
dimensions, regardless of shape.

O"..,0 -l-F-
I
-l-|,-

Woodrull
T
The keys are coded and generally referred to

O",""O by code number. The code of 3 or 4 numbers

gives the nominal width w and the nominal
diameter d.

*',"O
Worn The last two digits of the Woodruff key code
The keyway is wider

()
number indicate the diameter in multiples of 1/8
Wider Keyway of an inch, while the first digit or digits indicate
the width in multiples of 1/32 of an inch.
A 1210-Woodruff would have the following
sizes:
10x 1 _ 10
- 11/4" d
8 o
Square

Worn Keyways and Finished Sizes 12x 1 _12 - 3/8" w

32 32

Glb-headed Key

|
'___
_____! -
-' ,t,
I
70 SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS

A 406-Woodruff key would have the fottowing

sizes:
6X 1- :o - 3/4" d
B 6

4x 1- 4_ 1/8" w
32 32

Key Seats and Keyways

Key Seats
There are three general shaft key seat
designs, each of which depends upon the posi-
tion on the shaft and the cutting tool used.
Open or Run-out Key Seats
Open or run-out key seats may be cut
Boxed or Round-end Key Seats
anywhere on the shaft, using a standard milling
cutter. Due to the rounded ends of the key seat,
the usable key length is less than the total length Woodruff Key Seats
of the key seats. Usually the key seat is longer Woodruff key seats may be cut anywhere on
than the width of the hub because: the shaft except at the end, by using a Woodruff
> The exact position of the hub is not known; and cutter in a milling machine. A 1210-key, for
> The key is installed after assembly. example, fits into a key seat cut with a 1210-
cutter. -

Open or Run-out Key Seats

Boxed or Round-end Key Seats Woodrulf Key Seals

Boxed or round-end key seats may be cut
anywhere on the shaft, using a standard-end mill.
As the key seat length is less than the hub width,
the usable key length is equal to the length of the
key seat. This type of key seat must not be used
with a tapered key, unless the key seat is on the
end of the shaft.
Keyways
The keyway in the hub is machined the f ull
width of the hub, with the width of the keyway
equal to the width of the key seat. There are two
styles, with different specifications:
 SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS 71

> Parallel Keyways

- have a depth of cut that is
constant; and can be used with square or flat
parallel keys, or with Woodruff keys;
> Tapered Keyways
- have a depth of cut that is
nof constant;and a taperthat is 1/Bof an inch in
12 inches, i.e., a ratio of 1:96.
The amount of taper in a tapered keyway or a
tapered key can be calculated by multiplying the
slot of key length by 1/96.
Problem: f ind the amount of taper required to
suit the hub:
,I'
Figure b represents a sprocket with the bore
concentric to the hub;the keyway position may or
may not be important.
lf a sprocket is for random or casual chain
installation, the keyway can be cut in any position
relative to the keyway tooth.
lf the sprocket is one of several keyed to a
head shaft, and if it is driving a lug or dog chain
where the position of the dog is important, the
sprocket must have the key seat in the same
position relative to the keyway. lf the key seats are
not in identical positions, the chain dogs will be
out of place.
The diagram below illustrates a welded
connection for a lift arm. The keyway position
shown is f or maximum strength f or position in the
hub. lf the linkage is replaced, the new unit must
have the keyway in the same location or the
f unction of the linkage will be changed.

.1.

tl
I

K-
ir
2 250. -Ji G C)

Taper-w \ 1

96
z.2so x! Ub

- 0.0234"

Calculation of Taper to Suil Hub

\(J
Keyway Location
Key Position for a Lift Arm
Keyway location in a hub is only important in
cases where the position will affect the strength
of the unit or the timing or position of a part.
ln practice, if the hub is bored and the
keyway cut before the arm is welded on, there will
be installation problems caused by the warping of
the bore. A pair of inside calipers or an inside

_A_
l

micrometer must be used to check the drameter

over the f ull length of the bore.

@ I

l
\Y/ Mismatched Keyways
When a hub is put back on a shaft, a step key
is used so that:
rt
Keyway Position in Sprocket
> The larger size will be a tight fit in the hub;
> The smaller size will be a tight fit in the shaft;
and
Figure a represents a pulley with the bore > The depth will be sufficient to make a good fit.
concentric to the hub; the keyway position is not Slightly worn keyways can be squared up
important. with a f ile, and a key hand fitted to give a tight or
72 SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS

lettered or numbered, in order to keep the fitted

parts in sequence (see diagram below).
A saddle key or emergency key is made by
Key to Suit grinding a concave on the bottom of the key to f it
the shaft, then fitting it for a driving fit. As there is
no keyway in the shaft, the key depends on
compression to hold it in position and can
therefore be used only for light work (see
diagram),

Key to Suit

Saddle Key Size Exaggerated

Step Keys

driving fit. A fitted keyway will not be absolutely

true, so a driven key is necessary to prevent side
movement.
When a hub is changed, there may be a
difference in keyway depths, in which case
another key will have to be fitted.
Tapered keys should be fitted to each hub. lf
a lay shaft with several hubs with tapered
keyways is being made up, or if several rolls with
tapered hubs are being assembled, every shaft or
shaft position, key and hub should be punched, Key Drilt

Numbering Tapered Keys and Hubs Numbering Parts in Roll Case Tapered Key and Hubs
and Posiiion for Lay Shaft

,-1\

O
?
,lil
il
,i"
A key extending some distance past the hub
may be driven back or out by using a cold chisel
and a hammer.
Key Exlraction by Cold Chisel
A gib-head key is taken out by driving a
wedge between the gib and the face of the hub.
The key drift is often not long enough to drive
a key all the way out. ln such a case, a short piece
of key stock, smaller in dimension than the
keyway, is inserted between the key and the end
of the key drift.
Any spacer or spacers should not be a close
fit, as driving the end of a spacer can create
enough swelling to make it bind in the keyway.
Wedge t
pull key
Gib-Head Key Extraction
SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS
Depending on the length of the keyway and
the available travel of the key d rift, more than one
spacer may be needed.
"Dutchman" is the common (slang) name for
this kind of spacer.
Key Chaser
Key
"Dutchman" Spacer
lf the key seems to be tight:
> Spray or pour a small amount of penetrating oil
on the key and keyway and around the joint at
the hub and shaft end;
> lf the hub has setscrews, remove them and pour
penetrating oil down the hole to the key.
Emergency Key Seats
Key seats are very seldom cut on shafts that
have been installed, except in an emergency or
with a change in design. lf the key seat is to take a
key under considerable load, and the job is
proposed for a weekend or shutdown, the best
procedure is to use a portable key seater. This will
result in a key seat that is both exact in width and
even in depth.
A quick emergency key seat is made by
grinding a flat spot on the shaft, slightly wider
than the width of the key, and installing a drive-fit
key. This will take a steady load, but is not
suitable for reversing or shock loading. This type
of key seat can be made quickly at any location on
the shaft.
) (
Anywhere on the Shaft
Ground Flats lor Key Seat
74 SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS

Key seats can be cut with a cape chisel at even depth. With this key seat, the key will have
either the end of the shaft or at any other point on to be fitted to specif ication and driven home.
the shaft.
Note: Emergency key seats must not be used on
motors or other main sources of power.

o_-_-_ ooo o Emergency Keys

When the hub is at the end of a shaft, drill a
Hole Drilled in Shaft hole (or better still, two holes) into the shaft and
hub at the fit line, and then tap it fora bolt. This

o c ooooc
style of key is part of the design of a taper-lock
bush i ng.

Keyway Worn Out

Taper Back Cutting Keyway

From Point with Cape Chisel
Emergency Keys
Key Seats Cut with a Cape Chisel Tools required for cutting, fitting and remov-
ing keys are:
Procedural methods of cutting a key seat are as
> Machinist hammer;
f ollows:
> Light sledge hammer;
> Either scribe the key outline on the shaft, drilla > Key drifts;
hole or holes to mark the limits of the key seat > Punch;
and take the material out with a cape chisel; or > Cold chisel;
> Scribe the key seat, then drill a series of holes > Allen wrench;
the length of the key seat to reduce the amount > Crescent wrench;
of cutting to be done by the chisel. The chisel > Can of white lead or lubricant;
must be made to suit the width of cut and one > Gear puller and buttons;
face extended to give a base for cutting at an > Other equipment to meet conditions.

Steep and Shorl

l!

Key Extraction
ln some instances where a tapered key
cannot be driven out, the hub and key can be
pulled off together with a set of pullers i/ the key
will slide in the shaft key seat.
Key Extraction Using a Puller
lf the key is large (1/2 inch or over) and at or
near the end of a shaft, and if there is a welding
machine available, a bumper or sliding hammer
can be made to pull the key.
A bumper is a rod 5/8 of an inch or over, with
a length of 24 to 30 inches, that is put through a
hole in a piece of shafting or casting of 10to 15
pounds, threaded so that the nut keeps the ram
from coming off . The weight is brought up to the
key, then pulled back sharply, hitting the nut and
Approximate Layout ot Sliding Hammer lor Pulling Keys
Ram 10# - 15#
Th readed
L__-_ rillt Iil
)
SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS 75
washer with considerable force; this process
must be repeated until the key is loose. euite
often, heat must be applied to the hub to get the
benefit of a slight amount of expansion.
Although the rod is usually wetded to the end
of the key, in some cases it is welded to the top of
a protruding key.
Where it is impossible to weld on the rod and
when the key is flush or nearly flush with the
shaft, an alternate method of key extraction is to
d rill and tap the key f or as large a bolt as possible.
The same hammer setup is used, the disadvantage
being that a smaller diameter rod must be used,
which is more likely to strip the threads.
The major problem in key extraction arises
when the key cannot be driven out and the hub
cannot be moved on the shaft. Because every case
is different, depending on local conditions, only a
general outline will be given below.
Hub Removal
The procedure for hub removal with heat assist
is as follows:
> Try to drive out the key;
> lf there is no danger of starting a fire, use a
Iarge torch to heat the hub;
> lf the hub is to be moved, make certain that the
pullers are in place and under maximum
tension before applying heat;
> Move the hub before the heat works into the
shaf t;
> When the hub starts to move, keep it hot and
keep it moving;
> lf it seizes on the shaft after moving a short
76 SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS

distance, let the hub and shaft cool, then start
over again;
> Do not apply large amounts of heat to hubs
trozen onto motor shafts.
rule, a key seat does not create a problem with
friction bearings, due to the large bearing area
and the lack of oil seals. However, it presents a
problem with anti-f rictlon bearings, as the sharp
edges of the key seat destroy the old seal. An
open keyway lets oil or grease out, and dirt and
grit in.

o o

Jack and Strong Back Used as a Puller

Anti-Friction Bearing Showing Filled Key Seat
lf space permits, if the hub and shaft can
easily be taken out, and if a jack (preferabty Fillers
hydraulic) is available, a heavy-duty puller can be A key seat under an oil seal can be f illed in by
made with two heavy rods and two "strong a piece of metal, hardwood, or composition
backs". Heat will be needed for this operation. tightly f itted or bolted to the shaft, and rounded to
lf this fails, the hub and shaft can be taken out the shaft diameter.
and sent to a machine shop that has a hydraulic
press, which can handle the job,
Destructive Hub Rembval
The last resort is to break or turn off the hub,
save the shaft and replace the hub with a new one.
ln some cases, depending on the part, it is quicker Shaft Punched Over
and cheaper to burn off the shaft, burn the shaft
out of the hub and replace the hub on a new shaft. For light usage, the filler can be held in by
This is generally true for shrink fits of hubs on "peening" or punching the edge of the shaft over
shafts that have been exposed to the weather or the f iller in at least four spots. lf the bearing can
operated in wet conditions over a long period of be kept clean or taken out altogether, babbitt
time. metal can be poured into the key seat and
Destructive removal should be done only rounded to shape.
after a supervisor has accepted the responsibility,
as there may be a problem with replacement parts
or available machine-shop time.

Hubs
For maximum support, hubs are generally set
:uite close to the bearings supporting the shaft.
,'/hen the key seat is longer than the hub, it might Key Cut to Fit Oil Seal
:xtend into the bearing for a short distance. As a

Setscrews
Setscrews are used with hubs to hold a key in
position, or as a support to hold the hub in
position. A setscrew is not used on a tapered key.
Setscrews should be the Allen-head lype,
and when f ully tightened should be below the hub
surf ace.
For best holding power, the setscrews should
be of the same diameter as the key width, up to
1/2 inch. A small setscrew, such as a 1/4-inch
setscrew on a 1/2-inch wide key, does not have
sufficient holding power.
The single setscrew bearing on a key should
be located in the easiest place to drill and tap,
preferably at about the midpoint of the keyway
length.
Selscrew
Two setscrews, on the key and on the shaft,
must be installed at 90 degrees to each other, but
the location f rom the hub end should be the same
as for a single setscrew.
A square-headed setscrew is not recommen-
ded because of its protruding head, which must
be carefully guarded.
Before installing a hub with setscrew holes,
the bore at the hole location should be checked
and cleaned to remove any high spots caused by
drilling and tapping.
Before installing any hub, the corners of the
keyway and the key seat should be smoothed
with a file to remove any high spots or burrs.
A setscrew bearing on a shaft can present a
problem when removing a hub installed with an
interf erence flt. Due to the selscrew point or lhe
cup force, the metal in the shaft will be displaced
to form a hump a f ew thousandths of an inch high,
centred under the tapped hole.
When the hub is moved slightly, the high
spots will be picked up by the bore of the hub with
the following results:
> The hub will be difficult to remove; and
SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS 77
> Scoring of the bore, the shaft, or both surfaces
will occur.
Flat tor Setscrew
The safest procedure is therefore to locate
the position of the setscrew bearing on the shaft,
and then file a small flat on the shaft for the
setscrew cup.
Removing a Hub
When removing a hub, the setscrew or
screws should be removed altogether, ratherthan
just backed off two or three turns, for the
following reasons:
> Penetrating oil will then be able to make contact
with the key and shaft;
> There may be two short setscrews in the tapped
hole, instead of one long setscrew; and
> The setscrew cup will be clear of any f lat f iled in
the shafi.
An emergency measure for holding a hub in
position is to drill a shallow hole in the shaft under
the setscrew hole, and use a long setscrew as a
shear pin.
Hub Assembly
"Fit" can be def ined as the relative difference
between the outer diameter (OD) of a shaft or pin
and the inner diameter (lD) of a hole.
Engineering tables, Machinery's Handbook,
or working prints will Eive the actual diameters to
be machined to suit the nominal diameter and
class of f it required.
A millwright is responsible for the assembly
of f inished parts, and in this regard, the classes of
fits are based on relative movement, ease of
assembly, or holding power.
The choice of f it will have a bearing on the
ease of assembly or holding power of the related
parts, but can also have a bearing on basic
miilwright routine.
Consider the following two problems:
>A coupling is bored for a 0.002-inch clearance
for an easy sliding f it, and the keyway is cut with
one setscrew over the key. After assembly, the
millwright mounts a dial indicator to check
concentricity and f rnds a run out. Why?
78 SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS
> ,: cear on a heavy load with reversing drive is
:cred size for size with a parallel keyway cut,
and drilled and tapped for two setscrews After
a short period of time, the gear starts to work on
the shaft. WhY2
Clearance Fits
Clearance fits are used when the hole
diameter is larger than the shaft diameter:
> Where there will be relative motion between
in a bearing -
parts
- as in a shaft turning
known as a running f it; or
> Where there will be no relative movement
between parts after assembly, but the parts will
go together easily known as a sliding f it'
-
Transition Fits
Transition f its are tighter than sliding f its, f or
more accurate assembly or location.
lnterlerence Fits
lnterference f its are used where the hole
diameter is equal to or less than the shaft
diameter. Some f orm of f orce or heat expansion is
needed to assemble comPonents'
{its and
> Drive Fi t
- is used for light interference
where equipment such as a press cannot be
used. Tools needed are:
r Hammers from ball peen to large sledge;
and
- mum temperature of 300"F to 355"F (150"C to
o Suitable soft drif ts or blocks of wood to
protect metal sur{aces.
Note: A drive fit must not be done when anti-
friction bearings or light machine components
will absorb the shock of the blows.
> Press Fit is used where the male diameter
-
equal to or larger than the female diameter' The
amount of interference should be carefully
checked, as too much interference can distort
the weaker member or cause scoring and pick
up on one or both members. Different materials
require a different amount of interference in
order to obtain the holding power required'
Equipment needed is as {ollows:
o For tight work or small components - prefer-
ably an arbor press where the operator can
"feel" the job;
e For heavy work a fixed hydraulic press'
-
When using a shop press it is good policy to
know either the total force to be exerted in
tons (tonnes); or the pressure required in psi,
kilopascals, or megapascals; and
- a rod of suitable length,
o For f ietd work a
backing plate, and a hydraulic jack with a
hollow ram. With these tools, a hub can be
pressed onto the external shaft of some
machines, such as reduction units This is
easier on the machine than a drive or "ham-
mer-and-bang" installation.
> Shrink Fit is used where the male diameter is
-
equal to or larger than the female diameter' The
purpose of a shrink f it is to change the dimen-
sions of a mating part - either to expand the
diameter of a hole by heating - or to reduce the
diameter of a pin by cooling. Shrink assembly is
quite often preferred to press assembly as it can
be done in the field and there is no chance of
scoring the surf aces.
Heating Method
> Ftuid Baths - consist of boiling water or
water/oil mixtures:
o Boiling water expansion is low about 0 001
-
of an inch per inch of bore; and any ferrous
parts should be lubricated or oiled as soon as
possible after the shrink {it procedure, oil-
bafh expansion is about double that obtained
by the water-bath method. Because of f ire
hazard, special heating oils with high flash
points must be used, with a possible maxi-
180"C).
Hand -forches - are generally propane or
oxyacetylene. There are several disadvantages
in this method of shrink fitting:
o Uneven heating can cause warping of parts;
r Thermal stress can cause fractures in large'
is spoked, cast iron Parts; and
r An improper heating routine on a large hub
and disc can cause a reduction in the bore
diameter until the heat works to the outer rim
of the disc.
> Ovens or Furnaces in production shops,
f urnaces are usually
-used for obtaining high
temperatures; in a small maintenance shop, the
oven of a common gas or electric stove can be
used for small amounts of expansion.
> lnduction Heating
- is more commonly used
for heating anti-friction bearings, but is still
suitable for heating small hubs.
?
ffi SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS 79
ffi
:tr

I Shrink Fit Hub Assembly > Subrnerge them in liquid air.

ii Shrink f it hub assembly routine is as f ollows:
i
> Check the parts for dimensions and surface
finish;
> Make sure that surfaces are free of grit or other
compounds;
> Dry the parts before heating them. This is
importani when submerging a part in a hot oil
bath, as water on the part will rapidly turn into
steam;
Aiign the parts and/or use proper guides;
> > When cooled to a very iow temperature, most
Assemble the parts as rapidly as possible
> metals tend to show a change in their physical
because of the change in dimensions as the heat
flows from the hot to the cold part (the hot part
decreases in diameter, while the colder part
increases in diameter);
> Consider the heat transfer when a hub or shaft is
being shrunk in close proximity to fitted lip seals
or anti-friction bearings. Lip seals have a low
temperature range and fail rapidly when hot.
AntiJriction bearings can be heated to 200"F to
240"F (93"C to 1 16"C) when both rings are heated
as a unit. When a hot hub is located on the shaft,
the inner ring and shaft expand due to the heat
transfer, but the outer ring and housing will
remain at ambient temperature, or heat up more
slowly than the inner ri ng. Damage can be due
to:
c Heating the inner ring above the critical
temperature; or
o Loading or pressing the balls or rollers into
Nole: The following factors should be remembered
when coolinE parts:
> Very cold metals will cause skin damage, as
moisture on bare hands will freeze to the cold
metal: use protective equipment;
> With an alcohol bath there is a possible fire
hazard, due to fumes;
> With liquid air there is a f ire hazard, due to
increased oxygen in the vicinity;
properiies and become brittle.
Calculations lor Hub Expansion
The hole should be expanded to a larger
diameter than the shaft or pin. At the initial
assembly there should be a sliding f it, followed by
a shri nk f it as the parts cool to amrbient tempera-
tu res.
Each solid metal expands or contracts at a
constant rate per unit of length and per degree of
temperature change. This change is known as the
coef f icient of expansion.
Below are examples of basic expansion
coefficients. Different alloys will expand at
slightly different rates.
Coellicients of Expansions for Common Metals
F
inch/1 mm/1C

the raceways and causing Iocal spot damage; Aluminum 0.0000i28 0.000023
> Red uction of heat transfer can be done by Brass 0.0000104 0.0000i8
Bronze 0.0000102 0.000018
simple means
- with an air hose or air jet, Cast iron 0.0000068 0.000012
water-soaked rags, or a water hose; Steel 0.000006 1 0.00001 i
> Follow required safety regulations
- wear the
required protective clothing and use the appro- The amount of expansion can be calculated
priate safety equipment. by using the following formula:
Nofe. A loss of the holding power of a severe E-cxlxt E expansion
shrink fit can be caused when the stress put on c -- coefficrent
the female unit is greater than the elastic limit of | * length or base
the material, so that the material yields, resulting t - temperature change
in a loss of holding power.
Example 7; A steel hub with : ?.500-inch diameter
Cooling Methods
bore is heated to 450"F. iiir: the amount of of
Cooling methods for shrink flts are as expansion. Room tempei.eture is 70"F.
f ollows; E- I a
L-L, ^ \ lx t
> Refrigerate or f reeze the parts;
> Pack them in dry ice;
* 0.0000061 x 2.500" x (4S0"F - 70.F)
> Submerge them in a dry ice-alcohol bath, or - 0.0000061 X 2.500 x 380
- 0.0057"
 SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS

Example 2; A steel hub with a 63.50-millimetre > Tolerance

diameter bore is heated to 232.C. Find the
- the difference between the allow-
able maximum and minimum sizes of a single
amount of expansion. Room temperature is 21"C. part; and
> Allowance for Fit
E-cXlXt - the relationship between
the two mating pieces:
- 0.000011 x 63.50 x (232.C - 21.C) o Clearance Fifs positive allowance;
x x - i.e.,
- 0.000011 63.50 211 o lnterference Fits
- i.e., negative allowance;
- 0.147 mm o Maximum Clearance
- i.e., the largest bore
Print or Drawing Details diameter less the smallest shaft diameter;

Working prints showing the required fits are 2.502 2.498

divided roughly into two classes: 2.498 2.498

> The existing inch dimensions system

+ 0.004 0.000
- which o Minimum Clearance the smallest bore
indicates the maximum and minimum sizes to
be machined; and
- i.e.,shaft
diameter less the iargest diameter.
> The /SO system of letter-number combinations,
where a set of tables must be used to obtain the
2.500 2.496
maximum and minimum dimensions to match a
2.500 2.500
nominal diameter. 0.000 - 0.004
The diagram below is an illustralion of limit As the dimension increases, the ease of
assembly and style of f it can change. This is due
dimensioning, where the maxirnum dimension
always on top is shown with the minimum
- to the larger area of contact and the increased
-
dimension below.
possibility of minor machine shop faults, such as
taper or roughness of surface.

_t ISO StandardS
ISO standards are not new. For several years,
2.500" 2.502" the Canadian SKF Company has been issuing a
2.498 2.500
booklet called Shaft and Housing Fits fo /SO
Standards as a guide to proper bore and shaft
-T- ---7-
I

l
diameters for bearing installation.
The diagram below illustrates a possible
working print f or the assembly of male and f emale
Limit Dimensioning
parts. A set of tables must be used to find the
actual sizes required.
The diagram below illustrates plus or minus The nominai dimension is 2.500;
':ierancing. The size required is shown first,
The hole tolerance is H7; and
lowed by an allowable oversize of p/us on top
'-^
The shaft tolerance is p6.
=-C an allowable undersize or minus beneath.
Holes are indicated by capital letters A to Z,
I

I
followed by a number indicating the tolerance
-\t ailowed.
Shafts are indicated by small letters a lo z,
2.500 2.498
+ 0.000 + 0.000
foilowed by a number indicating the tolerance
0.002 0.002 allowed.
- -
ln general use, the whole range of letters is
-T- i
not used. The most common f its are in the
midrange of letters.
I

t'-: or Minus Tolerancing

Some references take the H hole as the
standard hole. A G hole is larger than an H hole,
Regardless of style, both diagrams indicate while a J hole is smaller than an H hole.
r-: ':llowing terms: Shafts a lo h with an H hole produce clear-
 SHAFTS, KEYS, HUBS AND FITS 81

ance f its, while shafts i to z produce transition to

interference fits.
The details of the fit shown in the diagram
below are as follows:
H7 - base + 0.010
0.000
p6
- shaft + 0.012
0.006

_J_
2.500
Dia.

T-
Fit H7 p6

Working Print lor Fitting Male and Female Parts

 LUBRICATION

5. Lubrication

"Lubrication" is the reduction of friction to a ln a sawmill, the slides of a gang mill or the
minimum bythe replacementof so/id f rictionwith head block and knees on a carriage are examples
fluid friction. of this type of f riction.
ln sliding friction, the contact pressure is
Kinds of Friction usually spread over a large area, with the result
that the pressure per square inch is comparative-
The most carefully finished metal surface is ly light.
not truly flat, but is covered with microscopic
irregularities projections and depressions.
-
When two dry surfaces are rubbed together, the rnal
J ou
Bearings
irregularities have a tendency to interlock and
resist the sliding motion. Under conditions of
extreme pressure, the irregularities tend to weld
together, resulting in f riction resistance.
Friction between moving surfaces is grouped
into three main types: sliding, rolling and tluid.
Sliding Friction
Sliding f riction occurs when two surfaces
slide over each other, such as in journal bearings
or pistons sliding in a cylinder. Types of Sliding Friction

Types ol Solid Friction (To Be Overcome with Lubrication)

 LUBRICATION

Rolling Friction Kinds of Friction

Rolling f riction takes place when a spherical
or cylindrical body rolls over a surface. Common
examples are ball and roller bearings.
With ball or roller friction bearings, the area
of contact is quite small, with the result that the
pressure loading is high. There is also a very
small amount of sliding friction between the ball
or roller and the separators.
The illustrations below deal primarily with
friction
- the f riction produced when one metal
surface is moved in contact with another.
Friction results in heat and wear, both of
which are harmful to a machine.

The balls and rollers in anti-friction bearings

undergo some deformation under load. This not
only produces "internal" friction, but increases
the sliding f riction between rolling members and
races.

tt
\s-r
-'_,r
V,YL-/
trry\
\ 11
,

11 '

The separators used in anti-friction bearings also

contribute a small amount of sliding friction to
their operation.
Fluid Friction Least Effort
-
With gears, both sliding and rolling occur as
the gears mesh and unmesh. Gears are grouped
according to their contact area and action.
 LUBRICATION

Lubrication Theory
ln theory, the oil f orms in layers of globules,
one layer adhering to each metal surface and any
number of layers of globules in between.
ln the diagram, layer 1 adheres to the top
surface, layer 7 adheres to the bottom surface,
and the layers in between roll over each other as
the bearing surfaces move against each other.
Thus, the only friction present is between the oil
globules, forming what is called "fluid friction".
This state will be maintained as long as a suitable
quantity of oil is supplied.

Magnilied Finished Surlaces

Fluid Friction
When lubricating oil is applied to two surfac-
es in contact, a film of oil is formed, filling up the
depressions and covering the projections. Slid-
ing can therefore occur between the two films of
oil because there is no metal-to-metal contact.
This is called "f luid f riction" or "fluid lubrication".
Layers of Oil Globules in a Bearing

Oil Wedge Theory

ln plain bearings, the cohesion between the
molecules of oil in addition to the adhesion of the
oil to the metal surfaces, causes oil to be drawn in
under the shaft as it revolves. This is known as
"wedge action" and accounts for the presence of
the lubricating film even in heavily loaded
Magnilied Bearing Surlace with a Fluid Film bearings.
Types of Rolling Friction
T
$
iI,
F LUBRICATION

ff
lr
H
When the shaft is at rest, mostof thefilm of oil ln f igure 7, as the speed is increased, more oil
between it and the bearing is squeezed out, is forced between the shaft and the bearing. The
0l

il
iir
allowing a certain amount of direct metal-to- shaft then tends to fall to the bottom of the
metal contact. bearing, but actual metal-to-metal contact is
Bearing Centre prevented by the layer of oil.
- Oil Delivery

'l
Shaft Centre Figure

lnitial Rolling Action ot Journal or Shali Shaft Centre

Establishment ol Fluid Film in a Bearing
As the shaft starts to rotate, oil climbs up the
bearing side in a direction opposite to the At the final speed, the wedging action of the
direction of rotation. The layer of oilon the slowly oil moves in the direction of rotation and becomes
turning shaft clings to the surface and turns with strong enough to lift the shaft into the location
it. As the oil is carried between the shaft and the shown in this diagram.
bearing, the bearing surfaces are separated by a
continuous layer of oil.
Bearing Centre

Figure 2

Maximum Pressure
Shaft Centre Equilibrium of Oil Wedge

Bearings Separated by Oil

Friction Comparisons

(Flolling at pitch line only, otherwise sliding)

 LUBRICATION
I

The turning of the shaft has the same action as

a pump. Oii is forced between the shaft and
oir Irt
1(
bearing, with hydraulic pressure creating an oil Viscosity in
wedge that forees the shaft against the opposite e)
side. Viscosity is the most important property of a la
This theory depends on a satisfactory supply lubricating oil. lt is the measure of the oil's
of oilto form a continuous film. Lack of oilafterthe thickness or ability to flow, and largely deter-
beginning of rotation will prevent a lubricating film mines the suitability of an oil for any particular dt

and wedge from being established. This will result application. The best oil for a bearing is one with a!'
in metal-to-metal contact that generates heat and the right viscosity to maintain the "oil wedge"
eventually wears out the bearing. action efficiently, subject to conditions of speed,
ln f igure 2, the area of high pressure shown to pressure, and heat. a
the right of the centerline indicates that the oil Oils with low-viscosity ratings are quite thin
wedge has forced the shaft up and to the right. This or light, while oils with high-viscosity ratings f low dt
area of high pressure has the thinnest oil film. very slowly. t;t
Oil should enter f rom the top of the low- n(
The following factors will determine the
pressure area, where it can be picked up by the
choice of oil to be used:
shaft, and moved around to the high-pressure
area. > The speed of a shaft and the amount of clear- US

When rotation starts, lhe coeff icient of f riction ance between the shaft and the bearing
is quite high, but as soon as the shaft has made slow-turning shaft with relatively wide clearance- a V
about half a turn, or enough to form a film of oii can be lubricated with a heavy or high-viscosity
with the bearing, the coeff icient of f riction drops to oil. High-speed shafts with close tolerance
a low level. bearings require a light or low-viscosity oil.
> The sur/ace f inish Ki
a smooth surface usually
Variables in establishing a proper oil wedge requires a light oil, - while a reiatively rough
are: surface requires a heavier oil; re
> opening for lubricant entry;
The >The bearing load the oil must have enough
> The
volume of lubricant supplied;
-
body to maintain a good oil film under the fu
> The
viscosity of oil or the grade of grease; estimated maximum load. An oil that maintains rn
> The
surface finish; a f ilm under a 300-pound load may not be heavy
> The
operating temperature; enough if there is a '1,000-pound load in the
> The rubbing speed or rpm; same bearing. ln general, a heavy load demands
i
> The load; and a heavier grade of oilthan does a light load, the
> The clearance. bearing areas being equai;
> The press ure in the oil f ilm
ln an anti-f i'iction bearing there are two oil - this builds up f rom
zero on the incoming side, to a peak slightly past
wedge formations, due to the three-unit construc- the centerline of the bearing, then drops back to
tion of the bearing. zero. The oil-f ilm pressure is directlyproportional i
Outer Race
Bal I to the load on the bearing. lf the load is
I

lnner Race increased the pressure will increase; if the load I

Oil Wedae
is decreased, the pressure will decrease. Ab
Regardless of the load, the pressure adjusts to
provide sufficient pressure to carry the load.
Speed does not have any effect on film pressure; of
and OVt

>The temperature AS
- oils become thinner when
heated and thicker when cooled. Heat should be on
considered in two ways:
o As heat from the operation; and pc
( ce
c As heat or lack of heat f rom the surroundings.
se(
Oil Wedge Formalion in a Ball Bearing Heat from operation usuaily varies by very
 LUBRICATION

little, but in some machines an allowable rise of rotating yiscosimefer, called a,,cold-cranking
'100"F (38"C) is predictable.
Heat from surround- simulator", which simulates the ease of cranking
ings will vary. The temperature range between an a cold engine.
exposed bearing in winter and a bearing next to a With the SAE-rated engine oils, the four,,W,,
large boiler can be as much as 150"F (66"C). grades are defined by absolute viscosity to
The pour point is the lowest temperature at determine the ease of cold weather starting, while
which oil will f low under the influence of gravity, the four grades trom 2A to 50 are measured by
and is an important consideration when selecting kinematic viscosity to suit the operating tempera_
an oil for cold-weather applications. tu re.
The f/ash point is the minimum temperature The four "W" grades are defined by cotd_
at which sufficient oil is vapourized to create an cranking simulator viscosity (in centipoises) at
air/fuel mixture which will burn if ignited. 0"F (-18.C) as determined by ASTM D 2602, a
Combustion at this temperature is of veiy short value related to the ease of cranking an engine in
duration. The airlf uel must be of correct propor- cold weather. The other four grades are defined
tions to ignite
not burn. - too lean or too rich a mixture will by kinematic viscosity (in centistokes) at 210,F
(99"C), as determined by ASTM D 445.
The f ire point is the temperature at which oil The SAE system is based solely on viscosity;
will maintain steady combustion. The fire point is other factors of oil quality or performance are not
usually about 50"F (28"C) above the f lash point. considered.
Viscosity Measurement
The two types of viscosity are kinematic and
absolute (dynamic). SAE J3OOC VISCOSITY NUMBERS FOR ENGINE OILS
: Less than
Kinematic Viscosity The viscosity of all oiis included in th js classrf ication
shall not be less than 3.9 centistokes
Kinematic viscosity is measured by the time (39 SSU3) at 210.F (99,C)
required for a f ixed volume of oil to f low through a OFFICIAL UNOFFICIAL _ FOR REFERENCE
capillary tube of a definite diameter at a constant Saybolt
fixed tem peratu re. The common u nits of measure- Universal
Centipoises Centistokes
ment are: 0"F (-18"C)
Seconds3
0"F (-18"Ci 0"F (-18"C)
> Saybolt universalseconds (SSU) based on
'100"F and 210.F -
as common temperatures (SSU
SAE
Viscosity
and SUS both refer to Saybolt Universal); Number Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
>Centistoke (cSt)- based on 40.C and 100"C 5W 200
1 1 300 6000
(40'C and 100"C are the closest round numbers 10w 12001 2400 1 300r 2600 60001 1 2000
to '100"F and 212"F); and 15W3 24002 4800 2600, 5200 1 2000, 24000
> S/ unifs
20w 2400, 10500 2000 48000
- which will be in square millimetres
1

per second (mmr/s).'1 cSt it is

- lmmr/s;
expected that the oil viscosity will stiil be
Saybolt
Universal
Centlstokes Seconds
expressed in centistokes. 210"F (ss"c) 210"F (ge"C)
Absolute (Dynamlc) Vtscostty 20 5.7 9.6 45 58
30 96 12.9 58 70
Absolute (dynamic) viscosity is the measure 40 12.9 16.8 70 85
of a tangential force to shear one plane of fluid 50 16.8 22 7 85 110
over a parallel plane. (A,force of one dyneto move
a surface of one square centimetre at a velocity of
one centirnetre per second on a film of fluid one Viscosity lndex
centimetre thick is equal to the viscosity of one When subjected to the same change in
poise.) The common unit of measurement is the temperature, all oils do not change viscosity at
centipoise (cP). The St unit wiil be the miilipascat the same rate.
second (mPa.s). 1 cP is equal to 1 mpa.s. The specif ic viscosity reaction of any oil that
Absolute viscosity is often measured by a undergoes a change in temperature is indicated
 LUBRICATION
by a number on a scale called the "viscosity
index" (Vl). The higher the Vl number, the less
change in the viscosity will occur due to tempera-
ture.
A premium-grade oil for turbine lubrication
will have a Vl of 92 to 96. Some all-weather
hydraulic oils will have a Vl of 200.
Multl-grade Olle
Multi-grade oils are specially compounded
engine oils that cover a wlde range of tempera-
tures with one oil. A 20Wl30 oil will have the shear
characteristics of a 20W oil at a low temperature
start-up, and the characteristics of a 30W oil at
operating temPerature.
Addltlves or lnhlbltors
Additives or inhibitors are compounds added
to a lubricating oil to improve its service life.
Broadly speaking, additives are divided into three
main groups: air control, water control, and load
capacity.
Alr Control
Petroleum oils have a smallquantity (up to 10
percent) of dissolved air in their makeup. This air
content increases with temperature and pressure
rise, and decreases with temperature or pressure
drop. For general lubricating purposes, air
content is usually not considered.
All petroleum oils react chemically with
oxygen over a period of time. This reaction can be
increased by high ternperatures, air, or catalysts
such as copper, water, or other contaminants"
Oxidation produces two general classes of
waste products:
> Oil-insoluble materials such as varnish or
sludge; and
> Oil-soluble acids.
Basic oxidation stability is established by the
refining process and is increased by the addition
of oxidation inhibitors or anti-corrosion addi-
tives that reduce the tormation of sludges or acids.
Foam caused by airin an oil reducestheability
of the lubricant to form an effective oil wedge.
Foam depressants or foam inhibitors are added
to reduce the foam content in an oil. This is
important, for example, with a high-speed bearing
on a splash-lubricated gear box.
Water Control
Water usually gets into a lubricating system
due to faulty seals. A frequently overlooked
source of water in a gear box or hydraulic system
is condensation inside the metal housing ortank
when the machine cools to an ambient tempera-
ture from an operating temperature of 120"F to
140"F (49'C to 60"C).
> Demutsibility
- is the ability of a petroleum oil
to separate from water upon standing. lt is a
natural property of a refined oil and can be
increased by additives;
> Emutsibitlty
- is the ability of a petroleum oilto
mix or emulsify with water and a special
emulsifying agent. A common example is the
cutting fluid used in a machine shop.
Rust inhiblfors are added to reduce the
rusting of ferrous parts that will occur if there is
water in the system.
Load Capacity
Chemicals are added to the oil to increase its
load capacity. Load capacity additives can be
separated into two general groups:
> Anti-wear additives
- to minimize surface wear
under normal circumstances by means of a
phosphorous type, an active sulphur type' or a
zinc type cornpound that polishes the contact-
ing faces: and
> Extreme pressure additives
- used for heavy
load or shock load conditions. The EP additives
can be:
o Compounds of sulphur and/or phosphorous;
o Lead soaps; or
o Long chain elastomers.
Notc: Due to possibie chemical reactions, EP oils
must not be mixed with other EF oils or other
standard oils.
> Detergents anddlspersanls are additives that
-
are usually found in automobile or diesel
engine oils, and not in industrial oils. A deter-
gent cleans the surfaces of a workplace, while a
dispersant keeps the contaminants in suspen-
sion.
A few premium incjustrial oils used in a f ull
circulating system have a mild detergent action,
but in general, detergent motor oils should not
be added to industrial hydraulic oils as a made-
up fluid because of the following possible
complications:
 LUBRICATION

. Contamination of the hydraulic oil, causing and makes of industrial oils available, broad oil
excessive foaming; classlfications have been established by several
o Deposits in critical clearance spaces; and associations:
c Filter problems.
> North American:
Oil Classifications o ASTM
- American Society for Testing and
Materials;
Engine Oils
AGMA
Engine oils are classified by:
o
- American Gear Manufacturers'
Association; and
o ASLE
> SAE viscosity numbers, which grade oil by
E
- American Society of Lubricating
ng i neers.
viscosity only, and/or
> API (American Petroleum lnstitute) engine ASTM grades oil by viscosity timits only,
service classif ication, which grades oils by their while AGMA and ASLE include quality and
specific use. expected service req u i rements. AG MA standards
The previous classes of oil use ML (light for gear case and reduction units are the most
service), MM (medium service) and MS (severe commonly used association gradings.
service) for gas engines, and DL, DM, DS for > European:
diesel engines
- andandhave
"S" (service station)
been replaced by an
an "S-series" (commer-
o BSI
o DIN
British Standards lnstitute
- Deutsche lndustrie Norman Germany;
cial) for commercial engines (mainly diesel). o NF
- Normes Frangaise France; and
-
r MTIRA Machine Tool lndustry Research
-
Association.
SC - M5'64 applies to car engines built from
1964 -
-1968; It is expected that ISO VG numbers will
SD MS'68 replace the standards set by these associations in
- - applies to car engines buitt from
1968 - 1972; and defining the viscosity of all lubricating oils.
SE applies to car engines built after 1972.
- Note; The ISO VG (viscosity grades) numbers
specify the viscosity only, and do not refer to
The following table compares the two groups service use.
of engine oils. The following table shows industrial liquid
lu bricants:
Engine Oil Service Classilication
and Equivalent Specif icaiions lndustrial Liquid Lubricants
- ISO Viscosity
Classitication (lSO 3448-1975)
Engine Service API
Classilication Service Kinemalic Viscosity Limits
rso Mid-point cSt at 40.0'C
Viscosity Viscosity
Commerical
Grade cSt at 40.0"C Minimum Maximum
5A ML
SB
ISO VG 2 2.2 1.98 2.42
MM
ISO VG 3 J.Z 2.BB 3.52
SC MS'64
SD
ISO VG 5 4.b 4.14 5.06
MS'68
ISO VG 7 6.8 6.12 7.48
T CA DG
ISO
ISO
VG
VG
1O
15
10
1A
9.00
tJ.5
1 1.0
16.5
CB
ISO VG 22 aa 19.8 l1.z
DM .1)
ISO VG 32 26.6 35.2
CD
5U-UU
SE-CC
"j ISO
ISO
VG
VG
46
68
46
68
41 .4
61 .2
50.6
74.8
SD-CD
lso vG 100 100 90.0 110
SE-CD lso vG 150 150 tJc 165
rso vc 220 220 198
rso vc 320 320 28B 352
rso vG 460 460 414 506
ISO VG 680 680 o tt 748
lndustrial Lubricating Oils rso vG 1000 1 000 900 1 100
rso vG 1500 1 500 1 350 1 650
Due to the wide variety of grades, propertres,
90 LUBRICATION

Ccntainer ldentitication are equal or superior to "compounded cylinder

Engine oil containers are marked with an
SAE number that indicates the weight of oil, and
an engine service classification that states the
specific usage.
Containers for industrial oils are usually
marked with a company brand name and a
service weight to suit the type of oil.
The table on page 91 shows eatalogue details
for one lmperial Oil (Esso) product:
SPARTAN EP lndustrial Extreme Pressure
- Gear Oils
Spartan EP oils are high quality, extreme
pressure compounded type oils for use in all
industrial gear sets except those with bullt-in,
variable speed, friction drive mechanisms. These
oils contain a phosphorus sulphur EP agent, a
demulsifier and an anti-foam additive. The use of
Spartan EP ensures increased unit life under
heavily loaded or shock-loaded service condi-
tions. The Spartan EP oils give superior rust
protection to ferrous metal surfaces and are non-
corrosive to steel, copper, brass, bronze and
other common bearing materials. Spartan EP can
be used in continuous service, with normal
relubrication intervals, at temperatures up to
200"F (93'C). Above 20A"F (93"C) the rate of
sludging and additive depletion increases and
f requent oil changes become necessary. The
friction and anti-wear properties of Spartan EP
oils" for steel on bronze, worm gear lubrication.
To obtain an equivalent oil f rom another
company, it is best to refer to their catalogue. The
safest method of obtaining oil from a company is
to allow the oil company's technical staff to make
a recommendation.
Oil Lubrication Systems
Oil lubrication is applied to two principal
kinds of systems: the "once through" or "wasted"
oil system; and the "enclosed" system in which
the oil is used over and over again.
Once Through System
Oil used for the lubrication of a once through
system can be a relatively low grade (or low cost)
oil chosen to meet viscostty and film strength
requirements. Usually the oil will have the
minimum amount of additives. To suit plant
policy and prevent lubricating errors, the "once
through" oil used may be the same grade of oil
used in the enclosed systems.
The hand oiler or squirt can is the oldest
method of applying oiland is still in use. However,
this method leads to extremes of over-or under-
lubrication.
Common oilers such as the bottle, wick or
drip-feed, are means of adding oil at a gradual
rate to suit operating conditions. They can only
be used above the bearing, as the oil's flow from
them is by gravity.

Approximate Viscosity Equivalenls

ASTM Grade ASLE AGMA SAE Grade
ISO Grade BSr Grade MTIRA DIN Engine Gear
Grade Old (1 ) New (2) (3) Grade (4) Oil No. No. Oils Oils

2 ct 2
3 3 3
5 40 5 5 N4
7 7 7
10 60 10 60 10 4 N9
15 75 15 5 N9
.105
22 105 N16
JI 150 150 32 1,6,10 N25 5W 75W
46 215 46 215 +o 1 N25 10w
68 315 6B Jt5 68 C UED 2,7,11 N36 20w/20 80w
100 465 100 100 3,3 EP N49 30
150 700 150 700 150 4,4EP co N68, N92 40 B5W
220 1 000 220 1 000 220 5,5EP tl N1 14 50 90
320 1 500 320 1 500 320 6,6EP N 144
460 2150 460 2150 460 7 Comp., 7EP N225 140
680 31 50 680 680 8 Comp, 8 EP I N340 140
1 000 4650 1 000 BA Comp.
1500 7000 1 500 1 500
 LUBRICATION 91

The wick-feed oiler uses the capillary action
of a strand or strands of wool to lift the oil out of
the reservoir. The flow of oil varies according to
the number of strands of wool and the height of
the oil in the reservoir. The flow will continue as
long as there is a supply of oil. The capillary
action of the wick tends to f ilter the oil, but after a
time, the wick will get dirty and the flow will
decrease.
The drip-feed oiler provides a visual check
and a means of controlling the f low of oil by
adjusting the needle valve. lt can be shut off when
the machine is not used, avoiding a waste of oil.
The oiler is filled through a small hole in the top.
This requires some care
- tofrom
and to keep foreign material
avoid spilling oil
entering. The
needle valve is easily fouled by a small piece of
dirt or waste.
Several types of lubricators for oiling a
bearing or series of bearings (or drip oiling
chains) can be made in the plant to suit local
conditions. The basic style is atank made from a
short length of pipe with a removable or hinged
metal lid covering a smaller opening for adding
oil, and a 1/2 pipe coupling welded onto the
bottom to connect with the drain line. The rate of

.*ii# ;_"-_"-1,,,-"1

::ii;*-
*_4#,,
--
*2

Viscosity
Timken AGMA Lubricanl
Typical cst at SSU at cst at SSU at Pour Flash OK Load Number
lnspections 40.c 1 00.F 100"c 210.F ('c)
"F 'F ('C) Lbs.l

SPARTAN EP ARCTIC 30.0 r3b 4.69 42 360( 1 82 50(23

SPARTAN EP 68 64.8 338 8.12 -50 -45)
SPARTAN EP 150 ae -25 -JJ/
380( 1 94 60(27 2EP
147.3 13.4 0 430(222 60(27
SPARTAN -18) 4EP
EP 220 217 150 tb./ 92
SPARTAN
1
+5 -1s) 440(226 6A(27 5EP
EP 320 362 1 925 24.2
SPARTAN EP 460 486 2600
120 +1s -e) 450(232 60(27 6EP
SPARTAN EP 680 623 3350
29.5
38.6
145
188
+1s
+15 _
-s)o\ 47O(244
s00(260
60(27
60(27
7EP
BEP
SPARTAN EP 1OOO 950 50 10 46.8 +15 -e) 500(260 60(27

(1) Kilogram values shown in parentheses.

Precaution: Spartan EP Gear Oils, and similar formulations, should not be used in planetary type gear
drives where the
separatlon of small amounts of sludge can cause inbalance and serious mechanical faiturei.
 LUBRICATION

Single-Valve Oil Tank

Single Tank

Large Tank
Line to Bearing

Drip Oiler

f low is controlled by a valve and sight glass on the

drain line, which can be either pipe or tubing
(tubing is better as it can be led around obstruc-
tions readily and it willwithstand more vibration).
Enclosed System
An enclosed system is one in which the oil is
circulated and used over and over again. The
machinery to be lubricated can be as simple as an
oil-lubricated, anti-friction bearing in a pillow Large Oil Tank with Multiple Valves
block or as complex as a full circulating system
on a paper machine.
Where the oil is used over a period of time, a reduce oxidation, corrosion, f oaming, and the
highly stable oil with additives is required to formation of emulsions.

Oiler Rings

One-piece
Ladder Chain Oiler

L,l
il:
Joint Construction
No. 1 Brass Ladder Chain

Oil Lubrication Methods
Ring Oiler Lubrication
A ring oiler is a mechanical means of oiling a
shaft.The ring has a larger lD than the OD of
the shaft. lt rests on the top of the shaft with the
bottom of the ring in the oil in the bottom of the
housrng. ,As the shaft turns, friction pulls the ring
around with oil clinging to its surface. For long
bearings, two or more rings can be used.
Ring oilers are not restricted to low speed
shafts and can be found on shafts of up to 4500
rpm.
The rings are usually made of metal, in one
piece or in two pieces with a hinge; they can also
be made of flexible light ladder chain. A one-
piece ring limits the bearing to two individual
shells, but a two-piece ring or chain allows unit
construction for the bottom bearing (see diagram).
Ring-oiled Sleeve
Electric Motor Lubrication
Splash Lubrication
Splash iubrication is the most common
method of lubrication in enclosed gear systems.
ln most units, the larger gear picks up the oil and
carries it to the mesh point, as well as splashing
LUBRICATION
oil to a trough which drains to the bearings.
Worm-wheel units with the worm on the bottom
are lubricated by the worm passing oil to the
wheel. The oil level must be kept high enough to
ensure that the gear will pick up a suff icient
quantity of oil.
Too much oil in the housing will result in
excessive foaming and a marked temperature rise
of the unit. As the temperature rises, the viscosity
of the oil will decrease, resulting in a less effective
oil wedge. There will also be a marked rise in the
operating temperature, which will reduce the
service life of the oil, and cause early lip-seai
failu re.
Splash Lubrication
Enclosed Circulating Lubrication
Enclosed circulating lubrication is a systern
that is used mainly for the lubrication of a large
number of bearings that ail use the same grade of
oil. Another general application is where bearings
must be run at a high temperature and cool oil
pumped from the reservoir over the shaft and
bearings to control the heat rise.
The basic enclosed circulating system con-
sists of a tank or reservoir, a pump, a pipe with a
flow control valve to each bearing and a drain from
each bearing back to the tank. ln addition, a {ilter
and a heat exchanger to cool the oil may be
req u ired.
A pressure system such as this will allow for
higher speeds and heavier loads.
The circulating lubrication system can be
used for erther friction oranti-f riction bearings, but
not both together.
As a general rule, a prernium grade oil is
seiected for this method to obtain maximurn hours
94 LUBRICATION
of service life between oil changes.
Oi! Mist Lubrication
Airloil mist lubrication is frequently recom-
mended for high-speed bearings and high-
velocity roller chain. The volume of oil supplied is
suff icient to provide an oilwedge, but not enough
to create foaming or oil churning that will lead to a
heat rise.
Careful attention must be paid to the cleanli-
ness of the oil and air supply, as small solid
particles of material can jam the jets.
Oil Quallty Checks
Cil in continuous use, such as in a splash
system or a fuel-circulating system with a pump,
will gradually deteriorate through oxidation and
exposure to other contarninants. A check on oil
quality can be either accurate or approximate.
To make an accurate oil quality check:
> Set up an in-plant laboratory test routine;
and/or
> Send samples to an approved testing laboratory
for a detailed analysis.
To make an approximate oil quality check:
> Fill one clean, clear glass container with new
oil;
> Fill a similar glass container with used oil that
has been taken from a machine that is either
running or has just stopped running; then
> Compare the two oils in the following ways:
o By smell
- as an oil oxidizes and picks up
impurities it develops a bad odour, so the two
samples will have different odours;
o By sight
- as an oil oxidizes and picks up
impurities it turns a darker colour. The darker
the oil, the more wear or the greater the
amount of impurities.
lf the used oil is the same colour as the
new oil, but cloudy or opaque, there may be
either dissolved air or water in the oil. Allow
the sample of used oil to settle for a period of
time (half an hour to an hour) and any
dissolved air will work out, leaving the oil
clear. lf the oil stays opaque, the usual cause
is water, which can be checked by heating the
oil to 212'F (100'C) to see if the water will
evaporate;
o By touch rub a sample of new oil between
-
thumb and f ingers, clean your hand, then rub
a sample of used oil between thumb and
fingers. The used oil will have a higher
viscosity due to oxidation and impurities and
should feel heavier. This test is not too
accu rate;
o By a pour test slowly pour a small amount
- a sheet of white paper or
of used oil onto
cardboard on a slight incline, and wateh for
bands of "colour". This is a test for metallic
particles in suspension. Steel particles will
show as "silver" bands while brass or bronze
particles wrll show as "gold" bands;
o By a magnet tesf
- drop a clean small magnet
into the used oil sample to check for ferrous
particles in suspension.
t
Grease
Greases are usually made by thickening a
lubricating oil with a soap.
As a general rule, the viscosity of the oil (
determines the lubricating quality and tempera-
ture range. Low-viscosity base oils are best for
low temperatures and high speeds; high-viscosity
oils are best for high temperatures and lowspeeds.
The thickener controls water resistance,
resistance to machine breakdown from constant
use, temperature range, and the ability of the q
grease to stay in place.
Soap content f or general use greases is
usually f rom 7 to 18 percent, but can be as low as 3 I
percent and as high as 50 percent for special
g reases.
Grease Types
Simple Soap Greases
Simple soap greases are made by combining I
afatty acid with one of the following base metals:
calcium, sodium, aiuminum, lithium or barium. I
> Calcium Soap (lime base) requires a small
- the oil/soap
amount of water to stabilize
structure. At about 175"F (80"C), the internal
water starts to work out, resulting in the soap
and oil separating. Calcium soap greases are
recommended for damp condiiions but not
high temperatures;
> Sodium Soap (soda base)- is soluble in water
but has a good high temperature range. Sodium
soap greases are only recornmended for dry I
(
conditions and high operating temperatures;
> Aluminum Soap
I
- gives stringiness to a grease
and is used where adhesiveness is important. (
V
Aluminum soaps are water-resistant but not
recommended for high temperatures;
> Lithium and Barium Soaps
- are recommended
for water-resistance and high temperatures, and
are therefore the most commonly used soap
greases.
Mixed Soap Greases
Mixed soap greases are made by combining
various types of soaps to extend the service life of
a grease. A grease using a mixture of calcium and
sodium soaps combines some of the water
resistance of a calcium base with some of the
high temperature resistance of a sodium base.
Note: Do not, in the plant, try mixing a small
amount of sodiurn base grease with a small
amount of calcium base grease and expect to get
a mixed soap base grease.
Complex Soap Greases
Cornplex soap greases are made from spec-
ial soaps to obtain a multi-purpose Erease.
Non-soap Greases
Non-soap greases are used to suit special
conditions of temperature, environment or
service life. Some common thickeners are carbon
black, silica gel and special clays.
Multi-purpose Greases
Multi-purpose greases are designed to allow
one grease to be used in place of three or four
separate grades. lt cuts down on inventory and
time of application, and prevents lubrication
errors. A multi-purpose grease corresponds to a
multi-purpose oil.
Extreme Pressure (EP) Greases
Extreme pressure (EP) greases.are designed
for shock loading or high local pressure areas,
These additives are usually compounds of
chlorine, phosphorous or sulphur. Molybdenum
disulphide (moly) is a common additive for
improving the anti-wear capacity of a grease.
Gnease Grades
Grease consistency is expressed by the
NLGI (National Lubricating Grease lnstitute)
classification system. Consistency is measured
by penetration numbers. A metai cone of a
def initeweight and surface area is allowed to sink
into the surface of a grease at 25.C. The amount
LUBRICATION
of penetration measured in tenths of a millimetre
is the penetration or penetration nurnber of a
g rease.
NLGI grades range from 000 for the softest
grade to 6 for the hardest grade (000-00-0-1-2-3-
4-5-6). Numbers one and two are common grades
for general plant use.
The dropping point is a specif ication require-
ment when it is important to know the temperature
at which a grease becomes fluid enough to drip.
This is not an accurate way to measure the heat
tolerance of a grease, but a grease with a dropping
point below the operating temperature of the
machine would obviously not be suitable.
The dropping point of common greases in
general ind ustrial use ranges f rom 275"F (135"C) to
360'F (182.C), but greases with lower or higher
dropping point temperatures are available.
Folar Attraction
The soap molecules are "polar", i.e., they
carry an electric charge which causes them to be
attracted to the electric f ield that extends a few
molecule lengths from most metaliic bearing
surfaces. This electrical attraction causes the
formation of a minute layer of soap molecules on
the metallic surfaces, which in turn attract
molecules of oil. This attraction anchors a very
thin film of grease to the bearing surface and
increases the lubricating ability of the grease.
Directional Fluidity
Grease has a peculiar characteristic called
directional f luidity:when movinE in a bearing, the
grease tends to "shear" into thin layers that move
in the direction of rotation. As the shearing speed
increases, the grease shears more readily. This
directional fluidity is encountered only in the
1
2
3
4
5
Layers ol Grease Shearing in a Bearing
 LUBRICATION

direction of the shearing force, and the grease lubricant must be sufficiently fluid to flow easily.
does not tend to run or be squeezed out of a During operation, however, the lubricant should
bearing like a liquid. Under shearing stress, the be heavy-bodied, viscous, and tacky. Some oils
apparent viscosity of the grease falls rapidly until and greases can be thinned enough for applica-
it approaches the viscosity of the oil used in its tion by heating them and applying them hot.
manufacture. When heating is not practical, diluted heavy-body
oils can be used. These oils are thinned with a
Grease Use non-inf lammable solvent which evaporates after
Grease use or choice of grease is set by: exposure to air, leaving the heavy oil to cover the
> The type, speed, temperature, and
s u rf ace.
environment
of the bearing or machine unit; and Oil can be applied to gears by a drip cup or oil
> The company policy as to choice of lubricants, can (see diagram).
means of application, and f requency of applica-
Very slow-moving gears can be lubricated
f rom a bottom pan; the grease is picked up by the
tion.
teeth of the larger gear and brought around to the
The temperature and speed will determine smaller gear or gears.
the weight or API number of the grease, while
temperature and enviranment will determine the
choice of soap base and the frequency of
lubrication required.
Compatibility of Grease Types
When using different grease types, take the
i ng p recauti ons:
fol I ow
> Do not mix greases f rom different companies in
the same bearing; and
> Do not mix various grease grades of the same
company in the same bearing.
ln theory, greases having the same type of
soap base are usually compatible, but there are
exceptions.
When speeds are medium, and load and
temperatures are moderate, a grease mixture
may be suitable, but with extremes, the mixture Drip Oiling
can fail to maintain a lubricating film or break
down rapidly. Enclosed Gears
Oil and Grease Lubrication Lubrication of gears depends on several
factors; the following are the most important:
Applications
-OpenSpecial
Gears
> The type of gear;
> The load;
> The speed;
> The temperature; and
Open gears are lubricated with a grease or
> The methods.
very heavy oil. The following conditions must be
considered: Worm-wheel gears and hypoid gears gener-
> The temperature; ate high pressure and considerable friction on the
> The method of application; contact line. A heavier oil or one with special
> The surrounding conditions; additives must therefore be used.
> The gear materials; and Regardless of gear form, the higher the unit
> The choice of oil. load on any gear tooth, the greater the pressure
When applied by a brush or paddle, the will be. When the pressure is too high, the oil f ilm
 LUBRICATION 97

Approximate Movement units or bevel-gear units, a single reduction

of Lines of Contact requires a light oil to suit the input gears, while a

N ---/- ,- *-.- .--=-

-- _-/- _-/l _,A- --
compound reduction needs a heavier oil to suit
the output gear mesh. The use of two oils can be
avoided by using a multi-purpose industrial oil.

ss*+J
--- /i--l-
-r/----l--\-
\ _\-_\
V---/
Temperature variations are inf luenced by the
physical environment and the heat rise of opera-
tion. During operation, the heat generated by
a
v Lines of
Tooth Contact
f riction and by the churning of oilwill increase the

temperature of the unit. Hypoid and worm gears

o
a Herringbone Gears
operate with a permissible rise of 90"F to 100"F
a Bearing Gears (50"C to 55"C) while other gear types run with an
a Bevel Gears estimated permissible rise of 40"Fto 50"F (22'Clo
o Spiral-Bevei Gears
28"C). Surroundings will cause a large tempera-
ture range. lf the gear set is in a heated building,
Lines of Tooth
the temperature variation will only be a few
degrees. lf the gear set is in an outside location,
the winter temperature may be so cold that the oil
will not flow properly. ln this case, the starting
-\e - temperature must be considered when selecting
an oil with a suitable pour point.
Any new gear unit will have the maker's
f----4-"'</ lubrication recommendations, giving either the
=-- - brand names and weight of three orfourdifferent
lubricants, or an AGMA lubricant number.
a Worm Gears lf a unit has no lubrication specifications, the
a Hypoid Gears
lubricant used in similar types of equipment
Contact Between Gear Teeth should be used on a trial basis.
can fail and metal-to-metal contact will take Note: Extreme temperature rise or other early
place. A heavier bodied oil or one with EP indications of trouble should be watched for
additives may be required if loads are extremely when doing a triai-and-error lubrication.
heavy. Gear wear may be reduced by using a
heavier weight oil than is usually recommended.
As a general rule, for parallel-shaft reduction

Deep Groove Ball & Cylindrical Roller Bearings Double Row Sell-Aligning Ball & Roller Bearings

-;'"i..l:
"::/,r''1
,l).1

rI
r/
V
(

t] Misalign the outer race and

Pack wrth grease well in betweer.l
and around balls or rollers, so that
on both sides the bearrng ls completely
ccvered.
i' pack grease weli ln between and
around balls or rollers, also re-
tainers and all available space on
both sidesof bearing after alignlng
ihe outer race.
 LUBRICATION

Anti-friction Bearings
Grease Lubrication
Grease should be selected for its consistency
at operating temperatures when it is f luid enough
to flow gradually into the bearing. A very soft
grease will have a tendency to churn and gener-
ate heat. lnstead of being submerged in grease,
the rolling elements operate in a channel and
flake off the grease as they rotate.
The spaces between the rings should be
f illed with grease after assembly and the housing
packed one-third full for high speeds and one-
half full for slow speeds.
After a few minutes of operation, the excess
grease carried by the separator and rolling
elements will be forced out into the housing void,
leaving the bearing to run on the correct amount
of lubricant.
Over-packing will cause churning of the
grease, higher temperatures, a reduction in the
lubricating value of the grease, and a shorter life Oil Lubricaled Ball Bearing
for the seals.
On low-speed applications with extreme Oil and Grease Comparison
conditions of moisture, dirt, or poor sealing, the
housing can be filled with grease. Excess grease Grease Advantages
will work out past the seal to form a secondary > lt is a good lubrication for heavy loads at
seal to keep out contaminants. low/medium speeds;
A grease gun is usually nof recommended for > lt requires relatively simple seals: grease leaking
the first filling of a bearing as there is no reliable out of a bearing tends to make its own seal;
check on the position of thegreaseortheamount > lt provides better start-up protection after short
of grease; overfilling until the grease leaks past periods of downtime;
the seals can cause seal damage. > lt gives better protection against rust during
A grease gun is the accepted way of adding periods of downtime; and
grease to a working bearing, but it should be used > lt tends to stay in place (this is a disadvantage
with caution. when changing grease in a bearing).
Oil Lubrication Oil Advantages
Oil must be selected to meet the temperature > lt is a good lubrication for high to very high
extremes, and must have additives to prevent speeds;
corrosion, foaming, and rusting. Oil is used for > lt develops less fluid friction than grease;
high-speed, or temperatures below zero and > lt has a flushing action that washes dirt and
above 200.F (93"C). solid contaminants to the bottom of the housing:
The oil bath normalty has the oil at a level that > lt can be used as a heat-exchange medium; and
covers the bottom of the outer race, but does not > lt can be removed easily from the housing.
cover the centre point of the lowest ball or roller.
Over-oiling produces churning and a rise in
temperature. ln high-speed conditions genera_
Safe Handling of Lubricants
ting heat, oil can be circulated and cooled, Petroleum-base lubricants present no un-
drawing heat away from the bearing and shaft. usual health hazards, providing that ordinary
care is taken to avoid extended contact with the
skin and inhalation of fumes.
 rl

LUBRICATION

The f ollowing saf ety routine will reduce

posslb/e hazards to health:
> Avoid skin contact by wearing p rotect ive
gloves, aprons, etc.;
> lf a protective hand cream is available, apply it
before starting work and after each time the
hands are washed;
> As soon as possible, remove any petroleum
product that gets onto the skin;
> Do not use gasoline, turpentine or other
solvents to remove oil or grease
- use
wateriess hand cleaner or a mild soap with
a

warm water and a brush, and clean the brush

after use;
> Use clean paper towels and discard them in
approved safety containers. Do not use dirty
cloth towels or wiping rags;
> Do not wear oil-soaked work clothes; check at
the wrists and cuffs for oil buildup;
> Wash the hands and arms caref ully at the end of
the shift or before eating;
> Get first aid for any cut or scratch; this is
important;
Avoid breathing oil mist or solvent fumes;
Keep the work area clean;
Dispose of waste or spilled petroleum products
in approved areas; and
> Keep spilled orwaste petroleum productsout of
sewers, streams, and waterways.
lf synthetic oils are introduced into the plant,
check with suppliers for any possible health
hazard.
Outside Storage
Drums exposed to weather are best left on
their sides, suitably blocked to prevent rolling,
and with both bungs on a horizontal line. lf the
drums must be stored upright, they should be
tilted by a block of wood under one edge to keep
water from collecting around the bungs. (When
drums are stored so that water can collect around
the bungs, changes in internal pressure, due to
temperature variations, can result in water being
"sucked" into the drum.)
1OO FRICTION BEARINGS

6. Friction Bearings

A riction bearing uses a rigid housing to hold

f only one or two of a kind are made in the plant
a liner material, which in turn supportsthe journal welding shop.
or shaft.
ln use, the shaft slides over the liner material, Friction Bearing Styles
separated by a thin film of lubricant. The area of
contact is relatively large and pressure on the The choice of bearing styles will depend on
bearing material is usuallY low. the load, the speed, the direction of pull, and the
ln an anti-friction bearing, the shaft rolls, the support design.
area of contact is very small, and the pressure on Regular or "Flat" Bearings
the rings and balls or rollers is quite high.
The principal parts of a friction bearing There are two kinds of "flat" bearings: so/id
housing are the base, the base bolt s/ofs, the cap, bearings or sp/lt bearings.
and the cap bolf s/ots. Solid BearinEs
cap Cap Bolts cap

Base Bolt

Journal Bearlng Solid Bearlng - "Dolly Box"

The housing ol a friction bearing is made of

one of the following materials:
> Cast iron or general use with light to medium
loads;
- f

> Cast stee/

- for general use. lt is stronger than
cast iron and can be used for light to heavy
loads; and
> Fabricated steel - for bearing housings, to
meet the requirements of special jobs. Usually Solld Bearlng Nomlnal Dlmenslons
 FRICTION BEARINGS 1O.I

Solid bearings, often called "dolly boxes", medium loads, and a four-bolt bearing is used for
are used when speed and load are low and a split medium to heavy loads.
bearing is not required. They are also designed to
be used in locations where the load is applied to
the top part of the bearing.
SoliC bearings are frequently mounted in an
inverted position to reduce the chance of the
bearing cap bolts breaking and the nuts working
off. They must be slid on or off the shaft, which
means that the bearings and the shaft must often
be put in as an assembled unit.
Angle Bearings
Angle bearrngs are used for drives where:
> The load is applied parallel to, or
slightly above
the horizontal; or where Two-Bolt Spllt Bearing
> The bearing is mounted on a vertical support.
The shape of the bearing will hold the shaft in
position without having to use the bearing cap,
r_n___l
making for easy installation and maintenance.

ltgl
Lt@l-l
F_D
B
lc-cJ
Nomlnal Dlmenslons
Base Bolt

Base Bolt

Angle Slyle Bearing

ls.- D
1ke)
F-c- --7
|
B

Nomlnal Dlmenslons

Split Bearings
Split bearings come in designs that vary f rom
B
one manufacturer to another.
A two-bolt bearing is used for light to Nomlnal Dlmensions
102 FRICTION BEARINGS

lntegrated Bearings block with the advantages of split construction,

and is suitable for side loading.
Some of the heavy-duty machines in indus-
trial plants are cast with the bearing base as an Friction Bearing Dimensions
integral part of the machine. These bearings are Some of the diagrams above show the
babbitted, or fitted with shells or liners, in the important dimensions for a standard journal
same fashion as any other journal bearing. beari ng.
The bearing itself is given a nominalsize -
Friction Bearing Joint such as a27/16-inch bearing (not a2.437S-inch
bearing). Other dimensions are also fractional
Design dimensions, not accurate decimal dimensions.
Dimension m is the distance f rom the base to
The design of the bearing joint should be the eye of the bearing (shaft centre) and is
considered when choosing a bearing f or a irnportant for installation and alignment.
specific job. Bearing joints are designed in two As a general rule, with bearings of the same
general styles: size, design, and service weight, from the same
> With the joint f lat (either horizontal or with a
slight V)
-
only the bolts hold the cap in
supplier, dimension m will be constant. However,
-
alignment; or
bearings from different suppliers may show
different values f or rn and other dimensions. i

Friction Bearing Liners c

Journal bearings and pillow block bearings ii

Angle Jolnt Angle Bearlng
> With a gib in the ioint
moving sideways.
- relatively stable with heat changes; and
with anti-friction material liners are commonly
used for low to medium speeds and for light to
heavy loads. They can also occasionally be used
for ultra high speeds with air jet lubrication.
When selecting liner material, the following
factors should be considered:
> lt should be softer than the shaft material, so
that it deforms slightly under heavy loads;
> lt should have a low coeff icient of f riction and be
wear-resistant;
> lt should be a good heat conductor, and remain
to keep the cap f rom
> The liner material should be easy to handle, and
readily available.
Classes of !-iner Materials
> Metallic liner materials consist of :

o Babbitt
- for general use;
o Brass (copper/zinc alloy); and
o Bronze (copper/tin alloy) for higher speeds
-
and heavier loading than babbitt;
c Aluminum (common in hydraulic pumps);
and

Load Area
Sintered bronze
o
- a porous bronze with its
own built-in oil supply.
Glb-lolnt Bearlng > Non-metallic liner materials consist of:
o Nylon;
A split bearing should be loaded on the o Polyurethanes, and
bottom half, unless the bearing is of gib construc-
tion. A gib bearing combines the rigidity of a solid
o Phenol laminates
(trade names).
- Celoron and Micarta
I
tr
ff
$
$
s
lti
Cf the tiner materials above, babbitt is the
il
only one that can be handled from start to finish
L
by the millwright; all the others require machine
iir shop preparation.
The metallic bearing materials have a low
coefficient of expansion and are dimensionally
stable in the presence of water, but they may
react chemically with water or mild acids, alkalies
or bases.
Nylons, polyurethanes and other synthetic
bearing materials called the ,,plas_
- sometimes
tic" bearing materials have varying coeff icients
of heat expansion, all - above those of metallic
bearing materials. ln addition, some synthetic
materials will expand when saturated with water.
Before doing any critical fitting, the specifi-
cations of the material should be consulted. Basic
nylon has a thermal expansion rate of roughly ten
times that of steel, and a fully saturated water
expansion of 0.0256 of an inch per inch of
material. Heat expansion is fairly constant
through the grades, but water expansion varies
from 0.025 of an inch to nil. This is important
when "dry fitting" a nylon bearing which will r.un
with water lubrication.
The advantage of nylon or plastic bearings is
that they are generally inert to most milO aCids,
alkalies, and bases.
The lubricant for nylon or plastic bearings
can be oil or grease, but water is also used. With
low rubbing speeds and low operating tempera_
tures, some grades of nylon will run with no
lu brication.
New Bearing
For babbitt or
other liner
material
FRICTION BEARINGS 103
Babbitt
The most common anti-friction lining mater_
ial for bearings is babbitt. lt melts at a tempera_
ture of about 5S0"F (2gg"C) or less, and in a liquid
state will f ill all cracks, voids, and irregularities in
a casting, while giving a smooth surface to match
the shaft surface.
Babbitt does not require any machine shop
work, as do bronze or synthetic shells. lt can also
be used in badly worn bearings, thus eliminating
the cost of a new bearing.
The term "babbitt,, includes several alioys
that contain various proportions of tin, copper,
antimony and lead.
Tin-based babbitts (copper or antimony,
with up to g0 percent tin) are the hardest and the
toughest. The introduction of a small percentage
of lead to a tin-based babbitt gives a stighily
softer materiai. Lead-based OaOOitts are those in
which the tin has been largely replaced by lead
(up to 10 percent tin and 75 percent lead). They
are cheaper and can be used for light loads at low
speeds.
Tin-based babbitt with a very high tin content,
or "nickel babbitt,,, as it is commonly called, is
used in conditions of heavy servlce and extreme
pressures.
When pouring babbitt, there are three tem_
peratures to consider:
> The complete melting point;
> The pour point; and
> The cornplete solidification point.
Worn Bearlng
Can be used again;
the babbitt fills up
the worn area,
104 FRICTION BEARINGS

Depending on the alloy, babbitt melts at considerable babbitting is being done, the most
between 495"F (275'C) and 545"F (285"C), and is common sizes of mandrels are fitted with side
poured at between 650"F (343"C) and 700"F pieces to facilitate positioning. Mandrels come in
(371"C). Complete solidif ication takes place at the following styles:
approximately 40" to 50"F (25'to 28"C) below the > Plain mandrel;
complete melting point. > Mandrel with side pieces; or
When pouring babbitt into special machines, > Smooth or nicked mandrel.
such as crushers or turbines, the instruction book
should be consulted for any special temperature
specification for the babbitt, the shaft, or the
housing; and forlhe amount of time to be allowed
for cooling.
lf babbitt is overheated, the service Iife of the
material is greatly reduced. Overheating babbitt is
equivalent to overheating an anti-friction bearing
to install it on a shaft; the physical shape will not
be altered, but the normal service life will be
reduced.
Babbitt in a bearing is held in position in the
Plain Mandrel
casting by keys, formed when the liquid babbitt
flows into holes or slots in the casting. The keys
prevent the babbitt from turning and hold it firmly
against the casting. Any bearing to be rebabbitted
must have the key grooves or holes cleaned out. - -t---

oo
o
Oe
o
oo
oo o
ooo
Mandrel with Side Pieces

Maintaining a shaft parallelto the base of the

bearing can be done in the following ways:

Holes Grooves
> By using equal size spacers;
> By using a mandrel with side pieces; or
> By setting the bearing on an even base and
blocking up the shaft with even spacers.

Babbitl Keys, Holes, Slots, and Grooves

Mandrels
A mand rel is a short, smooth piece of shaft of
the required diameter and several inches longer
than the widest bearing to be poured. When Side Piece Mandrel
T
tr
{ FRICTION
$
4
$
i:l
$
,1
i Putty is usually made by working asbestos
ti
Spacer to Hold Shatt at Correct Height
The spacers used to hold a plain mandrel
should be made of a non-metallic material that
will not burn or give off f umes when heated to the
melting point of the babbitt used. Square graphite
asbestos packing is commonly used. After the
bearing is f itted, the spacer can be removed and a
felt insert installed to act as a lubricant reservoir.
A mandrel raith side pieces, or wings, can
be quickly centred in the bearing, and then with
the cap bolted tightly down on the wings, the
babbitt pouring can be done with the bearing in a
vertical position.
When pouring several bearings, the use of
spacers or a "winged" mandrel will allow a
uniform amount of babbitt into the houslng, but it
may be impossible to obtain a constant distance
from the base of the bearing to the centre of the
shaft.
Mandrel parallel to base A & B even
Position of Mandrel
When the beanng base ls set up and the
mandrel is in position, some way of containing
the babbitt is needed. The common means is a
ring of heavy cardboard held in position by a
BEARINGS 105
backing of babbitt putty or mud.
f ibres with a small amount of steam cylinder oil or
any other heavy oil. Properly mixed, it will hold in
a ball or rope shape, with only a litfle tendency to
stick to the fingers.
Bearing base Cardboard spacer
Cardboard
Solid ring
- Putty
Babbitt Retainer Light pour
When there is a large volume of babbitt to be
poured, the cardboard ring is often replaced or
backed up by a ring of square packing that is
wired or clamped to the shaft.
Cardboard ring
with V for air
exhaust
Packins
ffi
Babbitt Retainer Heavy Pour
"Shorts" or asbestos f ibres can be bought by
the pound. lf there is a choice, the longest f ibre
available should be obtained, as it will make the
most effective putty. Commercial putty is usually
sold by bearing suppliers.
Another good backing for a heavy pour is a
shaft collar bolted against a ring of heavy sheet
packing, with alljoints covered by a heavy layer of
putty.
Bearings poured only in a vertical position
need to be on a smooth surface, with the mandrel
touching the surface, and with a ring of putty
around the outside circumference of the bearing
circle.
106 FRICTION BEARINGS

ladle when melting the babbitt. This will kee: S

the sleeve relatively cool and will make for a
comfortable Pour;
> Pour the babbitt at a steady rate;
> Pour the babbitt generously, allowing sorne
I overf low.
I

I
I
lf it looks as if the putty dam will not holc
I
I another person should stand by with a ball c'
I
putty on the end of a stick to stop any leaks whiie
I
the babbitt is poured continuously. Once a poL'
is started, it must be completed in order to obtal-
I
I

a continuous casting.
I
I

Safety Factors for Babbitting

I

Observe the foltowing safety factors whe'

babbitting a bearing:
Verlical Pour Bearlng on Smooih Slab
> Do not pour into a bearing/mandrel assemb u

Babbitting Routine
The procedure for babbitting is as fol/ows:
> Heat the babbitt to the correct temperature;
> Heat the shaft and mandrel to approximately
200"F (93'C);
> Make sure that there is no moisture present;
> Make sure that the end dams are right and that
the shaft is in line;
> Make sure that there is an escape path for any
heated air or fumes;
> Stir the babbitt and remove any dross f rom the
su rf ace;
> Wear the prescribed protective equipment, f ace
mitts, etc.;
shield,
> Keep feet f rom underneath the pour; if the putty
dam breaks or the babbitt leaks out, the
millwright can get a severe burn;
> lf the babbitt ladle handle is equipped with a
sliding sleeve, move the sleeve away from the
Sleeve for Pivot -
move to ladle when
pourlng
that has not been heated f irst to remove any f ree
water or surface moisture. Free water will caus:
a "blow back" or explosion, while surface
moisture can create very minor expansions an:
thus give a rough finish to the Pour;
> Do not pour in a location where there is a
chance of water dropping into the ladle o'
bearing while the babbitt is being poured. A-
explosion will result as the water changes intc
steam:
o Babbitt poured into a container of water w
not explode;
o Babbitt poured onto a f ilm of water on a part c'
on the f loor can cause minor explosions; an:
o Water dropping into f luid babbitt wiil cause a-
explosion.
> Use all protective equipment as called for:
o By the WCB (Workers'Compensation Boarc
rules and regulations; and
o By company safetY PolicY.
> When heating a ladle or pot of cold babbitt, hea:
from both sides and from the bottom. Do nc:
apply concentrated heat to the bottom only, as
the babbitt on the bottom will melt and expar:
and can either blow out the bottom of the pot o'
blow out up the sides of the pot in a thin strear
> Because of the tire hazard created by the hc:

tt^l
babbitt, make sure that f ire f ighting equipme-:
is on hand when babbitt is being melted out c'

IC)UltrJl the bearing and when the babbitt is beir:;

poured.

Babbltt Handle and Forge

 FRICTION BEARINGS 107

Split Journal Boxes

The procedure for pouring split journal
boxes is as /o//ows: rr // \\ tr
> First, pour the base and trim the excess babbitt
above the bearing edge down to the edge of the
casti ng;
Bearing lrne Babbitt higher than bearing line
rr
L rn -\\-S>- n* f rr
L-r I r!_l_.t

Split Journal Box rl

rt
> Next, put on the base shims of required thick- rl
ness so they fit tightly against the shaft and ll
mandrel and extend them under the bearing
cap; Shim Styles lor Pourlng Cap
> Finally, put the cap on, line it up with the
mandrel, and bolt it down securely.
Note: When pouring a cap, extra caution is
required to provide away fortheairtoescape. Air
vents are usually made at each end of the bearing
by cutting a small piece out of the retaining rinE
and leaving that opening clear when putting on
the putty.
lf the expanding air is not allowed to escape,
the result is often a faulty pour or a blow back.

Pourlng a Babbltt into a Cap

Pourlng the Babbltt

Bearing poured
surplus babbitt
108 FRICTION BEARINGS

Bearing caps are usually poured through the
centre oil hole, but babbitt can be poured into the
middle or into either end, if the proper openings
are made.
B Putty
A J"h f
lead, or soot from an acetylene flame. lf a tighl':
is not needed, brown paper wrapped around i-:
mandrel will allow it to be easily pulled out.
The housing and mandrel should be heaie:
before pouring. After pouring, the bearing
shrink as the housing cools and will hold "rtr:
babbitt. As the shaft cools, it shrinks away fro-
the babbitt.
When pouring a large number of one-piec:
, bearings of the same nominal size, a mandrel wit-

e t__H_) a taper of a few thousandths of an inch per focl

should be made; the taper will allow for eas;,
removal.
The large and small ends should be markec
Retaining ring cut to indicate where to apply force. The small enc
out for air vent often picks up a collection of hammer marks anc
must be checked for swelling.
Machine Pouring or Pouring in
Place on the Job
Babbitting procedure is essentially the same
"on the spot" as it is in the shop. When pouring on
Babbltt Pour ol a Bearing Cap the spot, the working shaft is generally used
instead of a mandrel. By this method, it is difficult
Babbitt can be poured in at point Aor at both to keep the babbitt f rom running out, and working
points B shown above. conditions are frequently awkward.
Split bearings can be poured in one operation Preparation for babbitting is critical, as the
by placing shims between the base and cap when shaft must be brought up to level or aligned to
bolting down the cap. The babbitt must be able to other parts of the machine. With no bearing
adjustment, the shaft position
flow through the small openings in the shims and
fill the bottom void. The disadvantage of this horizontal
- both verticaland
is most important.
method is that each opening forms a solid link
-
between the bearing halves, and the links are
Emergency Pouring
sometimes difficult to break. A situation sometimes arises when a bearing
burns out and has to be poured in a rush in order
[--,4.:1 to let the operation run to the end of a shift.
Emergency equipment required is: an oxy-
acetylene torch, putty, a pair of pliers and a cake
of babbitt.
) (
The procedure for emergency pouring is as
f ollows:
:-iOr-f
l^^Y^ - t
> Fit the torch with a large tip and melt out the
Shrms for Shims cut to pour remaining babbitt in the casting;
pouring tight both halves of split
> Smoke the shaft with a straight acetylene f lame;
agai nst bearing at one
beari ng trme > Put a putty dam around the shaft and bearing;
Shims Tighl Againat the Bearing lor Pouring a Babbitt > Hold the babbitt with a pair of vise grips or
pliers; and
> Melt it into the bearing with the torch.
One-piece Bearings
This method is effective for temporary work
When pouring a solid pillow block lhe on bearings with low-speed shafts.
mandrel should be coated by a thin layer of white
 FRICTION BEARINGS 109

Note: Keep a f ire extinguisher handy, as the oil on The top edge of the bearing must be cham-
the outside of the bearing will often catch fire f ered almost to the corners to channel the
from the torch. lubricant to the shaft. The amount of chamfer is
usually a matter of individual preference, but the
Fitting a Bearing for chamfer for grease lubrication is often greater
than the chamfer for oil lubrication.
Contact
Any bearing (regardless of shape or friction
material) must be prepared carefully in the
following areas:
Chamfer for oil
> The surface finish and area of contact; Do not cut to end
> The running clearance;
> The lubrication entry (f or setting up the oil
wedge); and
> The groove or grooves (for distributing the
lu bricant).

After the bearing has been babbitted, it must

be relieved, fitted, and grooved before it is ready
for service. The babbitt as it is poured, fits
perfectly to the shaft and allows no clearance for
a lubricant.
The corners of the bottom half of the bearing
must be relieved to keep the shaft from binding.
Bearing with Chamlered Corners

To obtain a better lubricant entry, the

Bearing with Relieved Corners (Amount Exaggerated
lor lllustration)
chamfer can be extended on the entry side,
almost down to the area of contact between the
shaft and bearing material.
Another alternative is to cut an oil groove in
the centre of the bearing to help maintain an
effective oil wedge. (This method is used mainly
for casual marginal lubrication.)

Bearing surf Bearing Chamtering and Grooving Special

relieved otr - Chamfer
scraping Curved chamfer

Rotation
110 FRICTION BEARINGS

Note: Grooving or chamfering must not be groove is cut with a round nose or cape chisel,
extended into the load area or the high-pressure any high spots should be removed with a scraper.
film area of the bearing.
Checking for Contact
To check a bearing for contact, a mandrel or
shaft can be lightly coated with mechanic's
bluing, and rotated in the bearing. The bluing
wipes off at the points of contact and transfers to
the bearing surface to show the high spots. For a
good impression, bluing should be put on in a
light, smooth, even coat.
Note; Layout ink should nof be used.
An untouched bearing has high points along
the edge that must be removed by scraping, to
allow the shaft to make contact with the bottom of
the liner. Fitting for all contact is usually done
after the chamfers and/or oil grooves have been
cut.
Bearing Cap Oil Grooves
Untouchec Relieved and Relieved, chamfered
pour. Contact chamfered. and scraped contact As a general rule, regardless of the load put
points all on Contact points mostly on bottom.
edge. mostly below on a split bearing, the groove is cut in the centre
chamfer but of the bearing cap. The bearing in the diagram
not on bottom. below has a load applied to the side of the bearing
(horizontal) and is shown with the oil supply and
groove in the recommended location.
0
! 0o Note; Grooves should always be cut in the
0 o unloaded section.
0
00 o
0 c A one-piece bearing or dolly box used in an
0O co inverted position may need to be lubricated
0
0
0o through the base of the bearing.
0
0
00 (.(
a un
0
00 tt
0 0
0
D

Fltting Bearing for Contact

Grooving
For a good distribution of lubricant, the Chamfer
bearing cap should be chamfered and relieved in
the same way as the base and the groove. /t\
The groove should not be cut to the outside V\ \

of the bearing or rt will allow the lubricant to work <-

out without contacting the shaft. A straight Load
groove is usually sufficient, but sometimes an X-
groove is put in, on the theory that the combina-
tion of shaft rotation and X-grooves will spread
nore lubricant to the edges of the bearing. lf the Special Grooving for Horizontal Loading

Clearance in a Bearing
When a bearing is assembled, there must be a
small amount of clearance between the shaft and
the bearing cap.This prevents a binding or
clamping action.
The bearing halves must have between them
the originalshim used for babbitting the cap, ora
shim of the same thickness, and an additional thin
shim. The cap and base are then tighily bolted
together and the shaft or mandrel tried for
rotation.
With a gib-style pillow btock, if the shaft does
not rotate, more shims must be added.
With a f lat split bearing, the cap can be pulled
siightly to one side by the cap bolts, and a few
sharp blows with a ball peen hammer will align
the cap. lf this does not work, more shims will be
needed until the shaft turns freely.
Nofe: Shims should not touch the shaft and
should be shaped to clear the chamfer cut in the
babbitt.
The figure above right illustrates a fitted
bearing with shims in place and clearance in the
cap.
Shims can be made from cardboard, sheet
packing, tin plate, brass shim stock or almost
anything that will not compress and is not
affected by oil. Slip-in shims are used in gib-style
blocks or any split block.
This type of slip-in shim may be tost if the
bearing cap becomes loose, but the advantage is
that it can be inserted or pulled out after slacking
off the bearing cap.
Shim Styles
Shim lor 2-bolt bearing
FRICTION BEARINGS 111
lr
1l
1l
rl
Bearing Shims in Place
Shims made to fit over the cap bolts will not
get lost, but the bearing cap must be taken off to
adjust the amount of shim (as in the two illustra_
tions below).
Clearance Checks
The amount of clearance set into a friction
bearing will depend on machine design and
company policy. Some machines with a constant
load toward the base of the bearing do not have a
fitted cap (the cap merety keeps out foreign
material and supplies the lubricant).
As a general rule:
> For any shaft/bearing assembly with constant
one-direction load and rotation, bearing clear-
ance can be from medium to loose;
> For any shaft/bearing assembly with reversing
rotation and fluctuating load, bearing clearance
can be from medium to tight (see tables); and
> For any shaft/bearing assembly with recipro-
cating action, the clearance must be tight (see
ta b les).
Shim lor 4-bolt bearing
Narrow shim for qrb
or any style bearing
 Y

112 FRICTION BEARINGS

Lead wire
The first clearance check on a bearing is to
try to turn the shaft by hand. lf it doesn't turn, the .\
bearing is binding on the shaft; if it does turn,
there is clearance in the bearing. This method will /-\
not tell you how much clearance there is in the \_/
bearing. (When f itting small bearings in the shop,
clearance is usually determined by working a
feeler gauge between the shaft and the shimmed Flattens out
cap.) under pressure
ln large bearings that have been poured in
place, it may be impossible to turn the shaft, and
steps must be taken to check the clearance under
the cap. There are several ways of doing this; for
some, the cap must be removed, and for others, it
is not necessary. Fuse or Lead Wlre Check lor Bearing Clearance
lf the bearing is open at either end, long
pieces of feeler stock can be inserted to check f or with a micrometer. This takes time and may have
clearance under the cap. When a bearing is to be repeated severai times.
shietded at both ends by gears or pulleys, the Plastic gauge stock, commonly used in
simplest way to check is to mount a dial indicator, automotive or heavy-duty fitting, can be used
and pry or jack up the shaft, and watch the instead of lead wire for industrial bearings.
reading on the dial. A wire check iob, properly done, requires the
following preparation and record keeping:
Dial indicator
> Use common sense in choosing the diameter of
the wire; if the expected clearance is in the0.010
- 0.015-inch range, pick a wire size slightly
larger in diameter:
> Number each wire on the shaft;
> Have a record sheet handy, with space to record
the readings of each wire;
Jack or pry in > Take the cap off caref ully: some wires may stick
small weights to it; and
> Record the thickness of each compressed wire,
starting f rom the same end of each wire, and
taking the wires in sequence.
Dlal lndleator Check Bearlng Clearance
This routine should give an accurate reading of
Jacks must be mounted at both ends of the the high and low spots in the bearing.
shaft to lift the shaft evenly for an accurate
Clearance Check in Worn Bearings
reading. lf a jack is mounted at only one end of the
shaft, the shaft will tilt in the bearing, and give a The same routine used for checking new
false reading. bearings can be used to check a worn bearing for
Dial indicator reading will give the total Figure b
clearance in a bearing but will not indicate the
high and low spots. Wear checks must be done by
visual inspection.
Without a dial indicator, the bearing cap must
be taken off and lengths of lead wire placed
across the shaft in several places. The wire
should reach from one edge of the base to the
other to check for pinehing at the corners of the
cap. The cap is tightened down, then taken off
again and the thickness of the lead wire measured Bearing Wear
- Excesslve Contact
 FRICTION BEARINGS 113

excessive clearance, ln addition, the worn Babbllt Flnlshlng Tools

bearing can be scraped to improve the lubricant
entry and surface f inish.
Figure a represents a new bearing installation
with a chamfer cut to allow oil to reach the point of
contact.
Figure b represents a worn bearing, with a
small, inadequate chamf er and an excessive
amount of bearing contact.
For proper fitting, the bearing in figure b
should be scraped until it resembles figure a.

Tables ol Recommended Clearances

Recommended Clearances lor Lubricated
Bearlngs; Dlameter Dlllerence in lnches

Medlum Flt Free Flt

Below 600 rpm Aboye 600 rpm
Journal
Dlam (ln.) Tlghtesl Fil Loosest Flt Tlghlest Fll Loosest Flt

1/4 0.0004 0.0014 0.0006 0 0022

1/2 0.0006 0.0018 0.0009 0.0029
3/4 0.0007 0.002 1 0.0012 0.0036

1 0.0009 0.002s 0.0014 0.0040

1 1/4 0.0010 0.0028 0.0016 0.0044
1 1/2 0.0012 0.0030 0 0018 0.0047
1 3/4 0.00.13 0.0033 0.0020 0 00s2

2 0.0014 0.0034 0.0022 0.0054

21/4 0.0015 0.0035 0.0024 0.0058
2 1/2 0.0017 0.0039 0.0026 0.0062
2 3/4 0.0018 0.0041 0.0028 0.006s

3 0.0019 0.0043 0.0029 0.0067

31/4 0.0021 0.0045 0 0032 0.0072
4 0.0023 0.0049 0.0035 0 0077
4 1/2 0.0025 0.0051 0.0038 0.0080

5 0.0026 0.0054 0.0041 0.0085

6 0.0030 0.0060 0.0046 0.0094
7 0.0033 0.0063 0 0051 0 0101
I 0.0036 0.0068 0.0056 0 0108

Types of Hand Tools

Hand tools, such as scrapers, used for fitting
bearings, can either be commercial or made in
the plant to suit the millwright's preference.
Scraper design has either:
> A curved cutting surface, common to commer-
cial scrapers; or
> A straight cutting surface, common to many Spoons
\J
1

2, Flat File or
homemade scrapers. Cutting Machinists
Point File
The scraper profile has a bearing on the Curve to J. Triangular File
surface f inish; a curved scraper tends to produce Suit 4. Groove Cutter
Groove Cutter
a "wave" f inish, while a straight scraper produces
Cape Chisel
a "f Iat" finish.
114 FRICTION BEARINGS

Ho,.re-a0e scrapers with smooth, sharp metallic or non-metallic bearing materials.

edges ca- 3e made from various kinds of files:
mill basta': ralf-round, machinists' or triangu-
lar-grou'r ' es. They should be ground slowly
and care', ., lo prevent burning or local hot spots
that wiil .-a-ge the temper of the steel.
Fitting shells for surface finish, lubrication
entry, clearance and lubrication is done by the
same procedures as for cast bearings.
J
i

Tinning for Babbitt Bearings -I--

Crush

Pou'=: :'cast bearings must be done in

thick wa s..iions, so that suff icient strength and
rigidity u, 33 obtained from the liner material.
For clea':-:e control, wear allowance for the
bearing -:. !e in the range ol 1/16 to 1/8 of an
inch w t-: -: causing machine problems other
than sf' - e:. Jstment.
Tin" ') s done when a thin skin of babbitt
must be' -- .. attached to a metallic backing. The
process ,ar to that used in brazing a brass
coati n g :eposit on a steel or cast iron
housi ng : requires a heat source such as an
oxyacet.' lr propane torch.
The :'-:.2ure for tinning is as foliouzs:
> Clean i-: :.:<ing-eithergrind off ormachine
the bea'-: :cwn to clean metal;
> Slowly -::: :^e bearing with a torch and apply
the tinr -: ::rnpound. When the casting is at
the cor.:--'=-cerature, the tinning compound
will star::- *. t and cling to the metal. Oxides
and im;-"::s will float on top of the tinning
compo --: i-c must be wiped off until the
surface : - :a'r and bright. Do not use wiping
rags mar; '':- synthetic materials, as they will
melt;
> Floatc- : :- r coat of 50/50 solder (some
mechar :-: this step); and
> Pour or -:: l.t a thin overlay of babbitt. The
babbitt Z: Z' -:st be thick enough to allow or f
Shell Crush
- Clearance
When shells are first installed, they fre-
quently extend past the face of the bearing by a
small amount, which is known as the "crush" or
the "crush allowance". ln this way, when the
cap and other shell half is installed and the
fasteners are torqued to the correct tension, the
shells will be forced into full contact with the
housi ng.
lf the shells are machined for the bearing,
the crush allowance should not be changed.
She//s can be installed and used in two
cases.'
> Where there is no adjustment tor wear, i.e.,
when shells are worn a certain amount, they are
replaced (automotive use is a good example);
and
> Where there is adjustment for wear obtained by
shims between the cap and the base. To obtain
effective crush or clamping action, the shims
must be between the shell halves as wel/ as
between the cap and base.

finishir: a-::(pected wear. Properlydone, the

babbitt 3.":' r, ll only be a few thousandths of
an inc- :- :. cut will not separate from the
backi nc

Preformed Bearing Liners

Shells
lr /r
lt il
tr
She : r-e two-piece liners which are 1l
ll
I

il
installe: - = :earing housing. They are usually
I
I
I

held in ::: : ln by pins or dowels, screws, .- -t

I

specia :::" rg designs, compression, or

combira: : -: :f these. Bearing Shims in Place
Sl.e *::erials consist of the common

Machine design for a bearing may require
shells in contact, but the bearing base and cap
must be separated by shims. The thicknessof the
shims is important when the bearing is f irst f itted,
so that the correct pressure on the liners may be
obtained.
The number of shims removed in any reduc-
tion of bearing clearance must be matched by a
corresponding amount machined or f iled off the
shell edges.
Reduction of Bearing Clearance Shell Filing
-
One advantage of shell liners is that in some
machine designs, the worn liner may be removed
by taking the weight of the shaft off the liner (by
removing the cap) and rolling out the worn liner.
Hold base liner against
shaft. Rotate liner and
remove. Roll in new
liner rn same manner.
Rolling Out a Worn Shell Liner
Bushings
Bushings are one-piece liners and can be
made f rom any of the common beari ng materrals.
Fit and clearance is usually set by the
drmensions machined into the housing and
bushing. Holding in position is done by a press f it,
a press fit and dowels, or by dowels with the
clamping action between the cap and the base.
FRICTION BEARINGS 115
Small bushings can be reamed to bring the
bore to the correct diameter, whereas large
diameter bushings often require honing or
scrapi ng.
lf the bushing is supplied with an oil hole, the
oil hole must be aligned with the supply line when
pressing in a bushing. With some bushings, the
oil hole may be drilled after installation and
should therefore be scraped to remove any high
spots caused by the drill pushing through the
surf ace.
There is no adjustment for clearance on a
bushing: when the bushing is worn it must be
rep laced.
Thrust Control
Th rust control is obtained by the use of other
components or bearing design. Friction bearings
are usually considered radial load bearings with
li m ited th rust capacity.
ln the diagram below, the thrust is controlled
by a shaft collar a f astened on the shaft, or by the
thrust washer b backed by the sprocket or any
other hub. Such a design is good for low speeds,
light to medium, oft/on thrust loading, and simple
lu brication.
a
Thrust Control in a Friction Bearing
116 FRICTION BEARINGS

f he liner materialthat covers the ends of the on a brass backing. Each surface is separated
bearings can be either a solid babbitt pour in the by a lubricant groove and has a chamfer or
bearing, or it can consist of shells made of brass, slope on the leading edge to set up an oil
bronze, or brass shellwith a tinned quality babbitt wedge.
wear face.
ln the diagram below, there are six contact
End thrust is controlled by the shaft shoulder
surfaces, each with its own oil supply and
and a collar that adjusts the amount of end float.
chamfer for setting up an oil wedge.
The bearing is shown being submerged in an
oil bath, with the oil flow from the centre of the
ring to the outside, due to the centrifugal force of
the bushing ring throwing the oil to the outside.
Lubricant must be supplied to the centre of the
End Thrust Shell Bearlng bearing.
The shaft shoulder may not be high enough
to provide a sufficient area of contact, in which
case a collar or a machine component may be
added in contact with the bearing surface. This
style of thrust is goodfor high-speed applications.
The diagram below is an illustration of a
Revolving Ring
bearing design that gives both radial and thrust
capacity without the use of other components.
The shaft has a number of parallel grooves which
match grooves in the liner material. Liner material
can either be babbitt, cast in place in the housing,
or shell liners that have been machined to suit the
shaft profile. There is no adjustment for end
thrust control, and lubrication can be a problem.

Stationary Ring
Klngsbury Thrust Bearlng

Kingsbury bearings also come in the follow-

Speclal Radlal and Thrust Bearlng ing styles:
Kingsbury Thrust Bearings > lndividual load blocks, which are pivoted on the
fixed ring to adjust for thrust and load; and
The Kingsbury is a special thrust bearing > A backing for a f ixed bearing, which has a
designed to take high speeds and heavy loads. lt convex shape and f its into a mating housing to
comes in a variety of styles. allow for minor misalignment. This is the same
The basic design consists of: idea or design that is used for anti-f riction
beari ngs.
> A revolving ring with a flat contact surface,
usually hardened and ground;
>A stationary ring with a number of flat contact
surfaces of a friction material
- either brass,
bronze, or a tinned-on, high-capacity babbitt
 ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS 117

7. Antl-friction Bearings

BearinE Parts
Basically, all anti-friction bearings consist of
two hardened steel rings, the hardened balls or
rollers, and the separator. A number of variations
of these types are in use. Some types, such as
needle roller bearings, may be used without an
inner ring, the rollers fitting directly onto the
hardened shaft. Needle bearings have no separa-
tor. Outside
The parts common to all standard ball and diameter
roller bearings have, for the purpose of this
manual, been given the names shown below. I

-J
OD Corner
l
Shoulders Tapered Roller Bearing

Bore
corner

lnner ring
/ ball race
Roller

Bore corner
Separator Outside Shoulders
diameter

Outer ring
ball race
Bearing Parts anci Their Names
Separator

Slraight Roller Bearing

118 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

Outside drameter

OD corner

Needle Bearing

llk-- J
Lenqtn

Spherical Bearing

Roller Thrust Bearing

Retaining
cup Types of Load
Needle Bearing Bearings are classified according to load
cond itions:
Rolling Elements > Radial Load
The rolling elements of antr-friction bearings - a maximum or total radial load
means that the bearing moves in a radial
are classif ied by three basic bearing styles: direction, with little or no thrust load. Examples
> Ball bearings; are the single-groove roller bearing and the
> Roller bearings: needle bearing,
> Thrust Load a pure thrust load means that the
n Spherical; -
bearing moves in only one direction, with no
r Cylindrical;
o Tapered; and radial load. An example is the standard thrust
> Needle bearings beari ng;
> Combination Thrust and Radial Load
ples are:
o Tapered roller bearings;
o Ball bearl ngs with angular contact; and
o Spherical roller self-aligning bearings.
Some types of loading are "recommended"
according to specificatrons.
An example of recommended loading is the
single-groove radial ball bearing. The recommen-
Ball Thrust Bearing ded loading is mainly radial with a light thrust,
but some catalogues give it an axial capacity
Radial Ball Bearing equal to radial capacity. The radial capacity is
 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS 119

continuous, while the axial loading is momentary

or short time. Anti-friction Bearing
Radial Angular Angular Construction
I
i

i Anti-friction bearings may also be classified

i
i according to their construction:
l
a, \, w 4__--
Types of Load
Ball bearings have a low to medium capacity
load while roller bearings usually have a low to
high capacity load.
Speed
The speed of a bearing can be expressed as
either rpm, or as "rubbing speed".
Ball bearings are generally suited to high-
speed applications and roller bearings are suited
to low-speed locations.
Speed is relative, as some makes of roller
bearings are said to be good for speeds up to
20,000 rpm. Speed can be restricted by insuffi-
cient lubrication and inefficient heat transfer
f rom the bearing.
Bore
Bearings may have either a straight or a
tapered bore. A standard taper has a ratio of 1:12,
and the bearing code number will end with "K".
A less common taper is 1:30, (code suffix K30).
Dimensional Sizes
Practically all bearings are made to metric
dimensions. The dimensions OD, bore, andW are
indicated in millimetres. These are matched to
the standard code markings on the bearing ring.
To find the bore of bearings over 20 mm multiply
the last two bearing numbers by five.
Axial > Non-sepa rable Bearings where the bearing is
- groove radial ball
a unit, such as a single
bearing or a double spherical roller bearing;
Separable Bearings
>
consists of:
- where the bearing
o Three separate parts: an outer ring; separator
and rolling units; and an inner ring, such as a
ball thrust or needle thrust bearing; or
r Two separate parts: one separate ring with the
rolling element, and a separator combined
with the other ring, such as a separable
cylindrical roller bearing;
> Non-aligning Bearings
- for use in machines
where the bearings are held in alignment by the
bore or bores in the housing;
> Self-aligning Bearings
- examplesmounting;
c Pillow blocks for independent
are:
these are external self-aligning;
o Double ball or roller types for heavy-duty
loading; these are internal self-aligning; and
. Single barrel roller types for light loadinE;
these are internal self-aligning.
Spherical Bearing
Self-aligning bearings can be identif ied by
the curved surface of the outer ring, which gives a

Example:A 6208 ball bearing has a bore of 8x5 _

40 mm.
Bearings seldom come with dimensions in
inches. A possible exception couid be an old
English worm and wheel reduction unit, with
bearings in British Standard measure, or inch
dimensions. Correct I ncorrect

Self-aligning Bearings
120 ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS
c'orce of positions for the balls or rollers. The
degree of allowable misalignment is slight, as the
cails or rollers must be in contact with the outer
r rg at all times.
Seruice or Degree
of Loading
Service weight or service use is a means of
classifying bearings with the same rolling ele-
ment and bore for their load capacity.
As the rated load capacity is increased, the
diameter of the rolling unit and the width and
thickness of the rings are increased.
The service weight is shown in the code
number of the bearings. Common groups are
extra light, light, medium, and heavy-duty, but
other grades are also available.
100 200 300 400
Series Series Series Series
Bearlngs wllh the Same lnner Dlameler,
but a Larger Ouler Diameter and Load Capacity
M ax i m u m capacity, si ng le-row-deep, g roove
ball bearings have a higher radial capacity than a
"Conrad" or limited single-row-deep groove ball
bearing. This is obtained by cutting loading
notches in the shoulders of the inner and outer
rings, which allows the addition of more balls
between the races. These bearings are not
suitable f or thrust loading on the loading groove
side of the ring.
Maxirnum Conrad type
Capacity TYPe
Shields and Seals
The following bearinEs use shields and seals
to prevent foreign or unwanted material f rom
entering the housing:
> Open Bearings - are used in the following
locations:
o Where foreign material is kept out of the
housinE by shaft lip seals or the equivalent; or
o Where the lubricant is expected to work
through the bearing from one side to the
other;
> Shielded Bearings (one or both sides) - are
used in the following locations:
o Where the bearing is exposed and the shield
will keep out solids but not fluids; or
o Where the lubricant is allowed to leak out of
the housing;
> Sea/ed Bearings (one or both sides)
in the following locations:
- are used
o Where the bearing is exposed and the sealwill
keep out solids and f luids; or
o Where the lubricant is to be kept in the
beari ng.
Sealed and shielded bearings - such as
pillow block cartridges
- are used in very dirty
arrd abrasive conditions.
When replacing a bearing with a single shield
or seal, care must be taken that the new bearing
has the seal or shield in the same position as the
original installation.
Example:A sealed bearing on the input shaft of a
small hydrauiic pump is lubricated by the hy-
draulic fluid. The seal prevents f luid loss to the
outside; if the seal is reversed, the bearing will run
d ry.
Bearing Code
This section will cover the basic code for
standard ball bearings and spherical roller
bearings with metric dimensions. For information
about the long list of prefixes, suffixes, and
special bearings, consult a bearing manufactur-
er's catalogue.
Tapered roller bearings with separate codes
for the cup and for the cone have a standard code
designation for tapered roller bearings only.
A bearing code gives three pieces of informa-
tion:
 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS 121

> The type of rolling element; Example 2' SKF 22208K

> The service weight; -
> The bore in millimetres 22 - double spherical rolter, self-aligning
except for:
o Small bore bearings; and
- 2 - service
o K-suffix bearings. 08 bore
K - tapered bore
The placement of the bearing code number
-
in respect to the shaft makes no difference to the Both of these bearings will fit on an adapter
service life of a bearing. However, it does help the sleeve that has a code number ending in g, and
millwright to identify the bearing if the code will fit into the same bore housing.
numbers face the end of the shaft. C Numbers
The basic print details for standard ball Bearing numbers are stamped into the
bearings are as follows: bearing rings when manufactured. There arefive
grade designations for bearings other than
Example 7: SKF 6208
- standard ball or roller, based on the degree of
6
single-groove radial Conrad style clearance:
- service
2 weight > C1
- indicates that the clearance is less than
08-08X5-40mmbore C2:
-
> C2
Example 2: SKF
- 6308 - indicates that the clearance is less than
standard;
Compared to the 6208 bearing, the 6308 > C3
bearing will have: - indicates that the clearance is more than
standard; and
> The same style of rolling element - 6;
> Heavier service weight
> C4
C3;
- indicates that the clearance is more than
> The same bore
- 3; > C5 clearance is more than C4.
- 08 X 5; but -
> A different OD and a different width
bv 3.
- indicated The C'1 to C5 numbers are hand-etched onto
the bearing rings and are for special use only.
Example 3; SKF 22209
- Clearance
22- double spherical roller, self-aligning style The definitions of different clearances are as
2- service weight follows:
08-08X5-40mmbore
> Clearance, or Diametral Clearance (DC)
Compared to the 6208 bearing, the 22208 is
bearing will have: the space between the rolling member and- the
outer ring of a bearing, measured with the
> The same OD - indicated by 2; bearing resting on a table or stand;
The same bore
>
- indicated by
> Different rolling elements
08; but
6 single ball, and
Clearance on large diameter bearings
- should be checked with the bearing suspended
22 double spherical; and on a bar through the inner ring. This is because
> Different widths single vs. double. the weight of the outer ring tends to change the
-
shape from a circle to an oval when the bearing
Basic print details for common pillow block is resting on a table or stand;
bearings are as follows: > lnitial Clearance, or Uninstalled Clearance
Example 7; SKF 1208K the clearance in the bearing as it comes from - is
- the box;
1 - double ball self-aligning > lnstalled Clearance
2 - service - is the clearance left in the
bearing after installing it on a shaft and in a
08 - bore housing, or the elearance left in a taper-bore
K tapered bore bearing that has been forced up the taper; and
- > Running Clearance
- is theisclearance
bearing when the machine
in the
up to operating
temperature and lubrication has been supplied.
122 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

lnitial clearance -_ 0.0015"

lnterf erence 0.0001"
lnstalled clearance - 0.0014"
This installation has low holding power, but a lot
of clearance is left.
The mean interference with a k5 fit and 40
mm bearing is 0.0006" "tight".

1.5753" 1.5748"
1.5749" 1.5743"

Clearances

lnterference Fits Shalt and Bearings

- Dimensions lor Fit
The purpose of the interference f it (press or
shrink) is to hold the bearing ring in position and ln the diagram above, the bore size is tor a40
also to reduce the diametral clearance to a mm bearing. The DC is supplied. ISO figures are
specified amount. for a k5 fit on the shaft (bearing-seat diameter).
There is a definite relationship between the Seat
amount of interference in the shaft and bearing
ring, and the amount of clearance left in the J
bearings after installation.
The shaft and bearing diagrams below have
dimensions taken f rom Shaft and Housing Fits to
/SO Standards, available in any bearing manufac-
turer's catalogue. The DC has been simplified to
- T---
0.001 5" for demonstration purposes. Shalt and Bearings Dimensions lor Fil
-
40 mm bore has max 1.5748"
,n, -- rsr4y ln general, with any parallel bore bearing, the
greater the interference f it, the less clearance is
k5 shaft f it has max 1,5753" left in the bearing.
,, -= 15149' The usual bearing installation has one ring
with an interference fit, and another ring with a
Extreme range of fits are: push fit.
The general rule in mounting a straight bore
Maximum shaft diameter- 1.5753"
Minimum bore 1.5743" bearing is that the rotating ring is a press f it and
- the nonrotating ring is a push fit. Some installa-
lnterf erence - 0.0010" tions use a press fit on both rings.
lnitial clearance 0.0015" Most bearing applications require an inter-
-_ ference to a tight fit between the shaft and
lnterf erence 0.0010"
lnstalled clearance 0.0005" bearing inner ring. This can be obtained in three
- ways. drive, press, or shrink.
This installation has good holding power, but
little clearance is left. Creep
Minimum range of fits are: Creep is the very slow rotation of the "push
fit" bearing race. This changes the contact area
Minimum shaft diameter 1.5749", on the raceway and extends the bearing life. One
Maximum bore - 1 .57 48', rotation of the ring by creep will require several
- 0.0001" thousand revolutions of the rest of the bearing.
lnterf erence -
 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS 123

Shaft Check ln the diagram below, a plate distributes the

force of the blows, but a block of wood would be
Before installing any bearing, the shaft suitable.
should be checked for: The bearing must be started "square" and
> Diameter; then driven home. The tube and the plate must be
> Roundness; c lea n.
> Any surface damage that will cause high spots
on the bearing seat;
> General f inish; and
> Any damage to the shoulder supporting the
inner ring.
When using an emery cloth to improve shaft
conditions, care and common sense should be
observed. On small-diameter bearing seats, a
vigorous rubbing down with emery cloth may
remove most or all of the interference built into
the shaft diameter.
After checking the shaft, it should be wiped
clean and given a coat of light oil. With a press f it,
company policy may require the use of an anti-
seize compound, (definitely not white lead).
Housing Checks
Housing checks follow the same basic
routine used for shafts. lf the housing is split, the
corners should be checked for damage and
corrected if necessary.

"Squared" Bearing Driven Home

An alternative to the tube and plate can be

made by boring a suitable length of shaft to the
correct diameter.
lf a fair amount of bearing work is being
Correct Raised corners done, a set of tubes should be built up to make the
ncorrect
-
Housing Checks
I
work faster and easier.

Drive Fit
Drive fits are used with small bore bearings.
Drive f it procedure is as follows:
> Make sure that the tube:
o ls square on the ends;
o Bears only the inner ring;
. Clears any threads or shoulders in the shaft;
> Make sure there is sufficient length to keep the
plate from contacting thO end of the shaft; and
Driving or Press Tube
> After the bearing is driven home, turn the outer
ring by hand to check f or drag or f oreig n matter.
124 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

Press Fits same thickness, and can be placed either parallel

to, or across the groove.
The bearing can be pressed onto the shaft, or The support blocks in the diagram below
the shaft pressed through the bearing, depending touch both the inner and outer rings.
on the shaft desig n and weight, and on the
components in Place on the shaft. Press ram
When replacing bearings, for a three-shaft
reduction unit, the bearings are usually pressed
onto the shaft for the intermediate and final
shafts, although it may be easier to press the
input shaft through the bearing.
The diagram below illustrates a typical
design for pressing a bearing onto a shaft. The
press ram bears down on a tube which is in
contact with the bearing's inner ring. With large
diameter bearings, a plate will be needed between
the ram and the tube to distribute the press force
even ly.

Arbor Press

Short support blocks in contact only with the

Bearing Pressed onto the Tube
Press fit procedure is as fol/ows:
> Apply a coating of light oil to the bearing bore
and the shaft to reduce friction;
> Put the bearing on the shaft, making sure that it
is square to the shaft;
> Place a clean pipe or mounting tube slightly
larger than the shaft diameter on the inner ring
of the bearing;
> Apply pressure to start the bearing;
> Check the position of the bearing to see that it is
still squarely on;
> Press it to the final Position;
> As the bearing is moving down the shaft, rotate
the outer ring by hand to check for drag or loss
of clearance. lf the bearing clearance is lost part-
way down the shaft, do not press the bearing the
rest of the way.
Pressing a shaft into a bearing requires an
arbor or a hydraulic press.
When using an arbor press, a groove or slot
that will just clear the shaft should be used. The
support blocks should be f lat, smooth, and of the
inner ring can be used, provided there is no
chance of the blocks falling over.
Shrink Fits
The purpose of a shrink fit is to obtain a
change in dimensions so that the initial bearing-
to-shaft o r beari n g-to-housi ng assem bly becomes
a sliding f it for easy assembly.
Dimensions can be changed by two methods:
> ln the case of the bearing-to-shaft assembly:
o Heat the bearing; or
o Chill the shaft;
> ln the case of the bearing-to-housing assembly:
o Chill the bearing; or
o Heat the housing.
The recommended maximum temperature
for heating a bearing varies f rom manufacturerto
manufacturer, but 248"-25A"F is usual.
A rough rule of thumb for bore expansion is
0.0001 of an inch per inch of the bore for 150F
temperature change.

Heating the Bearing
When heating the bearing, the heat source
must be clean, gradual, and indirect.
> Heat lamp or inf ra-red lamp can be used for
-
small bearings. This is a slow process, but has
the advantage of allowing the bearing to be
heated either wrapped or unwrapped.
Heat Lamp or lnlra-red Lamp
> Electric oven electric stove with
a small, used
-
an oven can be set up to heat bearings. This is a
relatively safe way of heating a bearing, as the
temperature controls can be set to cut off at a
specified maximum.
Note: Before using, check the heat setting with
an accuraie thermometer.
lnduction heater
- a good induction heater is
quiet and can heat a bearing in a short time.
Early induction heaters or one-stage heat-
ers had a habit of leaving residual magnetism in
the bearing, which would attraci any ferrous
particles in an oillubrication system. Buitoday,
induction heaters with two cycles have a
demagnetizing cycle to produce a nonmagnetic
beari ng.
By this method, there is no visible heat
control means, so expansion must be checked
by:
r Marking on the outer ring using wax crayon or
other material which wrll change state at a
known temperature; or by
r Measuring the bore of the bearing to check for
the required expansion.
> Oil bath large bearings should be heated in
-
ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS 125
an oil bath, using an oil wilh a high flash point.
The bearings should not be in contact with the
bottom of the pot, as it is important to keep the
bearings away f rom any localized heat source.
Temperature should not go above 250"F.
During the heating, the lD of the bearing should
be checked against the OD of the shaft until
there is suff icient expansion for a slrp f it. lnside
and outside calipers and a rnicrometer are
req u ired.
Wire
Thermometer
handles
Flu id
Heat Source
Fluld Bath
Boiling water
>
- This is a heat-safe rneans o{
heating a bearrng, as the maximum temperature
of the bearing will not exceed 212'F. Excessive
heat applied to the pot will change the water
f rom a fluid state to a Eas.
The disadvantages of lhls process arej
a lt removes ihe lubricant f rom the bearinE;and
r Unless the bearing is properly dried and
lubricated immediately, it will rust.
Properly handled, troiling water is a safe way of
heating bearings.
Use of the usualcutting-oilemulsion used in
the machine ship will increase the temperature by
a few degrees, bilt will leave a slightly residual
lubricant on the metal surfaces.
lmmediate drying and lubricating is nee.Jed
when using water or water-oil emulsions to heat
beari ngs.
lnstalling a Hot Bearing
Once a hot bearing is started on a shaft, it
must be moved quickly to its {inal position, to
keep it f rom seizing. lf the bearing starts to bind, it

126 ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS
should be removed as quickly as possible, and
reheated.
Press or shrink fitting will stretch the inner
ring and reduce the radial clearance. lf too tight a
press or shrink f it is used, the beartng clearance
will be eliminated or reduced so much that the
bearing will drag and seize when it warms up.
r lnternal
j=* clearance
Loge of Clearance
A replacement bearing
- such as a tapered
roller or an angular contact, where the end f loat is
controlled by shims - should be checked for a
possible gap between the shaft shoulder and the
cone or inner ring when the bearing has cooled. lt
may be necessary to drive or press the bearing
ring tight against the shoulder.
\ Nut
Shoulder lo Cone Check
Outer Ring lnstallation
An outer ring can be instalied in either
bored housing or a split housing.
T
ii
ti
Bored Housing
Nole: A push fit bearing must be started square
with the housing. lf the bearing is misaligned at
the start, the ring will not align it as it isforced into
the bore.
lncorrect Starting
The procedure used is much the same as that
for f itting the inner ring to the shaft. The bearing
is pulled or driven into the housing and all the
force is applied to the outer ring.
Back i ng
Plate
backi ng
Pipe
Beari ng
sleeve
Rig lor Pulling Bearing into the Casting ol the Housing
lf a hollow ram jack is available, the bolt
length will be increased to take the length of the
ram, and the bearing will be forced into position.
Another means of setting up a press is shown in
the section of this manual dealing with worm and
wheel reductions.
Axia! Positioning
A press or shrink f it is suitable f or holding a
bearing in position but positive keeping may be
needed. This is often an indication that the
bearing has been installed with a minimum of
interf erence f or easy assembiy and removal with
radial load bearings,
 I

ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS 127

Positive Position of the lnner Race: Positive Position of the lnner Race
The snap ring is in the shaft (for small bearings).

Snap ring
A large washer having the same diameter as
the inner ring
-should be f lush with, or slightly
-
protruding over the shaft end.
Lockwasher
Lock nui
Screw
The bearing lock nut and washer have:
> A straight fit on the shaft; and
> A tapered f it on the shaft.
mp@
A withdrawal sleeve and nut (for large bearings). ffi
-{-i
V

Gasket

Positive Position of the Outer Ring:

The end covers are with or without shims.

Positive Position of the Cup

The snap ring is in the casting (for small bearings

only).

Bearing Held by Snap Ring in Housing

128 ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS

Free and Held tsearings Stabilizing locate bearing axially

To prevent end motion, onlythe held bearing

on any shaft should be fixed axially in the
housing. All other bearings on the shaft should
have axial clearance in the housing to allow the
shaft to expand, contract, or allow a slight
movement of ihe pedestal or base. lt is generally
better to hold the bearing at the drive end.
Held and free bearings are also commonly
known as "f ixed" and "f loating" bearings.
Fixed/floating assemblies do not include
Figure a Held bearrng
axial-control bearings, such as tapered roller,
and angular contact bearings. Clearances to permit axial motion

Fixing the Bearing

Fixing with one or two rings is a matter of
plant policy and the availability of rings. Either
assembly method holds the bearing in position.
Location of the f loating bearing is usually in
the centre.
lf the installation uses a relatively long shaft,
and the shaft is subject to a marked heat rise
when in operation, a better position for the
floating bearing is illustrated by figure b. A Figure b Free bearing
floating bearing should never be tight against a
shou lder. Fixed/Floating Bearing Assembly
Thrust adjustment may be made in two ways:
Axial Clearance or Thrust
> Adjust the inner race or cone when the outer
Adjustrnent race or cup is fixed in the housing; or
> Adjust the outer race or cup when the inner race
Tapered roller and angular contact ball bear-
ings are mounted so that the end play of a shaft or cone is fixed on the shaft.
between two bearings is held to a required ln most industrialapplications, the outer race
minimum. is adjusted by means of an end cover and shims.

Fixing Pillow Blocks


The amount of clearance to be obtained will
be determined by the manufacturer's specifica-
tions for the machine.
The diagram below illustrates two places
where shims can be used to achieve end adjust-
ment:
Figure a
b
Shims here
High speed shaft seal assembly
ln the diagram below, adding shims increa-
ses the amount of end play in the shaft; removing
shims reduces the amount of end play.
The most common shim positi,cn is shown in
the upper left corner.
Figure b
ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS 129
> Point a
- indicates the ring shims between the
bearing cup and the end cover. Adding shims
decreases axial clearance; removing shims
increases axial clearance; or
> Point b
- indicates the shims between the end
cover and the machine housing. Adding shims
increases axial clearance; removing shims
decreases axial clearance.
Thrust control can also be obtained by using
a single taper roller bearing or a single angular
contact bearing on one end of the shaft, and
allowing the other end to float.
The diagram below illustrates the bearing
end of a Bingham pump:
> The single-groove radial ball bearing (part 107 )
has an interference fit on the shaft, while the
outer ring f loats in the housing;
> The single double-row angular contact bearing
(part 1aO) has the end f loat set according to
bearing construction. There is no shimming;
> The inner ring is an interference f it on the shaft
and held against the shoulder by a lockwasher
and n ut (parts 132-A and 1 1 0 );
> The outer ring is locked into the end cover (parf
164-A) by a retaining ring (part 178). No shims
are used;
> The recommended oii level is shown as being
halfway up the lower rolling element;
> An alternative to the double-row angular
contact bearing (part 1A6)is the use of ground
duplex angular contact bearings; and
> The contacting f aces are ground to bring the
allowable end f loat to a set arnount. There is no
ad justment.
102-c 154 123 102-D
Bearing End Bingham Pump
130 ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS
The bearings are packed with special direc-
tions as to contacting faces and installation. Fead
the lnstruction Book (RlB).
2o
Double Angular
Contact Bearing
O Arrangement X Arrangement
Mounting Tapered Bore
Bearings
Mounting Bearings with Sleeve
Adapters
The use of a tapered adapter sleeve on
standard shafting permits the mounting of a
bearing at any place on the shaft:
> The outer face of the sleeve is tapered to match
the tapered bore of the bearing's inner ring;
> The sleeve is slotted to permit expansion and
contraction, and is threaded at the small end to
take a lock nut; and
> When the sleeve is drawn up tight, a press fit is
made with both the shaft and the inner ring.
When adapter mountings are used, precau-
tions should be taken that the bearing will not be
tight internally, or DC will be eliminated.
Mounting Ball Bearings
> The outer race should be rotated and swivelled
slowly while tightening the lock nut;
>A light drag on the bearing will be felt when the
clearance is reduced; and
> At this point, tightening should be stopped and
the nut locked in position with the lockwasher.
Mounting Spherical Roller Bearings
> The initial clearance should be checked by
inserting a feeler gauge between the top rollers
and the outer ring;
> The two top rollers should be pressed inward to
assure their contact with the centre guide
flange as well as the inner-ring raceway; and
> Clearance should be checked by starting with
the thinnest feeler (preferably 0.0015 of an
inch), using progressively heavier blades until
one will not go through.
The blade thickness before "no go" is the
measure of the diametral clearance, or initial
clearance, before installation.
Mounting Procedure
The procedure for mounting a bearing is as
follows:
> Apply light oil, or a suitable lubricant, to the
outside, and to the threads of the tapered sleeve
and to the threads and face of the lock nut;
> Assemble the parts, locate their position on the
shaft, and check for initialclearance. lf unload-
ed rollerq are at the bottom, make sure they are
raised to the seat on the inner race and set
against the guide flange;
> Assemble the sma/l size bearings with the
lockwasher in position.
It is recommended lhal large bearings be
tightened for final clearance with the lockwasher
left out, the nut removed; then the washer
installed and the nut tightened and locked. This
prevents the friction forces involved from shear-
ing off the inside tang of the washer;
> Tighten the adapter nut with a spanner wrench
 ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS 131

until it is snug. The adapter sleeve may have a able, is to reduce the initialclearance by roughly
tendency to turn, but it can be held in position 50 percent. This reduction applies to standard
until it binds on the shaft; clearance spherical roller bearings only.
> Drive against the nut, using a hammer and soft When installing a sleeve adapter and bear-
steel bar to release the pressure on the threads. ing on a shaft already in position, it may be
Tighten the nut with a wrench, then check for impossible to use a spanner wrench. The lock
clearance. Repeat this driving and tightening nut will therefore have to be tightened by using a
until the final clearance is reached. The amount mild steel punch (not hardened ), ground to f it the
of initial clearance is reduced to suit the tables lock nut slots, and a hammer. Harnmering must
supplied by the manufacturers. be done caref ully to avoid striking the bearing or
the lockwasher. Reduction of clearance can be
Example 7: lnitial clearance - 0.004"
checked by the amount of axial movement of the
Recommended reduction - 0.00'15 - 0.0025"
bearing inner ring up the taper: each 0.018" of
Average reduction - 0.002"
axial movement reduees diarnetral clearance by
Final clearance 0.002"
- approximately 0.4U".
Exarnple 2: lnitial clearance - 0.007"
Recommended reduction 0.0026 - 0.0032"
Average reduction -
0.003"
-
Torrington Final clearance - 0.004"
-
A reduction of 0.0026" would leave an
installed clearance of 0.0044", which would be
suitable where the load is uniformly from one
direction; or when the shaft heats during opera-
tion, but the housing stays relatively cool.
A reduction of 0.0032" would leave an
installed clearance of 0.0038", which would be
suitable when the temperature of the shaft and
housing remains relatively even, but the bearing
is subject to a reciprocating load.
Any bearing installation involving high
temperature changes or heavy reciprocating > Snug the nut against the bearing;
loads should be installed according to specif ica- > Measure the distance A or B;
tions. > lf reduction oJ DC is 0.002", increase distance A
A rule of thumb, when no tables are avail- by 0.036" or decrease distance B by 0.036".

Bore in
Reduction Axial displacemenl Axial displacemenl
d clearance on 1:12 laper
radial on 1:30 laper
on the on the on the on the
mm shaft sieeve shaft sleeve
over 'to mm mm mm mm mm

40 50 0,03 -0,035 0 5 -0,55 0,6 -0,7 1 25-1 ,4 1 ,5 -1 ,75

50 65 0,035-0,04 0,55-0,65 0.7 -0,75 1,1 -1 ,6 1 75-1,9
65 80 0,04 0,05 0,65 0,8 0,75-0,9 1,6 2 1.9
-2,2s
80 100 0.05 -0,06 0,8 -0,-c5 0,9 -1,05 2
a1 -2.35
2,25-2 6
100 '120 0.055-0,065 _rq aa ,aq
120 140 0,06 -0,07 0.95 1,1 1,05-1,2 2,35,2.75 2 6 -3
'140 160 0.07 -0,085 1 ,1 -1 ,3 1 .2 -1,45 z.t)-a.z) J -J,o
160 180 0,075-0,09 1 ,15-1 .4 1,3 -1 ,5 2,85-3.5 3,25,3 75
180 200 0 085-0,1 1.3 -1,55 1 45-1 65 3,25-3,9 3.6 -4,15
200 225 0,1 0,1 15 1,55-1,75 1,65-1,9
1,.75 2,05
3 9 -,1,35 4,15 4,75
225 250 0 1c5-0,125 1,6 -1,9 4 -1.75 ,1,35-5,i5
250 280 a,12 -0,14 1,85-2,15 1,95 2,25 4.65 54 4,9-5.55
280 31 5 013 -0,15 2 -2,3 2.1 -2.5
315 355 0,15 -0,17 aa )A cq _ra 5,5 6,5 6.25-6,75
355 400 0,16 -0,19 2,45,2.9 2,55-3 61C_7 2q A .\
-7
q

400 450 0,18 -0,21 2,6 -3,2 2,85 3.3

4s0 500 0,2 *a,24 3,05-3,65 3,15-3,7s 7,6 -9,1 7,9 -9,4
132 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

must be even on the opposite stdes.

Withdrawal Sleeves When using a press, the parallel bars should
be under the inner race.
A withdrawal sleeve assembly is used with
A bearing splitter and atwo-iaw puller can be
a standard taper bore bearing to permit easy
used to remove the cone f rom the shaft. With this
removal of the sleeve and bearing when the
setup, the millwright must be surethatthe jawsof
outer ring is mounted in a solid housing.
the puller do not bear on the threaded section of
Diflerences Between a Withdrawal Sleeve and the rods holding the puller.
an Adapter Sleeve
Withdrawal S/eeve
Solid-bored housing
- Shaft
- Sleeveisslides
machined as needed
the bearing
- Driving nut is under
threaded onto the shaft
- Bearing is held by a shaft shoulder or
- a machine part against the inner ring
installation: the bearing f irst, then the sleeve
-
Adapter S/eeve
Split-bored housing
- No shaft changes
- Bearing slides over the sleeve
- Driving nut is threaded onto the sleeve Bearing Splitter and Two-jaw Puller
- -
Bearing does not need a backing or shoulder Used to Remove the Cone lrom the Shaft
- lnstallation: the sleeve frrst, then the bearing.
- When a gear or spacer does not allow the use
The check of the initial DC and the reduction of a splitter plate behind the bearing, it may be
to the required installation clearance follows the necessary to pull off the bearing by pulling the
same routine for both styles of mountrng. gear and the bearing as a unit. This is the usual
method for the wheel shaft of a worm wheel unit,
where the spacers are usually f lush with the inner
tsearing Removal ring.
This assembly can also be set up with the
The best way to pull off a bearrng with the gear on a press bed; by this method, the shaft is
mrnimum amount of damage to the bearing shaft
pushed through the gear and bearing far enough
is with a set of pullers or a press. All the strarn
must be applied to the inner race and the strain
to remove the beari ng.
ln some installations, it is not possible to pull
or press on the inner ring; force must be applied
to the outer ring only. This increases the binding
action of the inner ring on the shaft, lt can also

No load
through

Press Removal ol a Bearing Gear and Bearing Extractlon


fracture the outer ring. When pulling or pressing
on the outer ring, wrap or guard the outer ring to
prevent injury from flying fragments in case the
outer ring breaks. This wrapping is important
when using a hydraulic power source.
Bearing cups can be removed f rom a housing
by the use of a cup puller (sometimes called an
"inside puller"), provided that the jaws can be
inserted behind the shoulder.
Push-pu ler
I
"lnside Puller" For Removing Bearing Cups
- way from
Bearing cups are f requently set in end caps
with no room to use a set of pullers,
ln such a case, the cup can be removed by
welding a bead on the face of the raceway. This
will shrink the bearing diameter.
Welding a Bead onto lhe Face of the Cup Raceway
After the bearing is removed, future prob-
lems can be prevented by drilling and tapping for
two setscrews on the bearing cup.
Drilling and Tapping alter the Bearing is Removed
During operation, these tapped holes can be
filled with either a cap screw or a hollow head
setscrew.
ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS 133
Removal of Bearings Mounted With
Adapter Sleeves
The following two methods may be used:
2 o Pry the lockwasher prong out of the slot in the
lock nut;
o Remove the lock nut and washer;
o Drive or pull the bearing off the wedge on the
sleeve; use force only on the inner ring;
r Remove the sleeve and the bearing from the
shaft.
) o Pry the lockwasher prong out of the slot in the
lock unit;
e Back the lock nut to the end of the sleeve;
. Use a tubular drift against the lock nut to drive
the sleeve through the bearing;
o When the bearing is loose, unscrew the lock
n ut, then remove it, the lockwasher, the sleeve
and the bearing.
Drive this
here
Drive this way
Removal ot Bearings Mounled with Adapter Sleeves
All parts may be used again after they are
thoroughly cleaned.
The lockwasher may have a prong broken off
but unless lhe inner prong is broken off , it can be
used again.
134 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

Removing a Bearing With a The withdrawal nut should be tagged and

kept in a def inite location so it can be f ound easily
Hammer when wanted.
A hammer and a bar or punch of mild steel The labyrinth seal shown in the diagram is
should be used against the inner race when designed to be used with grease as a sealing
removing a bearing. Keep the bar as parallel with medium to keep out any dust or abrasives.
the shaft as possible. A hardened bar or punch The routine maintenance of a labyrinth seal
will damage the bearing or break off small pieces consists of a pump or two of grease in order to
of the brittle ring. These pieces can fly around force any contaminants to the outside.
and cause injury to the worker.
Another method is to mount the shaft and
bearing in a vise or between two parallel bars,
with the weight supported by the inner ring, then
to drive the shaft through the bearing. A brass or
babbitt slug should be used between the hammer
and the shaft end

Bearing Removal with a Hammer and Drllt

Note: After any "hammer and bang" removal, the

shaft should be carefully checked for surface
damage.
Removal of Withdrawal Sleeve
The bearing nut and washer on the shaft are
first removed. The withdrawal nut is then installed
on the threaded end of the sleeve and tightened
with the correct-sized wrench to pull out the
sleeve.
Withdrawal Bearlng Arrangement lor a
nut Supporllng Roller of a Rolary

lnstallation or Removal by
Oil lnjection
A hydraulic installation uses the force
developed by oil or grease under pressure to
Sleeve Adapter Removal expand the inner ring of the bearing.

I

Taper Bore Bearings
The diagram below illustrates the simplest
form of a tapered shaft, modified by cutting a
semicircular groove at the approximate centre of
the bearing, and drilling a supply line to a f itting at
the end of the shaft.
-r
)-
Tapered Shalt
oir injection equipment for a tapered shaft can
be:
> A grease gun which is capable of developing
over 1000 psi; or
> A hand-operated pump for a portable jack,
using SAE 40 or heavier oil.
The procedure f or mounting a taper bore bearing
assembly is as follows:
> lf the shaft is a bit rough, clean it up, so that it
will mate with the bearing surface and prevent
fluid leaks;
> Put the bearing on the shaft and tighten the nut
to get a good shaft contact;
> Apply hydraulic pressure to expand the inner
ring, and tighten the nut to force the expanded
inner ring up the taper;
> Repeat this routine until the bearing clearance
is reduced to its required installed clearance. At
its f inal location, the bearing should have a gap
between the inner ring and the shaft shoulder;
> lnstall the lockwasher (not shown in diagram)
to lock the bearing nut;
> A final clearance check should be made after
the hydraulic force is removed.
Note: lf the hydraulic fluid leaks, grease can be
substituted.
ANTI-FR ICTION BEARINGS 135
Bearing removal is done by backing off the
nut two or three times, then applying hydraulic
force to pop the bearing off the seat.
lf the nut is removed and hydraulic force
applied, the bearing wiil come off like a projectile
with the possibitity of injury to one of the
-maintenance crew.
Parallel Bore Bearings
Oil injection removal can be done with
parallel bore bearings
A set of pullers is needed to move the bearing
after the inner ring has been expanded by
hydraulic force.
Parallel Bore Bearings for Oil lnlecilon
The bearing can be pressed or shrunk on
Pillow Blocks
Pillow blocks for rndependent mounting of
anti-f riction beari ngs come in two main groups:
split, or one-piece.
Split Bearing Housings
The bearing housing is composed of a base
and a cap in a horizontat sptit which is by far the
most common.
The bearing housing may also be found with
a one-piece ring and a base with separate end
covers vertical sp/lt (see section on withdrawal
-
sleeves).
The most common style is the horizontaily
split housing. The components to make up a
complete assembly are:
> Housing
- which can be a two-boit, four_bolt,
136 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

or plain-case base with no drilled holes; These bearings are self-aligning because of
the shape of the outer ring, which rocks or pivots
> Bearing
- self-aligning
> Adapter sleeve one
stYle;
OD to suit the stock in the housing. A one-piece bearing will allow
- more misalignment than a split-bearing housing
oearing, two more possible lD to suit shafting
diameters; that uses self-aligning bearings.
> Lockwasher;
> Bearing nut;
> Seals;
> Blanking discs; and
>Locking or fixing rings to make a "fixed" or
"held" bearing assemblY.
The tirst five items will have code numbers,
and if standard, they will all have the same last Sell-allgnlng Bearing
nu mbers.
The inner race is held in position on the shaft
Housings can be plain-split, or split with gibs
by different methods, according to the manufac-
or dowels, which make it impossible to mismatch
turer. One method is by threading two setscrews
the cap and base.
into a collar and passing them through matching
To avoid conf usion, split housings or pillow
holes in the inner ring to engage the shaft. The
blocks should be centre-punched before taking
other common method of holding the inner race
them apart for correct joining' When using on the shaft is by using a self-locking collar held
several pillow blocks of the same size, each
in position by one setscrew.
bearing should be marked to prevent mixing'
When frequent removal of a bearing is
needed, the setscrew positions should be located
and a {lat spot f iled on the shaft at that point' This
allows for easy removal, as the turns created by
the setscrew will not interfere.

Setscrew mark Filed 1lal

Bearlng Shafi

When mounting pillow blocks, they should

be tightened on the base before locking the inner
race in position on the shaft.
Split Housing or Pillow Block

One-piece Pillow Blocks

Pillow blocks with a one-piece housing are a
completely assembled unit that can be slipped
over a smooth shaft and bolted into position.
Unlike a standard bearing, the inner race is
extra long f or distributing the load over the shaft.
Common designs are:
> Single groove ball bearings - for high radial
and low thrust caPacitY; Mountlng a One-plece Bearlng
> Double taper roller bearings
- for combined For easy removal of one-piece bearings, they
high radral and thrust loading; and
> Spherical rollers or concave rollers - for should be mounted with the setscrew or screws
combined high radial and thrust loading" on the side away f rom the shaf t end. lf the shaft is

scored or upset by the setscrews, the bearing will
not have to move far to clear the rough surface.
When making changes to existing drives, a
one-piece pillow block can be installed over the
existing key seats in the shafting with no damage
to the seals.
One-piece AF bearings are available for
mounting:
> Pillow blocks
shaft: or
- with the base parallel to the
> Flange bearings
to the shaft.
- with the base at 90 degrees
Flange bearings are available in two-, three-,
or four-bolt styles for mounting.
Lubrication plug
Locking and channel
Load I ng
n otches
Flange Bearings
Cartridge Replacement
The inner ring, rolling element, and outer
ring are supplied as a "cartridge" or unit.
Replacement is done by pivoting the worn
bearing at the loading notches and pulling out the
unit, then sliding in the new cartridge and
pivoting it to the correct position.
The rllustration for a f lange bearing shows a
lubrication plug and channel- which means that
the bearing is expected to leak lubricant.
Mounting Needle Bearings
Needle beari ngs are designed for pure radral
loads or pure thrust loads.
A common type of needle bearing is com-
posed of the outer rrng and the rolling elements
with no separators and no inner ring. The shaft -
acts as the inner ring and must be absolutely
smooth.
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS 137
When needles are retained by the outer ring,
there is no problem handling the bearing, as the
parts will stay together.
Sleeve
Bearings wilh No lnner Ring
When the needles are not retained by the
outer ring, they are held in place by a sleeve or
inner ring of shaft size. ln the mounting, the
needle bearing with a sleeve is pushed over the
shaft, with the shaft pushing the sleeve out. This
method of handling prevents the needles from
falling out.
With small bearings, it is possibte to coat the
needles with a light grease so that they stay in
position during mounting.
Mounting Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearings are intended for pure thrust
loads, and have no radial capacity.
To mount thrust bearings, one race is f itted to
the shaft and the other is fitted to the housing. A
double-actrng thrust bearing has two discs in the
housing and one on the shaft. Because of
centrifugal force, these bearings are limited in the
speed at which they can be used.
Non-aligning Seli-aligning
Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearings are made in both non-
aligning and self-aligning styles.
Cleaning Bearings
The method for cleaning a bearing is as
f ollows:
> Clean a used bearing with a solvent such as
Varsol, kerosene, or gasoline in a well-ventila-
ted location;
> Soak the bearing long enough to loosen the
138 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS
grease and dirt, then rotate the races slowly to
work out the old lubricant;
> When using an air hose, don't spin the bearing,
but hold both races and let the air jet blow out
the particles; then
> Finish washing the bearing in a container with
clean solvent.
Bearings with one side shielded are treated
like bearings without a shield.
Bearings with seals on both sides should not
be washed, but wiped off with a clean rag to keep
the dirt from working inside.
Bearings found to be in good condition
should be dipped in oil, or greased and installed,
or wrapped in clean paper and stored in a dry
place until needed. Partial assemblies should
also be cleaned and covered until needed.
A tag or label with the bearing code nurnber
and the machine f or which it is used should be
attached to the wraPPing.
Note:
> The use of kerosene, gasoline or diesel f uel as a
solvent creates a f ire hazard. A solvent container
should not be a fire Pail;
> Some commercial solvents remove all traces of
lubricant from bearing surfaces and leave a dry
bearing with metal-to-metal contact. This can
give a false reading when checking for wear.
Checking for Bearing Wear
To check a bearing {or wear:
> Be sure that the bearing isflat or horizontal; this
ensures that there is contact allaround the ring;
> Hold one ring stationary and turn the other ring
slowly;
> Turn the bearrng over and repeat, but
> lf the bearing is self-aligning - double ball or
doubte spherical - misalign it and check all
around the outer ring.
Bearing Failure
Symptoms of bearing failure are:
> A temperature rise;
> lncreased vibration; or
> A change from the normal sound.
The most common cause of bearing failure is
contamination - when dirt or foreign material
gets into the bearing during assembly or works
past the seals during operation. Dirty working
conditions and incorrect procedures during
overhaul and assembly are the greatest problem.
Bearing Contarnination
Do's and Don't's for Avoiding
Contamination of Bearings
> Don't work in dirtY surroundings;
> Don't use wooden mallets or dirty, brittle or
chipped tools;
> Don't work on rough or dirty bench tops;
> Don't handle bearings with dirty, moist hands;
> Don't spin uncleaned bearings;
> Don't use the same container for the cleaning
and f inal rinsing of bearings;
> Don't wipe bearings with cotton waste or dirty
cloths;
> Don't expose bearings to moisture or dirt at any
time;
Don't scratch or nick bearing surfaces;
Don't remove grease or oil from new beari ngs;
> Don't use an incorrect tyPe or q uantitY of
lu bricant.
> Do work with clean tools, in clean surroundings;
> Do remove all outsrde dirt f rom the housing
before exposing bearings;
> Do handle bearings with clean, dry hands;
> Do treat a used bearing as caref ully as a new one;
> Do use clean solvents and f lushing oils;
> Do lay bearings out on clean PaPer;
> Do protect disassembled bearings f rom dirt and
moisture at all times;
> Do wipe bearings with clean, lint-free rags;
> Do keep bearings wrapped in oil-proof paper
when not in use:
> Do clean the inside of housings before replacing
beari ngs,
> Do install new beari ngs as removed from pack-
ages, without washing them;
> Do keep bearing lubricants clean when applying,
and cover containers when not in use.
Seals Housing or Machine-
Mounted
-
Seals are used to keep the lubricant in the
bearing housing and contamination out. Three
basic types of sealing arrangements are used
with anti-friction bearings.
> Lip Contact Sea/ comes in two forms:
-
 ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS 139

. Commercial seal
- may have a contact lip of
synthetic rubber or leather, with a spring
backing for more positive sealing action.
These seals are used where a shaft is totally or
partially immersed in oil;
o Felt seal
- good with grease at low speeds,
but not suitable f or high speed, high temper-
ature, or abrasive conditions;
Annulus Sea/
>
- is a series of grooves in the
housing or end cover with a drain hole at the
bottom. lt is a non-contact sealwith a very slight
clearance between the rotating and statlonary
parts. lt is not effective if the drain plugs; Deep Groove and
> Labyrinth or Slinger Sea/ Cylindrical Roller Bearings
- depends
centrifugal force to throw material
on
away from
the housing; or
> Combination Annulus and Labyrinth Sea/
keeps oil in and foreign material out. -
iT
Sea/s rnust be replaced: Y
> lf the seals are worn, allowing the lubricant to /
escape and water or foreign bodies to enter; or
> lf the seals are torn by foreign objects (more
common with mechanical lip seals).
Lubrication Double-row Sell-aligning
Ball and Roller Bearings
The grade of grease or oil recommended for
the particular bearing and its application should For a double row of self-aligning bearings, the
be used. outer race must be misaligned and packed with
For deep-groove ball and cylindrical roller grease between the balls or rollers. if the bearing rs
bearings, the grease must be packed well between in position in the bottom half of the pillow box, the
the balls and rollers, covering both sides of the grease must be forced through the openings f rom
beari ng. one side until grease shows on the other srde.

Annulus and Labyrinth Seals

Annulus Annulus and flinger

140 ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS

Cooper Splll Bearlng Fill the case one-third to one-half full of

grease. For oil lubrication, the case should be filled
to a point halfway up the lower ball or roller'

Cooper Bearings (Split)

For general purposes, anti-friction bearings
are considered to be one-piece units. However,
there is one bearing on the market with the
components in halves. This is the Cooper split
bearing, for heavy industrial use.

General Maintenance
A change of design or tolerance may create
an overload which will shorten the operating life
of the bearing. The following are examples of
shaft overload causes:
> lf a reduction unit with a 5 hp motor is changed
to a 7 1/2 hp motor to give a more positive drive,
the bearings will be put in overload conditions
and will have a short operating life;
> lf a shaft diameter is slightly oversize, the inner
ring expands so much that it eliminates internal
radial clearance. The diameter must be reduced
to standard size,

Check lor Coffect Shalt Size

> lf a shaft has protruding irregularities, the inner

ring will be out of round, reducing radial
clearance through distortion.
The shaft should be checked for nicks and
.> burrs before mounting the bearing, as burrs can
shear off and roll under the inner ring as it is
being pressed on, or small particles can be
trapped between the bearing ring and the
shoulder of the shaft;
 F
ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS 141
lt

> lf a shaft fillet is too large, the bearing will be

kept away from the proper location.
The fillet must be machined down to a
standard radius to clear the bearing;
> lf a shaft shoulder is too small, the bearing will
ride up and increase pressure on the inner ring;

Shalting Below lhe Suggested Tolerance Levels

> lf the shaft diameter is undersized, the inner Shaft Shoulder

- Too Large Shalt Shoulder
- Too Small
ring will rotate on the shaft. This f riction creates > lf the shaft shoulder is too large, the amount of
heat, while wear increases the lD of the bearing grease reaching the rolling elements is some-
and decreases the OD of the shaft. times reduced;
lf a shaft is a few thousandths of an inch > lf the shaft is overloaded on a long span, it may
undersize, knurling will bring it up suff iciently develop a slight bow; or
for light loads. The best solution, apart from
obtaining a new shaft, is to have the shaft built
up and then turned down to standard size;
l
I

Bowed Shalt
> lf the shaft and housing are misaligned in
relation to each other, the ball path will run f rom
one side of the race to the other, around half the
circumference of the non-rotating ring. The I
I

Shalt Fillet Too Large rotating ring will show a wide ball path.
- i

li
[ri

ui
,l,I

lll

i
I

Misaligned Shalt and Housing

Overlaads in the solid housing may occur:

Shafl Fillet > lf a housing bore is out of round or undersize, it
- Correct Size
142 ANTI-FRICTIONBEARINGS

-aysqueeze the outer ring and cause an example, when a bearing calls for 0.003 of an
:,'erload; or inch end play and is mounted with no clearance
> i burrs are pushed ahead of the outer ring and of 0.030 of an inch end play;
:rapped between the housing bore and the ring, > lf self-aligning bearings are mounted at too
:rey will cause im proper spacing. lf a bore is too extreme an angle. They are self-aligning to a
arge, the outer ring will turn in the housing, small degree, but should be mounted as evenly
decreasing the OD of the bearing and increas- and as level as possible; or
rng the lD of the bore. > lf self-aligning roller bearings are mounted to
A split housing problems: take heavy thrust loading.
> lf the bore diameter is smaller than the diameter
of the outer ring,
> lf the bore is out of round due to high spots f rom
a cutting tool;
> lf the cap is put on backwards (split housings
should have punch marks for identification);
> lf the caps were exchanged when working with
several housings of the same size. Matching
sets of punch marks or numbers for each
bearing will eliminate this;
> lf the bearing is not seated squarely in the
bearing seat, causing pinching in diagonal
corners; or
> lf the pillow block is bolted to an uneven base or
pedestal, distorting the housing bore.

Adapter s/eeves problems:

> lf the inner ring is f orced too far up on the taper,

expanding the inner ring enough to bring the
clearance reduction below standard. The
clearance should be checked with feelers and
backed off the bearing if clearance has been
reduced too much;
> lf the inner ring is not tight enough on the
sleeve, allowing the ring to turn on the sleeve or
the sleeve to turn on the shaft, or both; or
> lf the lockwasher is not set on the lock nut,
allowing the nut to back off , and the ring to turn
on the sleeve, or the sleeve to turn on the shaft,
or both.
Bearings are improperly applied in the
f ollowing cases.'
> lf radial bearings are used with heavy thrust
loadinE;
> Angular contact ball bearings are mounted
backwards - causing heavy thrust on the
shallow shoulder;
> More than one bearing on the shaft is "held",
allowing room for expansion:
> lf there are too few or too many shims when
mounting thrust bearings in casting - for
 COUPLINGS 143

8. Couplings

Couplings are used to join two lengths of

shafting together or to provide a means of
transmitting power from a driving source to a
ir__ c

driven machine.
"Rigid" couplings join two lengths of shaft,
F bolts
while "f lexible" or "clutch" couplings are used to G diam
join a driver and a driven shaft.

Rigid Couplings
Rigid couplings may be used to join driver
and driven machines provided that:
> The offset misalignment is less than the bearing
clearance;
> Angular misalignment is absent; and
> There is no relative thermal rise of either
machine when operating.
Flanged Couplings
Rigid f langed couplings are mainly used to
join shafts of the same or different diameters.
Flanged couplings are made of cast iron and
machine-faced with male and female pairs for
positive alignment of the halves. Each half is
keyed to the shaft and bolted together with tight-
f itting bolts. The f langed rim sh ields the bolt
heads and nuts.
Rigid Flanged Face Coupling
H
diam
A
diam
D
diam
Coupling Dimensions
Before mounting them on the shaft, the
coupling halves should be checked for bore,
keyways, and setscrews, and also for:
> Correct f it of the spigot and turned recess..
o High spots on the corners; and
o Correct depth;
> Fastener hole alignment:
o lf the coupling comes f rom the supplier and is
boited together, mate marks should be placed
on the rim to assist in correct assembly; or
o lf the coupling is in twc :ieparate halves, the
fasteners should be f itrt,,li to f ind the matching
holes, and mate mari(s placed on the rims.
Problems may arise with snug fitting or tap
f itted fasteners where the hole centres are off
centre by only a few thousandths of an inch;
> Correct fastener f it in holes.
144 COUPLINGS
When taking a rigid coupling apart, the rim
must f irst be rotated and checked f or mate marks.
lf no marks are showing , apair of marks should be
inserted.
Compression Couplings
Flanged compression couplings are used to
join shafts of equalsize. They do not require keys
or key seats. The flanges are taper-bored and
pulled together over a tapered, slotted sleeve.
The shaft should be checked for size and
surface finish before installing the sleeves.
Flanged Compression CouPlings
Compression couplings are generally used
with a light, one-direction load.
CIamp Gouplings
Rigid, ribbed compression couplings, com-
monly called "clamp" or "muff" couplings are
used with shafts of the same diameter. The split
construction al lows easy i nstal lation and removal.
These couplings are used for low speed drives
due to their unbalanced design and weight
distribution. ln an emergency they can be used to
replace a bored flanged coupling which has
worked loose and damaged the shaft.
Rigid Ribbed Compression Coupling
When installing clamp couplings, a few items
must be kept in mind:
> There must be a gap between the top and
bottom halves in order to obtain full clamping
action on the shaft;
> The gap should be equal on either side;
> The bolt tightening sequence is important:
r Start from the centre and snug (not tighten)
the opposite fasteners;
r Work f rom the centre to the ends of the
cou pl i ng;
o Make two or more passes to tighten the
fasteners; snug the f irst pass, then tighten the
next pass or passes; and finally,
----x-
i
Compression Gap
. Tighten the fasteners to the required torque
values given in the specification sheets -
overtightening of a cast iron coupling could
result in the casting breaking.
/T.
I
o () t, U
Bolt-tightening Sequence
Shop-made Couplings
Shrink flt couplings are f requently used to
add a short length of shaft to an existing lay shaft
without cutting keys, or key seats. The shrink fit
coupling is a piece of steel shaft of larger
diameter than the lay shaft, The coupling is bored
 COUPLINGS 145

out undersize to obtain a shrink f it on the existing should not be taken at face value.
shaft. This type of coupling must be heated
The variables for misalignmenl are:
sufficiently to obtain an easy fit and quickly
installed before shrinkage reduces the clearance. > Speed
lf an anti-f riction bearing is close to the - at low speed the misalignment may be
acceptable, but at high speeds the vibration
coupling assembly, the heat transfer along the may be excessive; and
shaft could be controlled. The shrink assembly > Expected service lite at a given rpm extreme
can be made more effective by having setscrews misalignment may have an expected -service life
in the coupling, or by placing a dowelthrough the of 2,000 hours, but an accurate dial indicator
coupling and the shaft. alignment may give a service life of 10,000
hours or more.
Flexible Couplings The two common styles of flexible couplings
are:
Flexible couplings allow for:
> Metallic components
> Minor misalignment; - which may or may not
require a lubricant; and
> Minor end float; and
> Resilient parts or elastomers which require
> Minor changes in shaft position due to thermal
no lubrication. -
expansion or contraction.
It is important to select a coupling that will Metallic Components in a
meet the necessary requirements of speed, hp,
service factor, and other variables. The following Flexible Unit
installation and maintenance questions should
also be considered: Slider Couplings

> Will the coupling be simple to install and Slider couplings allow for angular and
remove?
parallel misalignment. Slider couplings are
> Can the parts be easily replaced after normal deslgned for low speed and high torque condi-
service wear? (Can one or two parts be moved,
tions. Some manufacturers rate them up to a
maximum speed of 100 rpm.
or does the complete drive need to be disas-
They are composed of three pieces: a two-
sem bled?)
jawed hub on each shaft and a "slider" or central
> Can the alignment be done with simple tools
member. The slider is driven by one pair of jaws
such as a straightedge or feeler stock, or will
special tools, such as a dial indicator, be which in turn drives the other pair of jaws. Slider
needed?
couplings must be lubricated. Some types have
> Are there one or two makes of coupling sizes removable wear faces on the jaws.
with a minimum parts inventory, or is there one
of every coupling style sold on the market -
resulting in a large parts inventory? Standard-
ization reduces the number of tools or special
equipment needed for alignment.
Flexible couplings should not be used when
major angular misalignment is known to exlst,
Deliberate misalignment calls for the use of
universal joints.
When mounting flexible couplings, they Slider Couplings
should be aligned as perfectly as possibie. The
service life of the coupling will decrease rapidly Roller Chain Couplings
as the misalignment increases.
A chain coupling consists of two sprockets
Note: Advertising claims for flexible couplings with hubs (type B sprockets) keyed to the shafts
that allow extremes of misalignment (3 to 5 and connected with a length of chain of standard
degrees angular and '1/16 o't an inch oifset) pitch. Standard duplex or special width chain is
146 COUPLINGS

used and varies with the manufacturer.

The coupling used for a special chain width
can be adapted for use with a standard duplex
roller chain by increasing the space between the
sprockets to allow for two side plates.
Lubrication is necessary, and is obtained by
using a revolving coupling cover or a stationary
housing that can be fabricated and installed to
suit the drive. A good grade of medium oil is
preferable to grease.
It is important to check the lubricant at
regular intervals and change it when necessary. A
stationary housing also doubles as a coupling
guard to meet safety regulations. The most
common cause of chain and sprocket wear is
misalignment, not lack of lubrication.

Roller Chain Couplings Falk Coupling

Gear Couplings

Housing half
CI---
:s r -\rrf---
rge O
d_:= ,a--\\ \,r1\ /'\ V/zLock
,4-En
-,/\A rt_{B- // \\ ld\r\
Hub
/^\ \tr\ \ i \ \\tr1 //
//\\ \E\ -\ /n\o\\E\ I/ \\ \ /nr\
il il rEr@l ll )l- llE I lt
seal \\

\j?1J/ \u/
\\// /E/ ll

{
G=-
)))
V-J I I
v1t ll9l\\ ll
w-!#
/
]U
cr---r V<
o:-::= Housing half Gasket / V

Falk Couplings
The Falk coupling has a f lat steel spring held
in the grooves that allows minor conditions of
misalignment. The spring usually wears out f irst,
and can be replaced without removing either unit.
This coupling will f unction with the spring broken
in the bends. Lubrication is needed.
The size of the gap or space between the
coupling faces can be found in the coupling
service manual.
Large size couplings use two f lexible grids
which are marked and which must be installed in
the correct sequence.
When sliding the cover over the hub, a f ilm of
oil on the hub will allow the seal to slide without
binding.
Note: When assembling on the shaft, each end
cover must be installed on the shaft before the
hub.
Gear Couplings
Gear couplings may be composed either of
all metal parts which require constant lubrica-
tion - or of a- metal/nylon assembly which
requires no lubrication. ln the previous diagram,
one common gear style has gear teeth contained
in the cover. Another common style has the gear
teeth carried in an outside sleeve. ln both cases,
the cover acts as a lubricant container.
The installation and alignment routine shows
the degree of alignment accuracy required by the
manufacturer (under 1800 rpm).
Gear Couplings
O-ring seal
COUPLINGS 147
Limit End Float Couplings
A motor may sometimes be used with sleeve
friction bearings and no thrust control. lf the
motor shaft moves too far to either end, the shaft
shoulder will contact the bearing surface and
cause bearing damage. The coupling must
control or hold the end float to a minimum in
order to reduce damage on the bearing and wear
on the coupling itself .
Motors of this type "centre" or locate the
motor at running speed and should be set at this
position before installing the coupling.
Gear couplings are often used with a rigid
cover to contact the gear teeth. lf the shaft is in
mid-position and F - F, the space on the
coupling asembly should have C - C but /ess
than F.
Regardless of shaft position, the dlstances C
must be adjusted to prevent the shaft from
touching the bearing. Adjustments can be made
by adding shims between the cover and the gear
on one side, or by moving the coupling on the
shaf t.
r -,! r-
Limit End Float Couplings
Cover
I
Hub seal
Hub
148 COUPLINGS

Coupling lnstallation
> Clean all parts thoroughly before installing;

> Place one cover half on each shaft. Place the

sleeve, with O-rings in the grooves, on one
shaft;

ffi lnsert the keys in the keyways and mount one

hub on each shaft so that the end of the hub and
the end of the shaft are f lush. Tighten the
setscrews over the keys;

Position the equipment so that the shafts are

separated;
Check the angular alignment with a feeler
gauge by comparing the gap between the hub
faces at four points, 90 degrees apart. Shim and
adjust the equipment being coupled so that
these measurements are uniform;
 il

COUPLINGS 149

> Check the parallel alignment by placing a

straightedge across both hubs. Shim and adjust
the equipment until the straightedge lies flat on
both hubs at two points, 90 degrees apart;

Recheck the angular alignment to be sure it has

not been disturbed;

> Lubricate the coupling by packing the space

between the rows of hub gear teeth with a light,
separati on-resistant grease;

> Slide the internally geared sleeve into engage-

ment with the external gears on both hubs; and
> Draw the cover halves together and engage the
spiral cam fasteners. Lock the fasteners by
turning clockwise with an Allen wrench.
Alignment should be as close as possible at
the time of assembly, with a minimum of angular
misalignment.

ii
ri

JI
150 COUPLINGS

Non-metallic Components in a Nofe: When installing these couplings, read

Flexible Unit
The flexible elements of a flexible coupling
may be leather, plastic, belt-like materials or
synthetic rubber (elastomers).
Several styles of couplings using non-
metallic flexible units are adaptations of the
flange coupling.
Pin Couplings
Pin and bushing couplings use rubber
bushed pins bolted tightly in one coupling half,
with the rubber bushings f itting into holes in the
mating coupling half.
instructions as to which is the driver and which is
the driven.
Pin and disc connector couplings are coup-
lings with pins firmly bolted in both halves with a
flexible element between the pins to transmit
power.
Disc connectors use a flexible disc of leather
or a material resembling power transmission
belting to engage the pins. Usual styles have six
holes to engage the pins on three-pin coupling
halves or eight holes to engage pins on four-pin
coupling halves.

r-l
-<<
.-L
li
.l-<
l-

_=l

I
-l
C E laA
I
I

-
Driven half -L
D
A Diam
Diam
Pin and Disc Connector Couplings

The disc separating the flanged halves can

be obtained in various widths. As a general rule,
hp and speed being constant, the wider the disc,
the longer the service life due to the force being
spread over a larger area.
The dlstance W shown in the sketch must be
slightly greater than the thickness of the disc to
allow easy installation and to prevent thrust
loading on the bearings.
Pin and link connector couplings are usually
found on older installations and use links of
flexible, high tensile material.
The links must be mounted on the pins so
that the pin on the driver coupling half pulls the
link, which in turn pulls the pin on the driven
Pln and Bushing Couplings coupling half.
 COUPLINGS 151

For one-direction rotation, the links are Taper bushing hubs are used on several
mounted as shown in f igure c below; for reversing couplings and are supplied in three styles shown
drives, the links are mounted as shown in f igure d. below:
Reversing drives need more links than one-
> Lock screws exposed on both hubs which will
direction drives
- if possible, twice the number.
As the coupling increases in diameter, the allow maintenance on both halves;
> One iock screw exposed and the other buried,
number of pins contacting the flexible element
also increases. allowing maintenance on one hub f rom the
Maintenance of all pin-type couplings con- outside; or
sists of changing the flexible unit and the pins.
> Both lock screws buried meaning that the
This is easily done with link connectors but may coupling must be fully tightened on the com-
mean moving the motorordriven unit when a disc
ponent before setting up the driver and driven
or ring coupling is being fitted. machines.
As shown in f igure a below, the coupling l-BI
halves are at the ends of their respective shafts
giving no difficulty when changing the disc.
!"t;e * -r-r
--1Mf-E +J.r

As shown in f igure b, if the shafts are almost _-Lr_ 1 A

touching and one coupling half is f ixed back on
nd r+'l ,! l'
the shaft, the drive must be taken apart to replace Jo
the coupling disk or ring. -rlll
II
tlffif _ ll
L1-JNd \J \ -i I
t,r\
l-.r-l
Ft-.llx
L^
p
Fig u re F-U -*
Possible mounting styles

Shafts apart Shaf ts

almost touching
Fitting a Disc or Ring Coupling Taper Bushing Hubs

Pin and Link Conneclor Couplings

Alternate pins will stand reversing

,Z'o
O o\
-.'/
\
o\ () \o
\\
\o -.tt
a-/
o'

Figure c Figure d
152 COUPLINGS
High-Speed Couplings
Most couplings run at relatively low rim
speeds and the dynamic balance of a coupling is
therefore not too important. lf a company is
running a vibration monitoring program, it may
be to its advantage to use balanced couplings to
obtain low readings.
A six-inch diameter coupling has a rim speed
of 2830 feet per minute at 1800 rpm, and a rim
speed of 5660 feet per minute at 3600 rpm. At 3600
rpm, the coupling must be dynamically balanced.
When installing dynamically balanced, high-
speed couplings, the same instruction for the
assembly of parts and fasteners should be
followed.
Note: Do not add or subtract lockwashers or
change fasteners or nuts as this will change the
weight distribution of the coupling.
Spacer Couplings
Spacer couplings of various styles use a
short spacer containing one f lexible unit (Falk) or
two f lexible units (Thomas and others). These are
commonly used with centrif ugal pumps - where
the spacer can be removed to allow disassembly
without moving the pump or the motor on the
base.
Coupli ng Coupling
, l, -t
Pump Motor PumP
Spacer Coupling
For maintenance of a pump/motor assembly,
the spacer is removed, the vertical casing
fasteners of the pump removed, and the complete
pumping unit lifted out. The position of the pump
base or motor base is not changed, so alignment
is not disturbed.
Alignment of the coupling is usually done
with the spacer removed.
lf the pump has an adjustable shaft end f loat
to control impeller clearance, the coupling style
must have some end float capacity.
Floating Shaft Couplings
Floating shaft couplings require two flexible
coupling units, joined by a short length of shaft,
to join the driver and driven machines.
The span in a floating shaft coupling is
usually longer than that in a spacer coupling, and
the components are assembled in the plant
machine shop.
Floating Shalt Coupling with Adaptor
The f loating shaft design allows for more
misalignment than that of single coupling and
also gives more clearance or space to work when
overhauling the machines,
Journal of Steam
Heated Roll
Flanged Adapter
-
-uoupttng
Illll
sJ
ln this typical large roll drive used in the paper industry, all
shafts and bearings are relieved of excessive strain.
Floating Shalt Design
Fluid Couplings
A f luid coupling consists basically of two
members: lhe driving member, called an "impel-
ler" or "pump", and the driven member, called the
"runner" or "turbine".
A fluid coupling transmits power through
kinetic energy or the mass and volume of moving
oil.
The motor-driven impeller has f ins extending
radialiy f rom the centre. ln motion, a continuous
stream of oil is forced outward between the
impeller f ins and around the entire circumference,
then hurled against the blades of the runner. The
 COUPLINGS 153

centrifugal action imparts velocity to the mass of
oil.
The oil stream created by the impeller striking
against the outer ring of the runner fins imparts
energy to the runner. The oil stream continues to
follow the runner f ins, leaving the inner row of f ins
to re-enter the inner row of impeller fins.
The oil is picked up again by the impeller and
given velocity when it loses velocity to the runner.
Drive
Power input
Power
output
Fluid Coupling
During operation, the two coupling members
rotate at different speeds and it is impossible for
the oil to return to the same set of impeller f ins f rom
which it left. The shape and rotation of the impeller
and the shape and rotation of the runner produce a
flow path called a "vortex".
High vortex occurs at start-up when the
impeller is turning and the runner is not moving.
Vortex action decreases as the speed of the runner
approaches the speed of the impeller and low
vortex occurs when components are running at
almost equal speeds.
Driving
member
The higher the vortex, the greater the driving
power as the oil streams strike the runner blades at
an angle approaching 90 degrees. Al zero vortex
the impeller and the runner rotate at the same
speed and the runner is carried in the current of oil.
Fluid couplings allow a motorto pick up speed
before the load is engaged. They also prevent
stalling during overload conditions, even when the
driven equipment is completely stopped, as the
fluid slips between the impeller and the runner.
The prime mover can turn at maximum torque rpm
at all times regardless of the speed of the output
shaft.
The oil used should be of the correct type and
viscosity to meet the coupling manufacturer,s
specif ications.
Routine maintenance for fluid couplings
consists of maintaining the correct oil level.
Some of the smaller size fluid couplings with
welded assemblies allow no easy (or cheap)
means of overhaul and should be replaced when
they fail.
Bolted housing f luid couplings can be repaired
in the shop according to service manual specifica-
tions. Fead the lnstruction Book (RtB).
'--_----l
Flexible
coupling

Fluid and Flexible Couplings

Direction of
oil flow
When used as a coupling between driver and
driven machines, a flexible coupling should be
Rotation of Flotation of used to allow for misalignment and end float.
cra n ks haft transmissio There will be a large gap between shaft ends
shaft which must be calculated in layout work.

Fluid Coupling Vortex Action

154 COUPLINGS

Shot or Dry Fluid When used as a connecting means between a

A quantity of stee/ shot is contained in the
housing. When the motor starts, centrifugalforce
throws the shot to the perimeter of the housing,
where it packs between the housing and the rotor
which transmits power. Under normal conditions,
when speed is established, there is no slippage
between the housing and the rotor. The amount
of power delivered can be varied by changing the
quantity of shot.
The outer part, or housing, is the driver; the
inner part, or rotor, is the driven.
Centrif ugal couplings also supply some
protection against overloading a motor; when the
speed drops, the centrif ugal force will decrease.
Continued slippage will generate heat which
tends to shorten the operating life of thecoupling.
Dry Charge Coupling
motor and a driven machine such as a reduction
unit, a f lexible coupling should be used with the
dry shot coupling (clutch) to take care of any
misalignment.
The rigid construction of the dry shot
coupling does not allow for any misalignment.
Varying the volume of shot in the housing will
change lhe load capacity and s/ip limit ol the unit.
Gentrilugal or Clutch-Style
Couplings
Centrifugal or clutch-style couplings allow
the motor to come up to partial speed before the
load is engaged. This is usef ulwith drives that are
frequently started and stopped under heavy load
conditions.
ln a centrifugal or clutch-style coupling,
weights under centrif ugal force press sections of
the brake lining against the drum or outer ring to
transmit the power.
The weights can be set free and will engage
the f riction material as soon as the motor starts to
revolve. Spring-loaded weights will exert force
only after a certain speed is reached.
Centrif ugal couplings will take care of minor
misalignment, but they willslip when overloaded.
They should not be allowed to slip for any length
of time, as f riction between the material and the
drum will generate a greatdeal of heat. lf the drive
is not under the control of an operator, a heat-
sensing device should be installed to shut off the
power when the drive slips.

Spsclal C0upllngs Characlsrlstlcs

Fluld Coupllngs M8chanlcal Coupllngs

Csntrllugal Axlal
Hydraullc Shol Slllcons Fr08 Sh06 Rsstralnsd Sprlng
'100 percent 100 percent B0 percent
percent of oriver Speed at 75 percent Preset 0 percent
Which Full Load is Appiied
0verioad Protection Poor (1.6 X Poor (1.6 X Poor (1 7 X Good Good Best
normal torque) n0rmal torque) normal torque)
Acceleratron Ccntroi Good Good Good Good Fatr Poor

operatin0 Efficiency 0f ()lutch 95 percent 100 percent 9/ percenl percent

100 100 percent 100 percent

Maximum Permissible (1) 12) (1) (3) (3)

lr,lisalrgnment
Angular 1 '1$2 deg 1 1$2 deg 1 1$2 deq 1 1$2 deq I 1S2deq 1S4 deg

Parallel 0 030 1S64 0 030 l$il 1$64 0 m5

(1) With gear type coupling
(2) With flexible disc couPling
(3) With llexlble coupling and c utch c0mbinatron

Oil or grease on the liner material can cause
problems due to "grabbing" or slipping.
Output member Shoes
M
lnput member
reD
Engaged
d isengaged
Centrifugal or Clutch Coupling
Coupling Alignment
To ensure maximum service life, coupling
alignment should be as accurate as possible.
Alignment requirements will depend upon the
following factors:
> The speed of the coupling;
> The tools used;
> The time available'
> The machine foundation; and
> Company policy.
As a general rule, speeds up to and including
1200 rpm require simple alignment tools, while
speeds over 1200 rpm call for dial indicator work
and very accurate alignment. However, company
policy may call tor all coupling alignment to be
done by a dial indicator to specified standards.
When replacing a motor during shutdown,
several hours may be allowed f or alignment, but if
the motor is to be replaced during mill run and
COUPLINGS 155
there is a production time loss, the alignment may
have to be completed in minutes.
Foundation design willalso influence accur-
acy of alignment. A motor-driven unit fastened to
a solid rigid base, which in turn is grouted and
bolted to a concrete foundation, is suitable for
dial indicator alignment. On the other hand, if the
motor-driven unit is bolted to a light base sitting
on timbers or structural steel, any dial indicator
alignment is a waste of time, as the components
will shift under load conditions.
Misalignment Conditions
The basic conditions for misalignment are
angular misalignment and offset misalignment,
or a combination of the two.
The f igure on the left below is an illustration
of angular alignment the shaft axes are not
parallel but intersect at- the coupling.
The figure on the right below is an illustration
of o/fset alignment shaft axes are parallel but
of f set.
-
WF
Angular
misalig
Misalignment
n ment
Off set
alrgn menl
Gap
A Grp B Atigned
Combined Angular and Oflset Alignment
Angular misalignment is corrected before
offset. Vertical misalignment, angular and offset,
is corrected by the use of shims, while horizontal
misalignment, angular and offset, does not
require the use of shims.
Deliberate Misalignment
Deliberate vertical misalignrnent is put into a
coupling when one component has a marked
156 COUPLINGS

tem perature d ifference f rom ambient to operati ng These shims must be in position for all the
temperatures. following alignment checks.
lf the driven heats up, the motor must first be The shims used for the soft leg may be
aligned high; if the driven chills, the motor must drilled for the base bolt and any shims used for
first be aligned low. The amount of deliberate correction of height or vertical alignment may
misalignment is usually given in the machine be slotted. This will guarantee that the soft-leg
specif ications, but can be calculated by using the shims stay in position and that it will be easy to
regular expansion form ula: insert or remove the slotted shims.
Expansion - coefficient of expansion x
> Check f or end f loat
temperature difference x length. - end f loat is usually not a
problem during alignment, as most equipment
The assembly should be shut down briefly
uses anti-friction bearings to locate the shaft in
and checked for alignment after the components
a fixed position.
have come up to operating temperature.
Occasionally a motor or machine uses sleeve
Routine Checks Before Alignment bearings which allow the shaft to float. ln this
Belore aligning a coupling: case, the shaft must be located in a def inite
position and held there during alignment. The
> Check the base bolts with a wrench the base
-
should be f irmly fastened to the foundations;
locating means should prevent the shaf t end f rom
flcating, yet allow for shaft rotation.
> Check the driven unit
- the driven unit is
usually the fixed unit for reference and should Alignment Tools and Equipment
be: > Simple tools:
o Firmly bolted to the base;
o Higher than the motor or movable unit, to
o Straightedge or modif ied straightedges;
r Taper gauge or feeler gauges;
allow for shims under the motor; and o Calipers inside or outside;
o Should have all bearings in good condition; -
> Precision equipment:
> Check the motor pads on the base remove
any high spots or paint with a
-
scraper or f ile;
o Dial indicators;
o Suitable stands;
> Check the motor f eet remove any high spots
with a scraper or file;
- o lnside micrometer; and
o Paper and pen or pencil. I
> Put the motor on the base in the approximate
position
- Check for "soft leg" or "legs" (one
leg not contacting the base pad) by:
Alignment Routine
Alignment routine will vary from one mill-
o Using a feeler gauge under each foot; or
wright to another and from one plant to another.
o Rocking the motor across the diagonal feet.
I

A suggested alignment routine is as /o//ows:

> Mark the coupling halves with mate marks
unless the marks are already indicated. The
coupling halves should be turned together with
the mate marks keeping the same relative
position;
> Rough align the coupling or components,
> Bolt the motor down, then check for accurate
alignment. Work to the longest radius or the
longest f lat surface when using a straightedge;
> Correct the vertical angular misalignment f irst,
Check lor Solt Legs then correct in one of the following sequences:
r The horizontal angular misalignment, the
The motor may have dropped while being vertical offset, and the horizontal offset; or
moved. lf necessary, shim to remove any soft r The vertical offset, the horizontalangular, and
leg or legs and use large, thick shims to the horizontal offset. (By this sequence, all
maintain maximum contact with the f oot. shim work is done f irst.)
 COUPLINGS 157

Alignment is checked at the four points Alignment Checks with Simple Tools
shown below, with both coupling halves being
rotated together to the successive positions.

A
la
I
r- I

I
Straightedge f or offset
al ignment;
outside calipers forangular

lt
I
A J B

a a (

Four check points J

Taper gauge and straightedge
I

Rolate the Coupling Halves

The following diagrams show the possible

means of checking alignment with simple tools:
Some couplings such as Falk, roller chain,
sprocket, or gear couplings, have a very small
contact area on the outer circumference and may
be aligned by using a special straightedge which
bears on the coupling hub.

Straightedge and inside calipers

For Small Contact Areas Use a Special Straightedge

Spacer couplings can be aligned from the

shaft using a long straightedge mounted on the
larger shaft or clamped in a special V-block to
'158 COUPLINGS

Spacer Couplings gain clearance between the straightedge and the

Align with straightedge
shaft.
Dial lndicator Alignment
For the most effective use of dial indicators,
the base should be provided with jacking screws
for fine adjustment. Some motors or units have
the feet drilled and tapped for vertical jacking
screws. These screws must be slacked off when
the motor is f inally fastened down to allow for f ull
foot pressure on the shims.

El [-ol

LJLJ
Jacking bolts for frne adjustments
Dial lndicalor Alignment
Angular checks
When working on the base with the f irst
installation, it is best to run a tap through the
threaded holes as they may be distorted from
welding or have weld splatter in the threads.
The detailed f igure below shows a metal f iller
between the jack screw and the motor base that
prevents the end of the screw from digging into
the motor foot.
Note: Slack off the motor bolts before using the
jacking screws:
Offset checks > Distance L should be sma// as projecting
jacking bolts can be a hazard.

V-block lo Galn Clearance

t
t
I

First lnstallation with Jacking Bolls

One or two thick shims should be used for

fillers and a few thin shims used for minor
adjustments.
Shim material is often chosen from what is
available in the plant. Brass shrm stock, rolled

steel, or galvanized plate may be used as shim
material, but in corrosive areas, stainless steel or
brass will give a longer service life.
Nofe: Keep the shims under the feet. Exposed
shims are subject to mechanical damage, corro-
sion and paint.
The slotted shims in figure a are better for
making minor adjustments than the solid shims in
f igure b. The strip shims in f igure c are nat
recommended, as they can be crossed during
installation or mixed up when making adjustments.
A single strip should never be under a foot when
shimming.
l--lr--l
ll
io ,4.
r[
'\-/,,
)t
Figure a Figure b Figure c
Shim Styles
When tightening down hotding bolts, the
same sequence with the same amount of torque
should always be followed. Theoretically, when
the motor does not rock on the base, any bolt
tightening sequence should be the same, but in
practical use, there can be different results with
different bolt tightening sequences.
Horizontal Travel
Mounting a dial indicator on each foot
provides an accurate check of the horizontal
movement.
.t Movement ..,
Horizontal Travel
COUPLINGS 159
Dial lndicator Mountings
Dial indicators must be mounted on a rigid
support with no deflections. This type of support
will depend on the coupling style and location. A
magnetic base is effective, as it can be attached to
the shaft or coupling hub and used with various
length rods. The base may be knocked off with
careless handling.
Lightweighf stands can be made by welding
or screwing a rod of correct diameter into a small
V-block. The V-block can be held in position with
a C-clamp. Threaded rods give a choice of
effective lengths.
Clamp stands are used with any style of
coupling, either during installation or for a final
check after machine has come up to operating
temperature.
Clamp Stands
Another effective holder is a rod of the same
diameter as the indicatorfittings, threaded forthe
setscrew hole in the coupling. This will require
several rods, due to the different diameter
setscrews. The rods must be locked in position by
jamming them onto the shaft, using a jam nut on
the coupling, or by screwing them tight to the
ni
shou lder.
ltt
EI
Rod Mountings
160 COUPLINGS

Alignment clamps or bars of various sizes
and styles can be made in the shop to suit local
use. They are effective and will not slip under
careless handling.
An alignment bar with a long reach must be
braced to prevent sag. lt is usually built to suit a
particular coupling installation, while a clamp
can be used on several styles and sizes. Long
span bars should be checked for deflection, due
to the weight of the Parts.
3/8 Cold
Alignment attachments may belong to the
millwright or to the company.
Company attachments should be handled
with care and returned clean to tool storage or a
suitable location where they will be readily
available lo all millwrights. Any damage or
distortion should be reported.
Dial indicator reading can be taken directly
off a coupling hub, provided it has a finished
outside rim and sufficient space between halves
to clear a dial indicator.

1/4x11/2F.8
Opening to suit
common shaft

Ang ular

Clamp Bar Mountings

To mount a dial indicator:

> Attach the clamp to the short length of the shaft;
> Mount the indicator and load dial on the shaft;
then
> Rotate the shaft to get the top and bottom
read in gs.
Any change in dial reading will show def lec-
tion.

Dial lndicator Reading lrom a Coupling Hub

To speed up alignment work, two dial indica-

coupling tors are often used to obtain angular and offset
readings at the same time. (See f igure a and
f igure b on the next page.)

Clamped

Angular and Oflset Readings
The inside micrometer used only with dial b
below can also be used to check alig nment.
Using lnside Micromeler
COUPLINGS 161
Two-dial Mounling
Written Records
For an efficient work routine, readings
should be recorded, rather than trying to remem-
ber them. Recording results is vital when taking
readings from two dials.
Norej The dial readl ng is twice the actual mrsal ig n-
ment
- 0.002" offset on the dial_ 0.001" actuat.
The degree of dial indicator accuracy will be
set by company policy. Some accepted standards
a re:
> 0.001 of an inch of coupling radius;
> Up to 1800 rpm: 0.0006 x coupting diameter; or
> 3600 rpm and up: 0.0003 x coupling diameter.
Calculations to Correct Misalign-
rnent
The use of some simple calculations can
reduce the time needed to correct vertical
Figure a
angular misalignment.
The diagram below illustrates some methods
of calculating the shim thickness needed:
Shims to Correci Misalignment
162 COUPLINGS

Probtem A - Trial and calculation. angular > The shims under X will raise the coupling by
misalignmenl0.024" on f irst check. C/B x shirn thickness;
> The shims under Y will lower the coupling by
Procedure
- Put a trial shim under low feet at
the back, tighten down, and take a new dial A/B x shim thickness; and
reading. Assume a shim 0'010 of an inch thick is > The shims under X or Y will change gap G by
used and the new dial reading is 0.016 of an inch: D/B x shim thickness.
With dial indicator readings taken on a post
The change in angular alignment 0.024" -
0.016" 0.008"
- or stand (see llgure b):
- D- the diameter of the indicator sweep;
0.008 0,024 and
-
0.010 x A or C - the distance f rom the centre of the
X- 0.A24 x 0.010
dial to the base hole, usually taken for calcula-
0.008 x
tions.
X 0.024x0.010 - 0.030
- 0.008
Problem B
- Calculations onlY:
Shims for low feet can be found by the formula:
Answer: 0.030" shim Pack Shims needed bolt centres misalignmenl
- -
reading diameter
A{ter a 0.030" shim pack is installed, check
the dial again to see if the alignment is within - 10 x 0.015 - 0.025"
desired limits. 6
_T A 0.025-inch shim pack should be installed
under low feet, then tightened down and dialed to
see if the alrgnment is within the desired limits.
I
Some minor shimming maY be needed.
U
Horizontal Misalignment
Occasionally horizontal misalignment can-
I
not be corrected by moving either unit because
there is no room left for adiustment.
_-t_ S/ighf misalignment can be correcteC by one
or several of the following methods:
> Slot the base holes in either unit, usually in the
motor. Before slotting any motor base holes,
check on company policy, as some plants will
not allow base holes to be enlarged;
> lf the motor is held down by a bolt and nut
(rather than a cap screw threaded into the

Figure b
Calculating Angular Misalignmenl Necked Base Boll

>
base), use a smaller size hold-down bolt on the
motor;
lf the driver is held down by cap screws, turn
down the shoulder of the cap screw. The
amount turned down must be equal to the
thickness of the foot plus clearance for shims.
The turned shank diameter should not be less
than the root diameter of the thread.
Notei When using the second or third methods, a
smaller bolt or turned-down bolt will reduce the
effective holding power applied to the motor
base.
lf the amount of misalignment cannot be
corrected by any of these methods, a common
procedure is to f ill the f astener holes in the base,
align the motor, mark the hole position and drill
new holes, or drill and tap new holes.
Problems may arise if the original motor is to
be replaced immediately; the original holes will
need to be opened up. lf this is the case one
possible solution is to:
> Change the style of coupling to allow the motor
to be moved awayf rom, ortothefixed shaft;this
allows new holes to be drilled to suit the space;
or to
> Move the coupling halves along the shaft; this
allows new holes to be drilled to suit the space.
Nofe: The cost of a new coupling may be less than
the time loss and/or wages paid to fill, mark, and
dri ll new holes for each motor change.
Rigid Coupling or Shaft Alignment
Rigid coupling alignment or shaft alignment
is usually done by moving an individual bearing,
rather than a pair of bearings in a common
housing. Procedure and tools used depend upon:
> The shaft diameter;
> The span between the bearings;
> The rpm; and
> The styles of bearings.
A large diameter shaft with close bearing
supports would be aligned in the same f ashion as
any flexible coupling, but to a very close degree
of accuracy.
ln f igure a, if the bearings at A and B are anti-
f riction bearings, the alignment must be accurate,
but if bearings atAand B arefrictionbearings with
large clearances, the alig nment can be less
accu rate.
COUPLINGS 163
[T. _] o
-T
.J-
k-ra"-i k--,u'--N Figure a
Clearance in Shalt Alignment
ln f igure b, the 1 7/16-inch diameter shaft is
relatively f lexible and will show a deflection due
to shaft weight. ln this case, routine alignment
consists of joining the coupling to bring the shaft
ends in line, and then aligning the shaft, not the
coupl i ng.
i_lr
7 /16" Figure b
Deflection Due to Weighl and Distance lrom Support
Line Shaft Alignment
Coupling alignment on line shafts, unless
turning at high speed, is not as critical as that
required with flexible couplings. However, the
better the alignment, the better the service life of
the shaft and bearings.
The foundation also has a bearing on line
shaft alignment. A line shaft supported by a solid
concrete foundation will maintain alignment,
while a line shaft supported by structural steel
members or timbers can show changes in align-
ment due to structural changes.
Before starting alignment, all bearings
should be checked f or wear. Some plants require
all belts and chains to be slacked off bef ore
alignment to prevent loading of the shaft. Other
plants require all belts and chains to be in
position, 1.e., the "running" position of the shaft
with regular loading.
Shaft life on line shafts or lay shafts depends
on maintaining bearings in the proper position so
as to keep the shaft straight in both horizontal and
vertical planes.
Simple and Precision Checks lor Alignment
Horizontal positioning of bearingsischecked
from a taut steel wire that is stretched parallel to
the desired shaft position. The wire is anchored to
supports not connected with the bearings or lay
164 COUPLINGS

shaft, and is stretched as taut as possible to
minimize sag. Measurements are taken with a
steel tape or calipers.
Precision checks for line shafting can be
done by using:
> Optical equipment, such as a builder's level or a
transit; or
> Laser beams and receivers.
When using either of the above methods, the
elevations of all bearings should f irst be estab-
lished before making vertical adjustments.
Alignment Routine
ln the diagram below, the distances at A,
C, and D are brought to the same length. ln some
cases, it may be necessary to drop plumb bob
lines f rom the taut wire and measure from the
shaft to the plumb line.
When the shaft is lifted for repairs, the steel
line can sometimes be stretched through the
bearing centres, and measurements taken from
the line to the bearing surface.
The results will depend on the strain put on
the wire and the span between supports holding
the wire, as the wire willalways have a slight sag.
A | ^r ^^
,I
I f
,],
A B C D
.l .t.
Vertical positioning can be checked with a
good carpenter's level, but an accurate check is
obtained by using a shaft level. The level must be
used on a section of shaft that is smooth and free
of rust spots or bumps. The level is used on both
sides of the bearings.
With the shaft removed, the bearings can be
checked with a level and a long straightedge, as
shown below.
All bearing elevations must be checked
before doing any adjustment of the shaft by the
removal of the shims. Shims may only be removed
as far as the smallest shim pack.
B,
c
Unequal Shims
The existing building conditions should be
checked before bringing any shaft to an absolute
level. ln an old building, a generalsag, due to the
foundation settling, may cause all components to
lie on a slight angle. ln such a case, the shaft must
be installed on an angle to suit the existing
machinery, and the leveladjusted to the required
sloPe Level

I
Machine Runs "Oll Level"
Dislances in Alignment

Use ol Level
Bea rin g
Line c hecked
ilEl?."u-_*',."
-, E -.-
i\% .7 r-l
CD
Simple Level Checks
 CLUTCHES 165

9. Clutches

A clutch is a device by which two shafts or shock. lf one member is not turning, engagement
rotating members may be connected or discon- may be impossible. A simple jaw clutch consists
nected either while at rest or when in relative of two or more square jaws in mesh as shown in
motion.
- figure a.
Clutches may be divided into three types, Figure a Figure b

according to the means of power transmission:

> Mechanical:
o Positive contact;
o Friction type; or
o Over-running, Simple Jaw Clutch Spiral Form Clutch
> Hydraulic; or Two-directionrotation One-directionrotation
> Electrical.
The spiral form in f igure b is used to obtain
Clutches can be further grouped according easier engagement, but will only transmit power
to their shaft position: in one direction. lncreasing the number of teeth
> All parts on same shaft; or increases the possibilities of positive engagement
> Connecting different shafts, or used as a and also takes less movement to enqage or
cou pl i ng. disengage the teeth.

When clutches are used to connect two Friction Clutches

shafts, care sh ou ld be ta ke n to min i m ize m isalig n- Friction clutches, the most common mecha-
ment. Clutch life can be extended and mainten- nical clutch, depend on frictionalforces between
ance time reduced by having parallel and concen- the contact surfaces in order to transmit power.
tric contact surfaces. In expanding orcontracting Engagement can be made while components are
ring types the degree of concentricity or internal still, or in relative motion.
clearance between the ri ng and the drum will
affect the balance of the operating parts. As with
couplings, the closer to perfect alignment, the
longer the service life.

Mechanical Clutches
Positive Contact
Positive contact usually applies to jaw, and
toothed clutches.
Jaw clutches assure positive drive with no
slippage, but have certain disadvantages. En-
gagement above a very low speed is not advisable
and engagement at any speed is accompanied by Friction Clutches
166 CLUTCHES

Construction and use separates clutches
into disc or drum tyPes.
Disc or Drum Clutches
Disc clutches have one or more f riction
plates or discs which move axially to contact
mating surfaces. A car clutch is an example of a
single disc clutch.
Drum clutches have two or more curved
friction plates moving away from the centre of
rotation when internal-expanding; or moving
towards the centre of rotation when external-
contracting. Car brakes are an example of
internal-expanding friction surfaces.
Spri ng
Cylinder
with 2
pistons
The driver with the back pressure plate is
keyed and held in position on the shaft.
The toothed friction plate f its in the gear ring
and is located between the back pressure plate on
the hub and the toggle plate. Under pressure f rom
the toggle plate, the toothed friction plate
transmits pressure f rom the driver power to the
gear ring. Pressure is obtained by a lever and
yoke acting through toggle action.
The diagram below shows atwin disc coup-
ling wilh power being transmitted through two
toothed friction plates to the gear ring. Pressure
is obtained by forcing a circle of steel balls into a
wedge-shaped groove. Springs ensure positive
separation of the pressure plates and the friction
disc when the pressure is released.

Friction
material

Adj usti ng Spri ng

screw

Single Drum Clutch

Levers, air or hydraulic pressure, centrif ugal

force or eleciromagnetism may be used to
engage the clutch or force the friction sur-faces
against each other.
The basic mechanism of a simple f riction
clutch of the disc type with hand lever control
consists of a clutch hub, pressure plates, friction
disc or discs and operating parts or linkage
connected to a lever.
Twin Disc Friction Clutch
Where possible, clutches with a stick or
manual control should be mounted with the
clutch mechanism stationary when disengaged.
Centrif ugal clutches are commonly used as
couplings. Their use is discussed in the section
on couplings.
Load limit clutches are used in special
applications where the driven member, such as a
sprocket or gear, is held between the friction
materials under a determined pressure. When
overload conditions occur, the driven member
slips between the friction material until the
overload conditions are corrected.
ln the next diagram, adjustment is obtained
to meet load conditions: springs can be used in
place of fixed cap screws; the amount of pressure
being determined by the compression of the
spri ngs.

Toggle Clutch
 CLUTCHES 167

adi

Torque Limiting Assembly

Clutch Maintenance
Basic maintenance consisfs of:
> Maintaining adequate pressure on the friction
plates by means of the adjusting ring;
> Keeping linkage on the control arm from
becoming sloppy the wearing surfaces
should be inspected- periodically to maintain
the condition of the friction ptate and the
friction material, Air Diaphragm Clutch
> Depending on the type of friction material and
service, the contact faces may need to be wiped Figure b

off with carbon tetrachloride or a similar solvent

to remove excess grease; and
> The f riction plate should be replaced before the
rivet heads show signs of wear in the riveted
types, or excessive wear takes place with the
molded type.

Air-Operated Clutches
Air-operated clutches can be the disc style,
or internal-expanding or external-contracting
types.
Dlsc sty/es use either a diaphragm or an air
tube to apply pressure to the friction parts.
ln f igure a, a diaphragm is used to transferthe
air pressure to f orce the pressure plates and discs.
The springs ensure positive separation of the
pressure parts when the air is released.
Figure b shows an air tube being used to
Air Tube Clutch
168 CLUTCHES

apply force. The tube is composed oi several
layers of fabric with a neoprene outer cover and
inner cover. Springs ensure the positive release
of contacting Parts.
Basic maintenance mainly concerns the
condition of the friction and disc faces. The
clutches require no adjustment to maintain
correct pressure on the friction faces.
lnternal-expanding or external-contracting
clutches use a rubber and fabric tube expanding
under air pressure to provide contact between the
Figure a Clutch
mem ber
gland Clutch engaged
Fri cti on
lin ing
f riction shoes and the drum. ln this style of clutch,
no end thrust is develoPed.
The diagram shows an external-contracting
clutch in an engaged position , f igure a, and a dis-
engaged position, figure b' The same principle
applies to an internal tube stYle.
Friction shoes are mounted in segments or
blocks to allow for necessary movement as the
ring circumference increases or decreases. The
space between the blocks also allows a certain
amount of air f low to reduce the heat caused by
f riction" Segments can be molded or riveted to the
backi ng

Clutch or
brake rim
Compressed Air Admitted to Clutch Member Gland

Figure b Clutch
member
gland
Clutch disengaged
Friction
lin ing

Friction Shoes
Clutch or
brake rim Three standard ways of using an external-
Compressed Air Released lrom Clutch Member Gland contracting clutch are shown in the diagram below

Standard Clutch APP|ications

Figure a Figure b Figure c

 CLUTCHES 169

Figure a
>
- an application where a sheave
sprocket or gear can be mounted on hub H;
Typical Wear Patterns of a Magnet and Armalure Disc

> Figure b
- the clutch is used as a coupling to
connect two shafts; and
> Figure c
- the clutch is applied as a brake
where the tube and friction block member is
mounted on a stationary member.
An internal-expanding or external-contract-
ing clutch is f requently mounted with a common
drum to give controlled starting and stopping.
Air-activated clutches require a minimum of
adjustment once they are properly installed; to
maintain, periodically check the condition of the
friction or the wearing faces. The speed of
engagement is controlled by the volume of air
reaching the diaphragm or tube. The amount of
torque delivered, up to the capacity of the clutch,
can be varied by a difference in air pressure.
Controls can be located at the machine or at a
distant point. General information for pneumatic
controls and valves applies to clutch controls.
Quick exhausting valves will permit the o\
instant release of air pressure to produce disen-
gagement of the driven part without a slight lag \0\
due to the gradual reduction of air pressure. Air is ,\o
introduced into the passage in the revolving shaft
by means of a special fitting.

Electrically Activated
Clutches
The disc clutch can also be operated by the
electro-magnetic engagement of an armature
disc and magnet, asshown, inthediagram atthe right.
The working parts consist of a magnet and a
movable armature which slide on pins mounted in
a hub. The armature disc is composed of mag-
netic metal segments attached to a steel back
which has a bushing to provide a large bearing
area on the drive pins. The springs on the pins
move the armature away f rom the magnet when
the current flow is stopped.
The magnet consists of a coil in a shell of
magnetic material which is faced with a molded
friction material. When the magnet is fixed or
used as a brake, current is supplied through a
conduit box, but when the magnet is used as a
clutch or coupling, the current is supplied
through slip rings.
170 CLUTCHES

Applications can be as a brake, clutch, or Units operating in "dirty" areas should be

coupling, or as a brake and clutch or as a brake screened or covered to keep out flying particles,
and coupling combination. grease or oil. Oil or grease on surfaces should be
The armature and magnet are installed within wiped off by using carbon tetrachloride on a cloth,
definite relative positions to suit manufacturers' not by soaking the friction material.
tables. The concentric and parallel alignment of The rate of wear will largely be controlled by
wearing surfaces are important and should be set the speed of the engagement and the load.
with a dial indicator to obtain maximum service Starting or stopping a maximum load at a
life. quick rate will shorten the service life of the clutch.
Routine maintenance mainly involves check-
ing that the armature slides freely on the pins
both to and away from the magnet, and checking
the condition of the wearing surfaces and the
amount of wear. A certain amount of wear is
allowed by manufacturers before mating elements
should be replaced or overhauled. Slight grooves
showing on the wearing surfaces will not reduce
operating efficiency. Severe grooving should be
corrected by changing the armature and either
refacing or changing the magnet.

.1
. Drive Pin
2. Armature
3. Stationary field
4. Rotating field
5. Collector rings
6. Hub
7. Brush holder
8. Rotor
9. Clutch armature
10. Clutch field
11. Brake field
12. Replaceable face
Primary
P rimary Clutch-Cou pl i ng

Primary Clutch Primary Clutch-Brake

Magnet and Armature Applications

 BELT DRIVE 171

10. Belt Drive

Belt Drive Theory

Principles ol Belt Drive Operation
Flat and V-belts transmit power by their grip
on the pulley or sheave. Three factors determine
the potential of the grip: Arc of Contact < 180"

> The area of contact; Arc of Contact with Two Pulleys ol Unequal Dlameter
> The tension; and
> The coeff icient of friction. The arc of contact can be increased slighily
by increasing the centre-to centre distance
Area ol Contact between the pulleys.
The area of contact is determined by:
> The belt width; and
> The arc of contact the amount of belt wrap on
-
lhe smaller pulley or sheave.

Unequal Pulleys with Arc ol Contact lncreased Sllghtly

An arc of contact greater than 180 degrees

can be obtained by using:
> A crossed belt drive, or
Arc of Contact - 180"

Arc of Conlacl wlth Two Pulleys ol Equal Diameter and an

Open Drive

Pulleys of equalsize are rarely used in actual

practice; thus, with pulleys of unequal diameter,
the effective arc of contact is less than 180
degrees.
Gr.ossed Bell Drlve

> A drive with an idler pulley or sheave.

172 BELT DRIVE
Drive with an ldler Pulley or Sheave
A crossed belt drive is not usually recom-
mended for use with V-belts, however it may be
used if plant policy requires it. The centre-to-
centre distance of the crossed belt drive assem-
bly must be long enough to limit the internal
stress in the belt.
Calculating the Arc ol Contact
As illustrated below, the precise arc of
contact is f ound by describing the two radii of the
pulley which meet the belt at 90 degrees. ln the
diagram, the arc is 170 degrees.
Arc of
Contact
Precise Representation ol the Arc ol Conlact
The formula for calculating the arc of contact
is:
Arc of contact - 180"- 4.8 (D-d)
C Slack Sides of lhe Belt
D diameier (in inches) of the larger (d riven )
pulley
d diameler (in inches)of the smaller (driver)
- pulley
C- distance (in /eet) between the shaft centres
Since the arc of contact is a major determin-
ant the eff iciency of the power transmission, a
in
scale of efficiency factors called the arc of
contact f actors (K) has been devised to correlate
with the arc magnitudes. An arc ol '180 degrees
has an arc of contact factor of 1 00.
Tension
Tension is the amount of stretch or elonga-
tion applied to a belt. When a belt is installed
"slack" on a drive, the driver is moved to tighten
the belt, elongating it to maintain operating
tension. Because the motor sheave or pulley is
usually free-turning, the belt's top and bottom
strands are under equai tension when the drive is
not running.
Eslablishing Belt Tension by Moving the Drive Pulley
When the drive is running, the driver pulley
powers the driven pulley by pull, which results in
increased tension and stretch on the "tight side"
as it overcomes the load resistance (F). The
"slack side" has no tension increase, since it
simply returns the belt to the driven pulley.
EI
+)
Drive Assembly in Operation, llluslrating the Tight and
The effective tension needed on the belt to
transmit power without slipping is equal to the
tight side tension minus the slack side tension.
The instal/ed tension on the belt
- tension
urhen the drive is not running is expressed as
-
percent elongation or percent tension for f lat or
V-belts The def lection method for tensioning V-
belts is descrrbed in the section on V-belts.
The correct belt length for percent elonga-
tion can be determined by the f ollowing methods:

> On f ixed centre drives:
c Consult the records for the drive; or
o Wrap a steel tape around the pulley (not
around the belt) to determine the accurate
length; if 2 percent tension is required, take g8
percent of the tape length to determine the
f inished length, or subtract 2 percent f rom the
tape length.
> On adjustable centre drives:
o Add 2 percent to the belt length to determine
the f inal length, or multiply the tape length by
102 percent to f ind the f inal length; or
r On the belt between the pulleys, place two
marks 25 inches apart and calculate for 2
percent elongation on 25 inches as follows:
25"-100X1/4"
Therefore: 1/4" - 1o/o of 25"
1/2" 2o/o of 25"
The driver must -then be moved untilthe space
between the two lines on the belt measures 25
1/2 inches.
I
f*"./ 25" - -.- )
I from a few hundred feet per minute to more
Marking Oll a 25" Length on a Belt
Modifying an lnefficient System
A belt drive system can be altered to handle a
greater load in much the same way as a hydraulic
or pneumatic cylinder is modified.
BELT DRIVE 173
Modif ications to increase the belt drive eff iciency
Using the same components:
> lncrease the belt tension in the existing system.
Using new components:
> lnstall a wider belt (or more V-belts)to increase
the area of contact, and
> lnstall a back idler to increase the arc of
contact.
Modif ications ta increase cylinder ef f iciency
Using the same components:
> lncrease the air pressure in the existing cylinder.
Using new components:
> Change the cylinder f or one with a larger
diameter, keeping the same pressure, to obtain
more area.
Guidelines for Belt Drive Operation
> Direction of Rotation - the recommended
direction of rotation for f lat or inclined drives
occurs when the pull is on the bottom strand.
Belt Speeds
>
- functional belt speeds range
than 20,000 feet per minute with synthetic belts.
Speeds in excess of 5,000 feet per minute
require dynamically balanced components
and high tensile materials.
> Power Delivery
- there is a positive relation-
ship between the potential power delivery and
the belt velocity in a belt drive system: the
greater the belt speed in feet per minute, the
greater the potential hp delivery by the belt.
This is illustrated on the next page with flat belt
ratings per inch of width.
Belt Velocity Power Potential
200 feet per minute t hp
1,000 feet per minute 4.5 hp
20,000 feet per minute 22 hp
> Drive Records
- A record should be kept of
each belt drive. The record provides a useful
reference, whereby:
r Parts of the correct size can be selected,
e Unnecessary routine maintenance is avoided;
and
o The need for drive modif ications can become
evi dent.
174 BELT DRIVE

The record should include: On a V-belt, the pitch line of the belt corres-
r The name of the drive and its location; ponds to the pitch line of the sheave. The pitch
o A sketch, and drive details specifying: line of the sheave can be compared to the surface
r Details of the prime mover (type, r.pm, hp of a f lat pulley. Part of the V-bett is above the pitch
or kw); line with a larger part below the pitch line. part E
o The driver/driven pulley or sheave specif i- above the pitch line is stretched, and part C below
cations as follows: the pitch line is compressed.
c Flat belt pulley: OD and width;
o V-belt sheave: OD or PD and number of
grooves;
r Shaft diameter; and
.Styles: plain bore or bushing.
r Belt detail: / ,/
r/ \
o For f lat belts: make and type, cut length or
spliced length; and
Irt, + \
;
t/
o For V-belts: make, type and number.
r lnstallation data:
o The date of installation; and
r Corrections for any drive modifications.
o New components: V-belt Stretch and Compression in Sheave Groove
o New belts: installation dates; and
-
. New pulley/sheaves: installation dates. Construction of V-belts
o lnspection:
o lnspection dates; and V-belts are constructed in a variety of styles;
. Reports on belt/drive conditions. only the general designs will be considered here.
o The dates of any adjustments; and V-belts have four working sections when
r Notation of any conditions around the drive transmitting power:
which are not standard.
Extension Section

V-belts Neutral Line

While both ftat and V-betts are driven by

friction between the belt surface and the pulley or Compression Section
sheave surface, the internal forces acting on the
two belts are quite different.
On a flat belt, the distance L per pty is the Cover
same. As the belt bends around the pulley, the Four Working Sections ol a V-belt
distance L on the contact ply remains the same, t
> Extension section
but each successive outer ply is stretched by a
larger amount. The belt is entirely above the around the sheaves.
- stretches as the belt goes
> Neutral line or pitch line
surface of the pulley.
tension members are usually- where the drive or
located. There is
almost no extension or compression in this
area.
> Compression section
- belt pull
pression and tends to prevent
causes com-
the drive member
from sinkirrg into the V.

--*--
> Cover
- a rubber-impregnated fabric for
hard-wearing surface.
a

t\
Driving Members
The driving member or tension member
Flat Belt Ply Strelch Around Puttey delivers the power in the drive. The grade of the
-
 BELT DRIVE 175

driving member also has a bearing on the amount aaaaalo a a aaaaaaaaaa

la a aar aaaa
aa aa aaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaa? -ar aatraaaa aaa
of stretch, or the elongation in normal service life.
a
> Cord Sty/es
Single layer cord
o
- used mainly on short,
centre drives with small diameter pulleys.
Each strand is separated by, and bonded in
ru bber.

Grommet Style Construction

> Ply Styles

Several plies of fabric can be bonded
together to make a driving section. Like cord
belts, they can be supplied with either a single
Single Layer Cord Construction

o Multilayered cord construction

- for long,
heavy drives. Each strand is separated by, and
bonded in rubber. This type of construction
has two main bands of blocks or cords. These
are designed to flex in one direction and
should not be used with any form of reverse
bend i ng.
> Grommet Sty/es
The layer or layers of small cords can be
replaced by two grommets or ropes to carry the
load. This style has both high load capacity and
oreat flexibility.
Mechanical Joint lor V-belting

Multilayered Cord Construction with Two Bands or Blocks Two-band Ply Belt
of Cords
176 BELT DRIVE

band on the pite h line, or with two bands - one
on the pitch line and one near the bottom of the
belt.
So/id construction or reel stock belt is
supplied in rolls. Various types of mechanical
joints can make the belts continuous.
B0 RC sprocket. A B-section V-belt will fit in a B-
section sheave -' regardless of brand.
The major belt groups in industrial usage are
high capacity or wedge belts, standard V-belts,
and light-duty or low hp belts.
> High Capacity or Wedge Belts have three
standard sizes or cross sections as shown
below:

r 3/81 --I- "3v"

l\ii\\\
\_,/ii'
\\N
t\\\ri\\

m
7/8
f-s/8--]
I
{.'':'', I

Ply Construction Reel Stock Belt "5V"

-
Belts with Concave Sidewalls
Mechanical joint V-belts should not be used
with f lat idlers because of metal-to-metal contact. > Standard V-belts have f ive cross sections.
The mechanicaljoint can be a problem if there is a
vibration nronitoring check on the drive.
>The compresslon secllon of the V-belt can be
either plarn or notched. The notched section
allows smaller diameter sheaves, less srdewall
bulge. and cooler running.
Uft,ffi,ffi,
A

\""""7 f --
rl
----1
r rc"
._-_-____ _.___:_--( i--- 1i/4" ,*l - !

L_J )
standard v-bert
t I
a /A"

Cross Sections ol Standard V-belts

Compression Sections > Light-Duty or Low hp Belts have four cross

sections:
The materials used in plies or cords range 2L 3L 4L 5L
from cotton in some grades of standard belts to V-belt Covers
synthetic f ibres with very high tensile strength
and a low rate of expansion. used in premium The belt cover provides a hard-wearing
g rade belts. surface in contact with the sheave. Most covers
are of bias-cut f abric f or f lexibility. S pecial ru bber
V-belt Size Groups
treatment of the fabric can make a V-belt oil
A V-belt is not rnade with the close tolerance resistant or anti-static.
of a roller chain, but like a roller chain, the V-bett Shapes
corresponding sizes are interchangeable in the
sheaves. lf made to ISO or ANSI standards
- an V-belts are designed with either flat or
B0 RC, regardless of brand, willf it on any brand of concave sidervalls.
 BELT DHIVE 177

j"alghi,Sided V,8qtr
rw,l
ILJI
wiwt Where the belt is put onto the sheaves, the
testing machine consists of a fixed and movable
sheave that is tensioned a definite amount and
then turned two sheave revolutions to seat the
belt properly. The length is then checked for code
-T "8V" length. With most belts, the section and nominal
I
length are printed with the cover, and the code
7/B number is stamped on after measurement.
ln code marking, the standard length is taken
to be 50, with each number above or below 50
F _15/16", t indicating a drfference ol1/32 inch. A belt marked
,A40 49 would be 1i32 inch shorter than standard.

V-belts with Flat or Concave Sidewalls

E7'i. A belt marked A40 51 would be 1/32 inch tonEer
than standard.
Code marking is not uniform and changes
according to length, manufacturer, and material
The sheave sidewall prevents any sideways in the power band. Some belts are coded in one-
expansion of the belt, and as a result, the belt number steps, some in two-number steps, and
wedges itself into the groove. This compression long belts may be in four-number steps.
increases the pulling power of the belt already Matched sets f rom a rnanuf acturer f requently
obtained through tension and the arc of contact. show no code numbers.
V-belts designed with concave sidewalls
should expand enough under bending to make a V-belt Sheaves
f lat contact with the wall of the sheave groove.
V-belt sheaves are made to standard dimen-
V-belt Marking sions to permit the use of different makes of belts
in the same sheave.
V-belts are marked with a code which gives:
ln catalogues, V-belt sheaves are listed by
> The cross section or group; the OD (outside diameter), or the PD (pitch
> The nominal length; and diameter), or both.
> The matching code number. The angle of the beit varies with the section of
the sheave and the sheave diameter; with A- to E-
The cross section and nomi-nal length are set
section belts, the angle can be 34 degrees, 36
by the mold used to make the belt. Minor degrees, or 38 degrees.
differences in length are checked in a testing For routine sheave maintenance, the best
machine.

Suggested Matching Tolerances

When Maichlng Mechlne ls Nol Ayallable

Total Tension
"l'' Used to Match
HY-T Wedoe Belts
Maximum Factory Shlp Same Code Symbol ll Posslble But
and Maxlmum Fleld StGk Never Exceed Followlng:
Warehous Toletance. Tolerance lt Unabte to
(Try to Hold Thls on Hold lo Factory C ongecullve
Le ng ih Field Mstchlng) Tolerance Code SpreEd Code Symbols

3V-100 lbs Under 100" 1/16" 1 /16" 2 1

5V-225 lbs 100" to 220" 2/16" 4/16" 8 2

8V-500 lbs 220" lo 320" .ri Jb 6/1 6" tt 3
320" to 420" 4/16"
/'-\---7-\
(+)
8/1 6" 16 4
rr+) inclusive
Over 420" 5,/1 6" Y/ tb 1B 4
178 BELT DRIVE

ln addition to the standard one belt size

,u{^ S sheaves, combination sheaves
- either single or
'o"9 multiple groove may be used with the smaller
),i\,
1" v*5
-
.{ 3ry BV belt sections.
5/8"tfif 5v ln a plant with a large n umber of V-belt drives
Up to 16.00 using A and B belts with the same diameter and
3/8" \ / 3v
the same ratio of sheaves, the use of combination
sheaves reduces necessary inventory.
The use of matched V-belt drives with all
BELT T.W
belts of the same length is ideal, as allbeits have
Sheave Groove Gauge Bell Gauge the same tensior and do an equal amount of
work.
tool is a set of metal or plastic sheave groove and Matched sets of belts f rom a supplier, when
belt section gauges. put in mill storage, should all be treated in the
For accurate sheave alignment, the distance
E shown below can be a variable, and should be
same fashion
- either left twisted in a coil and
subject to consistent iemperature and humidity,
c h ec ked. or else completely untwisted and hung f rom the
same peg.
* Example: ln an order of eight V-belts, matched
[- -*] and rematched for accurate length, four are left
--T coiled and put on a sheif , two are left uncoiled on
Pitch Diam D the concrete f loor, and two are left uncoiled and
hung on a nail close to a heat source. Several
months later the set is installed, and comments
made about the mismatched set. Why?
lnstalling New V-belts
> Before starting to work, make sure that you
have a new set of belts on hand;
Belt Sheave Dimensions > Follow all the required safety procedures
regarding "lockout" and guarding before
Tables will recommend the minimum dia- working on the drive;
meter sheaves to be used for any belt seciion. ln > Move the drive unit so the belts can be removed
theory, belt lif e is based on the stress set u p by the and installed easily;
smaller sheave, so belt makers recommend a > Check the sheaves for oil or grease, rust, and
"minimum diameter". However, this does not rough spots. Clean or smooth them if necessary;
prevent them f rom selling a smaller sheave than > [-.,lse a groove gauge to check for wear on the
they recommend. sidewalls of the grooves. lf they are worn, report
the situation and make sure it is recorded in the
drive record, if there is one.
> lf there is a section broken out of the groove
edge, it can be replaced by welding; or, if the
break is a small one, it can be repaired using
plastic steel, then turned or smoothed down to
the correct prof ile,
> lnstall the new belts by hand. Do not force the
belts onto the sheave with a pry as the outer
fabric or cords can be broken.

Two-groove Combination Sheave, Showing the Relative

Positions ol the Bells in the Grooves
 BELT DRIVE 179

> Move the driver back into position, tightening

the belt to specifications. lf possible, turn the
drive a few times to seat the belt in the grooves,
Correct tension can be obtained in two ways:
c Pullldeflection method requires a set of
tables.
-
ln the diagram below:
S - span between centres (inches)
D - deflection measured in sixty-fourths of
an inch under proper tension or by the
correct amount of pull set by the spring
scale. There will be 1/64inch deflection
per inch of span.

5
D
s/2

-)
- -+--
\-/
Spring
/lr Scale

Deflectlon Method ol Tlghtenlng a Belt to Specltlcotlons

Yes

lnetalllng New Belts by Hand The table below for pull/def lection is general:
a V-belt manufacturer's. manual will give the
> Work the slack of the belts to one side of the proper figures to suit his particular product.
pulleys before taking it up. lf the belts are lying
in the grooves with slack on both the top and
Recommended Defleclion Forces
bottom, a strain will be put on the belts as they (pull in pounds)
even out against the grip of the sheave grooves.
New
Belt Normal Maximum belts
A 2 J 4
B 4 o 8
t- d 12 14
D 12 22 26
E 21 35 40
The Tight Strand Makes the Sheave Turn Clockwise as the
3V +, I
Slack is Removed
tr\/ I 12 15
8V 20 30 4A

Referring to the tables, find the deflection

required for a new B-section installation with 30-
inch centres, if the pull required is 8 pounds:
The Sheave Turns Counterclockwise s-30"
Belt Tenslon - The Larger Sheave, on the Drlven Part Wlll D-' S-30 - 15"
Nol Usually Turn, ihe Smaller Sheave, on the Motor, Wlll Turn 64 64 32
 180 BELT DRIVE

The motor will be moved until D 15" with B# V-belts. lf the drive is started and the betts slip
pull. - 32 under the load, the belts will need more tension;
> Elongation or percent elongation > Check the drive for misalignment by using a
tape is required. The same routine - isonly a steel
used for straightedge to obtain four-point contact. For
percent elongation in flat belt drives; safety, check both above and below the shaft
> The tape is wrapped around the outside of the centerline. On long centres, a tight line is
L"\l i"t\"lLJ su itable;
.1,1t^ s{^cL-'ru^t belt to obtain the length;
fe,w.Ooe,af

Elongation or Percenl Elongation

> The length obtained is multiplied by the percent

factor and the result is added to the tape length;
*er.sir,-. incr.d,f The belt is stretched or elongated to a new
l" st"eld^ LclF length. (Note; The factors in the tables may not
lncorrect Alignment
\ffiil
t-o \L;s colcr"l.hect be suitable for a V-belt with extra high tensile
\er,.il^. strength numbers.)
Percent Elongation Fpctors t
fU '.J L,,.1' '..t. "- t..r,-.,1' t - (!+ lo-q1.,^1"
',.',i Belt Factor
Stralghtedge touchlng sheaves at
four polnts lndlcales allgnment.
A, B, and 3V 0.01
8V
C, D, E, 5V and 0.0075 > Replace the guards and start the drive to see if
Poly-VLandM 0.005 the belts slip. Observe the general action of the
belts at the same time;
The def lection and percent elongation methods > lf possible, re-tension belts after 24to 48 hours,
are designed to prevent over-tensioning of the as new belts stretch rapidly at first.

lnstallation,andrTake-uD Allowance
*::: Minimum Allowance
Belt- /-----* Minimum Allowance
-* 1"
-.;
/ above Standard
Pitch below Standard Centre Distance Centre Distance lor
Length lor Applicatlon of Belts Take-up Adiustment

B C All Sections
26 to 38 1" 1"
38 to 60 t" 't 1/2"
1 1/2"
60 to 90 1 1/4" 1 1/2" 2"
90 to 120 1 1/4" 1 1/2" 21/2"
'120 to 158 1 1/4" 1 1/2" 2"
'158 to 195 1 1/4" 2" 2" 21/2" 31/2"
195 to 240 1 1/2" 2" 2" 21/2" 4"
24O to 27O 1 1/2" 2" 21/2" 2 1/2" 41/2"
270 to 330 1 1/2" 2" 21/2" J c
330 to 420 2" 2 1/2" J 6"
420 and over 31/2" 1.5o/o ot foot length
. ln each the range is to, but not includinq, the second
 BELT DRIVE 181

ln drives with adjustable centre distances, a f lat, uncrowned pulley at least one-third larger
rhe driver is movable so as to be able to shorten in diameter than the small sheave, and should be
centre distances when installing belts and used on the slack side. An inside idler can be
iengthen centre distances when tensioning belts. either a flat, uncrowned pulley or a grooved
sheave as large, or slig htly larger, than the
t- Allowance for Take-up
]
smallest sheave. lts best location is on the slack
side, or if on the drive side, close to the drive
r
pulley.

I
I

I
I

Drive with an Adiusiable Centre Disiance

For V-belt drives without a movable unit, an

rdler pulley will be needed to act as a belt
.lI :ightener. The idler can either be on the inside or
outside of the drive, and either on the slack side or
:n the drive side.
An outside idler increases the arc of contact,
cut the amount of take-up is limited. An inside
if dler decreases the arc of contact but the amount
te cf take-up is u nlimited. The smaller arc of contact
wrll reduce the hp rating of each belt.
'e
The double bending action on the belt
'educes its service life. An outside idler should be Use of ldlers

Maximum Allowable Spread in Symbol Numbers

Nominal Maximum Allowable Spread Nominal Maximum Allowable Spread

lnside Length ln Symbol Numbers lnside Length in Symbol Numbers

From 15 to 32 Use only 1 Symbol Number From 269 to 358 Limit is 6 Symbol Numbers

From 33 to 75 Limit is 2 Symbol Numbers From 359 to 400 Limit is 7 Symbol Numbers

From 76 to 97 Limit is 3 Symbol Numbers From 40 1 to 450 Limit is 8 Symbol Numbers

From 98 to 162 Limit is 4 Symbol Numbers From 451 to 500 Limit is 9 Symbol Numbers

From 163 to 268 Limit is 5 Symbol Numbers Over 500 Limit is 10 Symbol Numbers
182 BELT DRIVE
V-belt Drive Design
Matched V-belt Drives
For maximum efficiency in a multiple V-belt
drive, the variations in length between individual
V-belts should be minimal. Thus, when making
up a set of belts f rom mixed symbols, fewer
symbols are needed on the short side of the
group.
Example:
ln a set of 6 belts with a 50 standard:
1-47 2-49 3-52 good
J - 4t 2-49 1-52 poor
This allows more tension on the group of
shorter V-belts, stretching them, and tightening
the longer V-belts. The shorter V-belts must be
stretched or the longer V-belts willdo little work.
Various V-belt makers have tables of allow-
able spreads in symbol numbers, consult the
tables for the specific make of belt to be used.
A new V-belt should not be combined with a
set that has been used for sorne time. The old V-
belts will have stretched, and consequently the
new V-belt will be subject to a large amount of
tension and will be prematurely stretched. When
a replacement is necessary, it rs better to change
the complete set.
V-V Drives
V-V drivE are suitable for the greater part of
V-belt power transmission requirements. Both
the driver and driven pulleys in the V-V drives are
grooved. ln terms of speed ratio, the V-V is
practical for ratios of 1:1 to 10:1.
A
Arc ol Conlact Alleclo Belt Elliciency
However, as the ratio increases, the eff icien-
cy of the belt-grip decreases, due to the reduced
arc of contact or area of belt in contact with the
sheave.
ln the diagrams below, A is the driver, and the
recommended direction will have the tighter
strand on the bottom.
Figure a, with equal diameter sheaves, gives
a 1 80-deg ree arc of contact or wrap on each
sheave.
Figure b, with unequal diameter sheaves,
shows how the arc oI contact is decreased. ln
general use, an arc of contact of 120 degrees or
over is considered to be efficient.
ln the diagram below, sheaves A and B are of
equal diameter in each sketch; the arc of contact
can be increased by increasing the centre-to-
centre distance.
Figure b
lncreasing the Arc of Contact
ln addition, the belt on the longer drive will
probably have a longer service Iife, the load and
rpm being equal, because there are fewer sharp
bends around the smaller sheave per unit of time.
Standard sheaves are capable of withstand-
ing rim velocities of up to 5000 feet per minute.
For rim velocities over 5000 to 5500 feet per
minute, the sheaves should be dynamically
balanced.
A velocrty of 3500 to 4500 feet per minute is
recommended for V-belt general use. They are
capable of taking higher speeds.
V-llat Drives
For some drives, the use of the existing f lat
pulley or the fly wheel wiil save the cost of buying
a new pulley. The following factors should be
considered:
> Pulleys driver grooved, with a driven flat
su rf ace;
-
> Speed ratio
- not less than 3:1 in order to give
the belt suff icient contact on the f lat pulley;
> Ce nt re dislances
- equal to or sl g htly less than
r
the diameter of the larger pulley to produce a
correct arc ol contact.
 BELT DRIVE 183

A good example of a V-flat drive is the drive This will be the first empty stud hole after the
f or a home clothes dryer that uses a small poly-V correct length is u ncou pled.
sheave with a two- or three-rib belt wrapped
around the drum end.
The f lat pulley can either be used without a
crown or with a small crown. A slight crown on
the pulley brings the belts together on the crown,
helping to keep them on. The crown also puts
more tension on the centre belt or belts.
Fairly wide flat pulleys are needed to carry
the V-belts in the centre area with a safety margin
at each edge, in case the V-belts tend to wander.

:T
ll
V-llal Drive Assembly
Arrow shows preferred directon of belt travel

Link V-belt

Melric V-belts
The belts can be installed using percent
elongation or de{lBction mbthods to set the V-belts with metric dimensions are now
tension, but the safest way to check tension is to available from sales outlets. They are sized to suit
run the drive under Ioad condrtions and check f or existing inch dimension sheaves and to replace
slipping belts. inch-sized V-belts.
Link V-belts 17mm
10mm ,"'3tt ---fl
Link V-belts are used where it is impossible ++-tf------J-r
or very difficult, due to construction of the
f7l,,, '---l^T
\ /amm
";
\\ /,,,,
machinery, to use endless V-belts. L-J ' \-J '

Link V-belts are made in all standard sizes to

fit standard V-belt grooves. i 32mm
Link belts are deliberately designed shorter
than measured pitch Iength. A-, B-, and C-
sections are I inch per foot shorter and D- and E-
sectrons 1/2 inch per f oot shorter. Tension drops
,
t--lr
\
22mm
---
/ rq'.n,
19mm
I
I

to normal when the belts are running.

The length of the belt is measured from the \__l L Y

end stud to the stud nearest the desired length. lnternational Standards lor V-belts Metric Dimensions
-
184 BELT DRIVE

The inch sizes are converted to the nearest

millimetre for convenience:
Section A: W- 1/2" - 12.7 mm - 13 mm
D- 5/16" - 7.9375 mm B mm
Section B: W- 21/32" - 16.668 mm 17 mm
D- 7/16" - 11.112 mm
-
11 mm
Belt length in millimetres does not correspond to
a conversion from inches to millimetres:
(lnc h) A60 - A1550 (Metric)
860
cl580
-
c60 -
81s60

The metric belt code for matching is based

on 50 as the standard length, with 49 shorter, and
51 longer. Each change of numbers shows a
variation of 2 millimetres. The maximum allow-
able spread of numbers is 7, as opposed to the
American Standard allowable spread of '10
numbers. Double Angle or "Hex" Belt
Belt tension can be checked at installation
either by the percent elongation method or by the Routine V-belt Maintenance
deflection method. When the drive is running:
With the def lection method, force is measur- Check the drive for general appearance,
ed newtons and the amount of deflection is
in making sure that belts are running without f lutter,
0.016 millimetre per millimetre of span. that the drive sheaves appear to be in line and are
Belt installation and maintenance is the same not showing any signs of having moved on the
with metric belts as with inch belts. shaft, and that there is no oil or grease dripping
Joined Belts onto the beits, no dust or other fine material
continually falling onto the belts, and no large
On multiple V-belt drives when the belt ob jects resting on the belts. Correct where
action is not even, or when the belts are turning possible.
over, the use of joined belts or group belts can cut
down on maintenance and also deliver more hp. A
joined belt consists of two or three single V-belts
joined with a common fabric backing to maintain
the correct belt spacing and to prevent whip.
These belts are available in A-D sections and 3V-
8V sections and fit into standard sheaves.
Joined belts must be put on slack and the
sheaves accurately aligned. The sheave groove
prof ile rnust be uniform and in good shape, or the Correct Seating of Matched Set
cover will wear rapidly due to contact with the
tops of the sheave grooves.
Hex Belts
Where several sheaves are driven off one belt
in a serpentine fashion, a double angle or hex-
shaped belt is used. These belts are sized
according to standard belt dimensions and
designated by double letters AA, BB, and so lncorrect Seating of Matched Set
on. The driving
-
member is in the centre of the belt
and subject to the least amount of flexing. Drive Run
 BELT DRIVE 185

Check the position of the belts in the grooves. moving immediately at start-up riction
-belts should ride in the groove with the top of
.
-
between the belt and the sheave can burn the
f

:-e belt just above the sheave. Belts riding at f abric.

: 'ferent heights indicate either a badly worn belt > Cracks or tears on the outer cover can be
-
- worn sheave grooves. caused by:
Belt squealis an indication of a slipping belt, o Prying the belt over the sheave during instal-
,',,rich may be due to f oreign material between the lation; or
:elt and the sheave or, more commonly, overload o Sharp f oreign objects falling into the groove.
::nditions. The recommended way to stop the > Ply separation caused by running a belt over
stueal is to increase the tension on the belt. The too small a sheave willshow up as long tears in
-se of belt dressing is not recommended by belt the upper part of the cover;
-anufacturers. The use of dressing is usually > Wear marks on the bottom of the belt indicate
: ctated by company policy, expediency, or that it is running on the bottom of the groove;
:ctential time loss in production. either the belt is badly worn or the groove is
Belt squeal can also be caused by a heavy- worn.
^anded operator abusing the drive. lf this occurs,
How to Spot V-belt Trouble
:-e best solution is not to increase tension on the
:e t but to modify the operator's habits. Trouble Cause To Gorrect
Belt "chirp" or "squeak" is common. lt is often
:aused by dust, and does not usually harm the > Belt slipping Not enough lncrease the
^^l+
- c L. (shiny sheave tension; tension.
grooves):
lrote. lf the belt continues to slip after proper
:ensioning, the drive is either overloaded or Overloaded Redesign the
- nder-belted. drive; drive.
,'/hen the drive is not running:
Check the belts for signs of uneven wear on > Drive squeals: Overloaded Redesign the
:re sides, cracks or tears in the outer covering, drive: drive.
and signs of wear on the bottom of the belt.
Belts showing side wear often indicate that Not enough Increase the
ihe drive is out of line. The sheave alignment arc of contact; centre distance.
should be checked with either a straightedge or a
i ne. Heavy starting lncrease the
load; tension.

> Belt turned Broken cord Replace the set

over: caused by of belts
prying on the correctly.
sheave,
Cord Touching Pulleys At
Points lndicated By Arrows Overloaded Redesign the
aorrect Drive Alignment drive; drive.

Causes ol Belt Wear lmpulse loads; Use a pivoted

motor base or a
> Totally destroyed fabric covering on the side-
spring-loaded
walls can be caused by:
idler. Apply the
o Oil or grease in contact with the cover,
proper tension.
softening the rubber and allowing the coverto
wear rapidly;
Misalignment Realign the
o Foreign rnaterial lodged between the belt and
of the pulley drive.
the sheave wall, wearing away the covering; or
and shaft;
r The belt being too loose and therefore not
186 BELT DRIVE

How to Spot V-belt Trouble

T

Trouble Cause To Correct

> Belt turned Worn sheave Regroove or > Belt breaks Belt pried over Replace the set
over(cont'd): grooves; replace the (cont'd): the sheaves; of belts. :
sheaves. :
Foreign Provide a drive :
Flat idler Align the idler. objects in shroud.
I
pulley; Reposition it on the drive.
the slack side of
the drive, close > Belt wears Pulley grooves Regroove or
to the drive rapidly; worn; replace the
sheave. sheaves.

Excessive belt Check the drive Pulley dia- Redesign the

vi brati on; design. Check meter is too drive.
the equipment small,
for solid
mounting. Mismatched Use double-
belts; matched belts.
Mismatched New belts Replace the
belts: installed with belts in double- Drive is Redesign the
old belts; matched sets overloaded; drive.
only.
Belt slips; lncrease the
Sheave Regroove or tension.
grooves worn replace the
unevenly; sheaves. Sheaves Align the
improper misaligned; sheaves.
groove angle,
giving the heat
Oil or Change to an
aopearance of condition: OR belt.
mismatched
belts; Sheaves
Pulley shafts Align the drive. Sheave Maintenance
not parallel,
giving the Sheave grooves must be smooth, uniform in
size, with straight sidewalls. Dished sidewalls
appearance of
wear out the bottom corners of the belt and allow
mismatched
belts;
the belt to ride lower in the groove.
Pulley Grooves
Apply the proper Must Be Dished
> Belt breaks: Shock loads;
++
Like This Not This Out
tension, and -
recheck the
drive. r1l
/
Heavy starting Apply the proper
loads; tension and
recheck the
drive. Use a
compensator
Sheave Grooves
when starting.
 BELT DRIVE 187

The "dish out" of the groove can be checked

straightedge, or by the use of
,..'ith a small scale or
a set of templates.
iet Sheaves can be regrooved in a machine shop
:r restore the sidewall shape. This will also mean
:^at the pitch diameter, groove diameter and
:rtside diameter of the sheave will be reduced.
Variable Speed Drives
Variable speed drives can be obtained by
-sing conventional V-beits and mechanically or
-anually adjusted sheaves, or by using a wide V-
:elt with spring-loaded sheaves.
Wide V, variable-speed drives will give a wide
'ange of speeds d ue to the amou nt of belt travel in
:^e adjustable sheave.
Variable Wide V Sheave

Driven Shaft

Driving Belt
Both

, ariable
towards the centre of the sheave until the
Speed Pulley
decreasing belt tension balances the spring force
and the belt stays in position.
All speed adjustment should be done while
Drive Assembly
the drive is running.
A wide V-belt has a cord tension, or power
There are two general styles of drive assem-
member, in a neoprene f iller enclosed by a fabric
cover. The belt is reinforced by cross ribs on the
> Adjustable centres - which consist of a
variable sheave on the drive and a fixed sheave
underside of the belt for stiff ness. The notches
between the ribs allow for flexibility.
'r ln
on the driven belt. ln some equipment, the
llls bottom of the wide V-belt will run in direct
OW
contact with a f lat pulley. This is the equivalent
of a V-flat drive;
> Fixed centres
- which consist of an adjustable
sheave on both the driver and the driven belts.
Adjustment is done by a shifter applying force
parallel to the shaft to move the driver flanges.
Movement of the belt in one sheave is matched
by movement of the driven sheave in the
opposite direction.
ln both styles of drives, the spring f orce tends
to move the f langes together and shove the belt to
the outside. lf belt tension is greater than spring
force, the springs will give and let the belt move
Multi-speed or Wide V-belt
188 BELT DRIVE

Marking on these belts can be a problem. Self-centering sheaves use two movable
Standard V-belts are made and marked to a flanges to keep the belt cenlred on the drive. Two
standard code for section and length. opposing springs or "cams" are used to move the
Wide V-belts are made to an industry stand- flanges in a uniform pattern.
ard of section sizes and angles so that belts from Non-centering sheaves use one fixed flange
different companies can be used on the same and one movable flange, with the pressure
sheaves. The size can be indicated by a standard maintained by one spring.
code molded into the belt, a company code A quick visual check as to whether a sheave is
stamped on the belt, or a catalogue number self-centering, is to check the motor and take-up
attached to the belt. There are no matching assembly in regard to the drive; self-centering
numbers shown on the belts. sheaves have the motor rails parallel to the run of
The standard code gives the width, angle, the belt, while non-centering sheaves have the
and pitch length of the belt: motor rails at an angle.
Belt marking: 1430V315
14 14/16 - 7/8" wide
30V -- 30" angle
315 - 31.5" Pitch length
Example:
Company marking - LovejoY 1B-70:
18 means that the belt will work with # 18
sheave,
# 18 is the variable sheave supplied by Lovejoy;
and
70 is the nominal length in inches.
Centering Sheave Non-centering Sheave
A conversion book is needed to find out how
the above belt will f it into other company makes Variable Sheaves
of machines.
Drive lnstallation
Fixed Sheaves
When installing the drive according to
A f ixed sheave is mounted on the driven part.
working print details, the position of the driver
The belt should drive on the sides of the groove and driven bases will be def inite. When installing
but not touch the bottom. the drive by "field fit", the main purpose of the
drive must be known in order to position the
variable sheave.

Belt Clearance

Groove side wear can be checked by a gauge

or a short straightedge.
Variable Sheaves
Variable sheaves come in a variety of con-
struction styles and sizes, but they all depend on
spring-loading. Drive lnstallalion

lnstalled with the belt at A, the motor will be
cn the slides of the driven sheave end, and the
rive will act as a speed reducer. Moving the
motor will reduce the pitch diameter of the
variable sheave.
lnstalled with the belt at B, the motor will be
on the slides away from the driven sheave, and
the drive will act as a speed increaser, as the
motor movement increases the pitch diameter of
the variable sheave.
Any movement of the belt f rom A to B, or f rom
B to A must be done with the drive running.
Alignment of sheaves can be done with either
a straightedge or a tight line, provided suitable
checks are taken on sheave widths.
lf the driver and the driven sheaves are
checked and found to be of the same width, a
straightedge can be used without any offset
allowances.
When the driver and the driven sheaves are of
different widths, alignment should be made as
shown below.
Wrong Check lor Misalignment
-
and Offset Distance "L"
Dl.I,
-__-E--
D/2
Right - The Belt is Parallel
to the Straightedge
Driver and Driven Sheave Alignment
Stops
Stops to Prevent Over-travel
BELT DRIVE 189
After alignment, the belt should be installed
and the motor moved to seat the belt at the
extreme limits of travel. The belt should not
bottom on the groove. At each extreme position,
the stops should be set to prevent over-travel.
Conventional V-belts in variable sheaves give
a small speed change because of limited belt
travel. Sheave construction generally consists of
a f ixed f lange and one or more adjustable f langes
for single or multiple V-belts.
I
--_r-l L
Variable Sheave Standard V-belt
Sheave Maintenance
Belt wear and fixed sheave wear mainten-
ance will be similar to standard V-belt mainten-
ance. Due to the wide range of sheave styles and
construction, only general maintenance rules will
be given:
> When installing or adjusting a multi-groove
variable sheave, Read the lnstruction Book
(RrB);
> Variable sheaves points to remember:
-
o Lubrication is needed because of the sliding
action of the flanges. Lack of lubrication
causes dry and sticking surfaces. Over-
lubrication can mean lubricants leaking onto
the belt and causing surface darnage;
o Keys or splines are needed to transfer rotary
motion and allow lateral travel.
o The operation of a sheave in one position f or
an extended period of trme can upset the
profiie of the key orsplineand makeshifting
difficult or impossible. lt may be necessary
to take the belt of f in order to create enough
clearance to move the f langes;
190 BELT DRIVE

. Some variable sheaves use nonmetallic Timing or Positive Drive

keys which can shear;
c When using one adjustable and one f ixed Belts
sheave, move the motor to control the amount
of tension in the belts. lf time is not available to Timing, or positive drive belts are used for
make a pull/deflection check, check the applications in which slip cannot be tolerated.
drives for slippage under the operating load. Positive drive is achieved by using a toothed belt
Synchronized adjustment, if both driver and running on toothed pulleys. These belts are
driven are adjustable, will not change the belt frequently used in applications which would
tension to any degree; otherwise require chain drives.
> Most manually adjustable sheaves are supplied
with backing devices to hold the movable plate
or plates. Before making adjustments unlock
the backing devices, and after making adjust-
ments, lock them;
> Any sheave with a fixed flange will change the
alignment of the belts as they are moved up or
down in the groove. Align sheaves in the
position of greatest use to reduce side wear on
the belt;
> Never allow the belt to bottom on the sheave as
the belt will fail to deliver the required power;
> Overhauling spring-loaded sheaves is highly
dangerous; they can break apart easily, due to
the compressed spring. Before removing the Timing or Positive Drive Belt
end plate or cover, position the sheave in a
retaining means such as an arbor press or some Construction
form of clamp; The load or tension member can be a contin-
> Base and slides
- possible problems:
o Slides and guides rusted;
uously wound steel cable for maximum tensile
strength, and resistance to elongation. For
o Slides and guides lubricated but loaded with
general use, synthetic fibre cords can be used.
grit;
The neoprene backing and teeth are molded
. Screw and nut rusted or corroded; around the tension members. The teeth only have
. Collars frozen; a cover of nylon or synthetic fabric duck with a
o Guides stuck
- on some makes, a shear pin is
installed in the adjustment wheel, and can be
low coefficient of friction.
The speed range is quite broad
sheared; - maximum
speed by manuf actu rers' charts is 16,000 feet per
o Guide rods are painted, which they shouldn't
minute. A cast iron pulley should not be used at
be.
rim speeds over 6000 feet per minute.
For general use, a maximum belt velocity of
5000-5500 feet per minute is considered to be the
toplimit. Speeds over5500 feet per mtnute require
special engineering.
Positive drive belts and pulleys are treated
much the same as roller chain and sprockets or
gear drives.

Base and Slides


Types of Backing for Load or Tension Members
Pitch
On-the-belt pitch is the distance between the
tooth centres and is measured on the pitch line,
which corresponds to the centerline of the
tension member.
On-the-pulley pitch is the distance between
the groove centres and is measured on the pitch
circle of the pulley. The pitch circle of the pulley is
larger than the actual pulley circle, and coincides
with the pitch line of the belt.
ln any positive drive, the belt and both
pulleys must have the same pitch.
Pitch and other dimensions are dictated by
manufacturers' standards. Belts and grooved
pulleys are interchangeable.
BELT DRIVE 191
Pitch (Circular Pitch) \,
\. B"lt Pitch Line
/ i Pultey
,'a-s encn
/ Circle
;7-
Manulacturers' Terms
The action between the belt and the pulley is
positive; there is no slipping under a load. lt does
not rely on friction, so there is no need to maintain
the belt under tension. Positive drive belts should
be installed without preloading or putting heavy
tension on them.
Belts should never be forced onto the pulley
over the f lange. Slack should be obtained by
reducing the shaft centre distances, or by
removing one or both of the pulleys and slipping
the belt on.
One pulley
- usually the smaller - must be
flanged to keep the belt in position. When the
centre distance is longer than eight times the
diameter of the smaller pulley, it is good practice
to have both pulleys flanged. On long centre
drives, the belt may have a tendency to run to one
side of the pulley. This condition may be correc-
ted by the addition of a small amount of lead in the
alignment.
On horizontal drives, the belt must be kept
tight enough to keep the slack and tight strands
from rubbing together.
Belts and Pulleys Code
Numbering
-
ln code numbering, the actual length of the
belt is multiplied by ten to avoid the use of
decimals; for example, a 22.5 inch long belt has
code 225. The width of the belt is multiplied by
192 BELT DRIVE

Belt Code and Dimensions 100; thus a 3/4-inch wide belt is referred to as code
075.
The code number indicates:
The pitch length
>
the pitch line;
- i.e., the length of the belt on
1/5" Pitch 1/2" Pitch > The tooth pitch; and
Extra Light (XL) Heavy (H) > The width.

w
. 50"

\#/ Example:
For a belt marked 225 L 075:
225 - 22.5" long on the pitch line
L - 3/8" pitch
075 - 3/4" wide
Pulleys are numbered to match the belt code
0.054" and show:
Belt Tooth Dimensions Belt Tooth Dimensions > The number of grooves;
> The pitch; and
> The width.
A drive using the above belt could be made
up of two pulleys marked:
16 L 075
60 L 075
that is, a 16-tooth pulley for a 3/8-inch pitch and
3/4-inch wide belt, and a 60-tooth pulley for a
3/8" Pitch 3/8-inch pitch and a 3/4-inch wide belt
Light (L) 7/8" Pitch The belts are made in f ive stock pitches with
Extra Heavy (XH) each pitch available in a range of lengths and
v---/
\ / 0.075'
widths.
The belt tooth strength equals the tensile
-=\--;.-.-/.-- strength when six or more teeth are in mesh with
o o2o" \-l/ o o2o" the pulley.
---1--T.---r--
062,'\-rLJ
[-J
0.25"1
o
lr
lFl
o 047"
Poly V-belts
Sharp V- or poly V-belts can be used for very
Belt Tooth Dimensions U,J iZJ small compact drives. Unlike joined, or group V-
Belt Tooth Dimensions belts, a poly V-belt has the driving member or
pitch line located above the sheave. Poly V-belts
come in three industrial sizes; f rom the smallest
to largest they are: J, L, and M. ln addition, the
belt has f ull contact with the sheave grooves.
Each V is known as a rib. Because of the thin
r 40"
\+---a
\ o.szs" /
--1--r-a...= OOCCCOC
o oso', \-lJ o 060',
lr
1 1/4" Pitch
Double Extra Heavy (XXH)
H
0.477"
Belt Tooth Dimensions

Poly V-belt
 BELT DRIVE 193

section of the poly V-belt, it can be used with SPan L"nnrn

fairly small pitch diameter sheaves
- 1.25 inch
PD for J section is the recommended minimum.
The size code on the belt gives the pitch
length, section, and number of ribs. There is no
match number on the belt. lf two belts of matched
size are needed, they must be ordered as a
matched pair.
Sheave or pulley sizes are also coded, giving Def lection
the number of grooves, section, and pitch 0.015" per
diameter. Belt Dellection
inch of span

Belt
67516 Sharp V-drives will be properly tensioned if
the deflection force is applied midway between
the belt's tangent points with the pulley and is
used to deflect the belt. The deflection should be
equal to 0.015 inch per inch of the unsupported
belt span. The force F should be the value shown
in the following table.

Belt Dellection Force

67.5-inch "1"
Pitch Length Section
Belt Smaller Sheave Force "F"
Pulley Cross Section Diameter Range lbs per rib

-tLt J
J
1.32
1.77
-
-
1.67
2.20
0.4
0.5
J 2.36 2.95 0.6
L 2.95 *- 3.74 1.7
L 3.94
- 4.92 2.1
L s.20
- 6.69 2.5
I
M 7.09
- 8.82 6.4
M 9.29
- 11.81 7.7
I
.,1,,
M 12 4A
- 15.75 8.8
6 4.8-i n ch
G rooves Section Pulley Diameter

Size Nomenclalure

Two or more poly V-belts can be used on a

wide sheave, but they should be separated by a
groove-wide space, to prevent contact between
the belts.
Two 3-rib belts would be used with a 7-
Belt Gauge
groove sheave.
lnstallation of belts should be done with the Templates or Gauges
driver moved forward so that the belts can be
slipped onto the sheave. Alignment and tension
routine are the same as f or conventional V-drives.
but alignment must be accurate.
Tensioning belts is done by using the stand-
ard V-belt puil/def lection sketch. The def lection
shown is 0.015 inch (1/64" 0.0156"). The pull is
based on the diameter of the smaller sheave and
the number of ribs per belt. Matching Belts to Sheaves
194 BELT DRIVE

To improve tensioning accuracy, the drive Cord Belts

should be run briefly to seat the belt properly. At
Cord belts are constructed of multiple cords
least one sheave should be freely rotating during
encased in rubber and covered by fabric wear
the tensioning procedure.
covers. Cords are made from rayon or synthetic
ldlers are not recommended for a poly V-belt,
f abric.
but can be used when necessary. Back idlers do
Cord belts made f rom roll lengths should
not stress a poly V-belt to the same degree that
have spliced joints for greatest efficiency. Some
they stress a thicker V-belt.
makers only supply multiple cord belts in endless
Routine maintenance is the same as for
lengths.
standard V-belt drives. Groove wear can be
checked by' using correct section templates. Compass Belts
Flat Belt Drives Compass belts are the most common ex-
ample of cord belt construction. A compass belt
FIat belt power drives are used over a wide
consists of one layer of fabric cords or steel wire
range of conditions of speed, load and centre strands parallel to each other, embedded in
distances.
rubber, and covered by a fabric casing. The
Belt styles can be broadly grouped as:
stretch is not as great as with a fabric belt.
> Fabric ply belts; Compass belting rounds the pulley as a
> Fabric cord belts; and single ply, without the stresses created between
> Synthetic ply belts. the layers of a fabric belt. The cord is usually
made of nylon or rayon f ibres, but high tensile
Fabric Ply Belts
airplane-type steel cable is also used.
Fabric ply belts are made of several plies of
rubber-coated duck vulcanized together. The
material in the ply can be cotton or a synthetic
woven material such as rayon or nylon for greater
strength and a thinner belt. Belts can have
squared or rolled edges.
The number of plies determines the belt
thickness, which in turn determines the minimum
diameter of the smaller pulley used in the drive.

Compass Belt Construction

Fabric Ply Belts

Because of the materials of construction,

fabric ply beits have a tendency to stretch in use
and therefore require frequent checks for belt
tension and slipping. Compass Belting
- Folded or Rolled Edges
 BELT DRIVE 195

Nylon and Synthelic Belts Pulleys

Early nylon belts were made of either nylon
ayers or narrow overlapped strips bonded Width of Belt on Pulley
:ogether. The pulley side was usually a leather The narrowest pulley will decide the width of
triction material to provide a grip on the puliey.
a new belt. The pulley face should normally be
The reverse cover depended on the make and one inch wider than the belt f or pu lleys of up to six
style of the belt. Compared to fabric belts, the inches in width, and two inches wider for pulleys
rylon belts were stiff and were used in narrow over six inches. On well-aligned drives, the belt
rvidths, requiring high tension. width can be closer to the pulley width.
The newer, nylon belts are f lexible, to permit
their use on small diameter pulleys. The general
construction consists of:
> An outside or r'everse cover;
> Nylon power ply or plies; and
> A pulley side cover.

The covers are colour-coded and often made

cf different materials. Unless the belt is marked
to pulley" or "away from pulley", the outside or
reverse side usually has the maker's brand
rndicated, in which case the catalogue should be
consulted for indication of the pulley side. lf the
belt is taken from a roll, the driving surface is
rolled inwards.
Manufacturers usually give the nylon power
member a tensile strength of 57,000 psi. Comparison ol Belt and Pulley Widths

Pulley surfaces should be smooth and clean

without rough spots or build-up of material.
Trade mark or Diameter of the Pulley
code on top of For maximum belt life, the diameter of the
outside cover
smaller pulley should not be below the specif ied
\ minimum.
The size of the pulley depends on the grade
of belting, the number of plies, and the speed.
Manufacturers' tables are needed when choosing
the correct size. Too small a pulley puts an extra
strain on the outer plies of the beit.
Rim Speed of the Pulley
Pulleys with a rim velocity of over 5000 feet
per minute should be dynamically balanced.
Crowned Pulleys
Belts generally move to the largest diameter
Top Cover
of the pulley, and a crowned pulley uses this
tendency to centre the belt. The pulley has a
Drive Member greater diameter at the centre than at the rim.
Pulley Side (This assumes a correctly aligned drive and a
correctly spliced joint.)
Synthetic Bell Construclion The standard crown is 1/8 inch tor each 12
 196 BELT DRIVE

inches of pulley face width, or a 1/96 ratio.

Synthetic belt manuals f requently express the
crown as one percent or a 1/100 ratio. Some types
of very thin belting specify a crown of up to three
percent.
The higher the belt speed, the smaller the
required crown. Too much pulley crown puts
excessive tension on the centre of the belt and
causes rapid wear.
A uniform curve is recommended in order to
equalize the loading across the width of the belt.
Flanged Pulley

Pulley Alignment
For the correct alignment of horizontal
drives, the plane of the shafts should be checked
Standard Curved Crown with a level, and the parallel alignment should be
verified with spacers,
The pulleys should be checked for width. lf
T the width is equal, the straightedge or tight llne
will make contact at four points. lf unequal, the
I

Edge narrower pulley must be offset one-half of the

Diameter difference in widths.
Offset-W-W
-lL

[- Face Width W
-]l

lnches Per Foot of Face Width - C in inches

W in feet
Pulley Crown

ldler Pulleys
ldler pulleys have two main purposes: either
to increase the arc of contact on the driver pulley,
or to act as a belt take-up adjustment.
ldler pulleys run on the slack side of the belt
and should be as large as is practical. They do not
need to have a crown unless used as guide idlers. Correcting the Alignment ol a Horizontal Drive
ldler pulleys cause a reverse bend in the belt,
which has a tendency to shorten the belt life. The driven pulley is usually the fixed pulley,
Mechanical fasteners or high spots in the belt will and is used as the reference point; the driver
cause the idler to bounce. pulley is adjusted to conform with it.
Flanged Pulleys When using a tight line across the f ixed
pulley, a common error is to bring the line in just
Flanged pulleys are used to keep the belt on a until it touches the edge of the pulley and then to
drive where there is a combination of small move it slightly more to maintain contact. This
pulleys and high speed, or when there are sudden can lead to a considerable error in alignment
starts under heavy loads. when there is a long distance between centres.
 BELT DRIVE 197

belt capacrty for the designed load. lt will not give

100 percent of belt capacity under a tension-to-
failure test however.

Straight Pull Across a Fixed Pulley

After alignment and before start-up, if the Splicing a Fabric Ply Bell
pulley has been moved on the shaft, recheck for
tight keys and setscrews. Check the driver hold- Joining by splicing is done by a chemical
down bolts or motor base bolts for tightness. heat press process. The time in the press urill
depend on belt thickness. For best results, the
Belt Joining manufacturers' instructions should be followed.
Splices on Synthetic Ply Belts
Mechanical Fasteners
The type of belt will determine the chemical
Metal fasteners can be obtained in many used. A belt with dissimrlar synthetics may
sizes and shapes. lnstallation is relatively quick
require two different chemicals, while a leather-
and easy, requiring a minimum of equrpment. The
faced belt will require a cement adhesive.
efficiency of these fasteners varies greatly with With a two-chemical splice, care must be
the design and size as related to pulley sizes, belt
taken that:
speeds, operat;ng conditions, and the care taken
by the millwright. > Correct chemical adhesives are used,
> The chemicals are not mixed, and that
Hinged fasteners
>
- the most common type of
mechanical fastener, applied to the squared
> The chemicals are used in small quantities.
ends of the belt; Splices can be made on old belts as wellas on
> Aligator brand (or similar)f asteners new belts, but this is not often done with power
- driven in
with a hammer, the belt does not need to be drive belting.
removed from the pulleys; and
Skived Joints
> Bulldog or Clipper lacing lasteners
- applied
by a machine; the belt must usually. be removed Skived joints on synthetic ply belting are
from the pulleys. faster and easier to make than a lap splice joint.
The ends of the belt are tapered in a hand or
Splicing power driven "skiver" to the correct angle and
Splice work is usually done on contract, due then feather-edged.
to the high initial cost of equipment and the
relatively few times that it will be used. Further-
more, a contract splicer can mark, cut, strip, and
buff a belt in the same time it takes a casual
splicer to lay out the belt.
Large plants with a high number of power
and conveyor belts often have a belt man or crew
responsible f or belt work.
Splices on Fabric Ply Belts
A well-spliced joint is no thicker than the belt,
has a smooth surf ace and develops 100 percent of Skived Joint on Synthetic Pty Betting
r*
r 198 BELT DRIVE
I
I
!

Operating Tips for Belting

Trouble Cause To Correct

> Slips and The belt is too lncrease the belt > Runs off same side when Eliminate the
squeals: loose; tension. pulleys the belt is cause; replace
(cont'd): turned end-for- the belt.
The belt has Use a thicker or end);
insuff icient wider belt.
capacity; lmproper Store properly.
storage;
The pulley Decrease the
crown is too crown taper to The pulley lncrease the
high, causing 1/8 inch per foot. crown is too crown taper.to
wear of the Apply a suitable small; 1/8 inch per foot.
narrow centre dressing.
section of > Whips and A pulsating Eliminate the
the belt; f laps: Ioad or power cause where
source; possible.
lnsuff icient lncrease the arc
arc of of contact. The shaft, Try a change of
contact; motor, or speed or the
machine is addition of a fly
> Excessive The belt Use a stronger, not rigidly wheel to smooth
stretch: capacity is thicker or wider supported; the out the load.
too low; belt. pulley is lop-
sided; or the
> Runs crooked: The belt is Repair the shaft is bent;
stretched on damaged belt
one side by section or Too little belt Tighten the belt.
forcing it over replace the belt. tension;
the pulley;
> Weaves back Pulley is Correct the
The ends are Eliminate the and forth wobbly: high faulty condition.
not squared physical cause across pulley: spot on the
when joining; when installing pulley;
the belt.
Belt is Repair or
The loose belt Eliminate the extremely replace the belt.
is unevenly physical cause crooked;
stretched by when installing
running it up the belt. > Cracked Excessive belt Reduce the
on a flanged outside ply: tension; tension.
or step-cone
pulley; The pulley Provide a proper
diameter is pulley for belt
> Runs off Misalignment too small; or a thickness.
pulleys: of pulleys or severe reverse
shafting (if the bend from the
belt continues idler pulley;
to run off the
 BELT DRIVE 199

Trouble Cause To Correct Synthetic belts should be stored in a cool and

humid place; however, "humid" does not mean in
> Cracked Oil or grease Eliminate the a pool of water or with water dripping on the belt.
outside ply on belt surplus grease
(cont'd): surface; and oil"

> Cracked Burning Treat as for slips

inside ply: caused by and squeals.
excessive slip;

The pulley Provide a proper

diameter is pulley for belt
too small; thickness.

Oil or grease Eliminate grease

conditions; and oil.

Belt Drive Maintenance

Routine Maintenance
When the drive is not running:
> Check the condition of the splice or mechanical
fastener;
> Check the belt f or wear marks, cuts, build-up of
drrt or pitch, oil or grease smears; clean when
necessary;
> Check the pulley's general condition and note
build-up of dirt on the face; clean when neces-
sary;
> Check the pulley bearings
could cause misalignment;
- a worn bearing
> Replace allthe necessary safety guards around
the belt and pulleys; and
> Note any wear or trouble in the log book or drive
records.
When the drive is running:
> Check the belt, while running, for proper
tension and alignment. lf possible, adjust for
tension and alignment while the belt is moving.
Storage
Rubber belting should be stored in a cool, dry
place. The belt roll should be hung on a rack by
putting a bar through the roll hub. lf this is
impossible, store the roll hub or the roll upright,
allowing air circulation. A belt roll lying on one
side in a damp location will absorb moisture,
causing uneven shrinkage and the belt will run
crookedly when put into operation.
200 BELT DRIVE

Drive Math and

Science
Simple Drives
Ratios
The following calculations will deal with the
ratios of speed and size in simple drives.
As shown in f igure 7 f or gear and roller chain
d rive:
1 revolution of R move 20 teeth of gear or
N sprocket
Roller Chain
Gear Drive
Belt Drive 3 revolutions of R will move 3 X20- 60teeth of N
60 teeth of N - 1 revolution
3 revs of drive R X 20T - 1 rev of drive N X 60T:
3X20 or1 X60
-60 -60
The basic speed change {ormula is: R X T- R. XT.
where
R revolutions or sPeed of drive R
-
T teeth or size of drive R
R. - revolutions or sPeed of drive N
T. --teeth or size of drive N
R X T - drive R gear sProcket, and
R. X T. - drive N gear sProcket.
The ratio of speed - 3 revs in 3 reduction
t reu out- l
The ratio of sizes - 20T in 1

OOf *t
- 3

Keeping the same order of comparison, the

ratio of speeds is the inverse of or opposite to the
ratio of sizes.
> ln f igure 2, R is a constant speed and size; and A
is larger than B, but A will turn at less rpm than C;
Therefore, with R a constant size and speed,
any increase in the size of N will decrease the
rpm of N.
Ratlo ol Speedo to Slze ol Rlm Drlven
ln all cases, the rim velocity, chain or belt
velocity will remain the same.
v
l

BELT DRIVE 201

Reduction
The most common way of installing a drive is
with the drive R turning at a higher rpm than the Figure 1

drive N. This is called a reduction and is expres-

207 607
sed by comparing:
drive R rpm
drive N rpm
Gear Drive
> ln f igure 7 with 3 revs of drive R needed to obtain Roller Chain
Belt Drive
1 rev of drive N, the reduction is:
rev in 3
rev out- 1

The reduction in the drive can also be obtained by Figure 2

comparing the drive N size to the drive R size:
Nsize-60-3
R$ze n i
This ratio is often called the size ratio of the gears
and includes sprockets and pulleys. L-_B
Rim Speed and Velocity Two Pulleys on a Common Shalt
- Same RpM, Dlllerent
Rim Speeds
Speed in a drive is expressed in one of two
ways:
> Revolutions per minute; or
> Velocity:
o Either in feet per minute (ftlmin); or in
o Metres per minute (m/min).
> ln f igure 2 the two pulleys on a common shaft
have the same rpm, but different rim speeds or
velocity.
> ln f igure 3 the two pulleys have different rpm,
but the same rim speed or velocity.
Size/Speed Calculations (speed as rpm)
> ln figure 4 the drive has a 4/1 speed reduction. Two Pulleys on a Diflerent Shall Diflerent RpM, Same
> lf drive R has 12T, find the size of drive N: Rim Speeds
-
Beduction - N size
R t""
4N
112
4X12 - N X 1

48-N

Drive with 4:1 Speed Reduclion

202 BELT DRIVE

> lf 'drive N in flgure 5 has 76T, find the size of R:

Reduction - N size
=----:-
H stze
4-76
iR
4R- 76
R- 76 - 197
4
> ln figure 6 the drive R is 6 inches in diameterand
turns at 1 150 rpm. Find the size of pulley needed
for the drive N shaft to turn at 700 rpm:
R - revolutions or speed of drive R
D - teeth or size of drive R
R. - revolutions or speed of drive N
D. - teeth or size of drive N
RXD-R.XD.
7OO RPM
1150X6-700XD.
D-1150X6
700
D - 9.85"
The mathematical answer is 9.85 inches, but in
a catalogue, the closest stock size will be a 10-inch
diameter.
> ln f igure 7 the drive N shaft has
a 45T sprocket
Figure 7
and turns at 39 rpm. The drive shaft turns at 60
rpm. Find the size of sprocket needed for the
drive shaft:
RXT-R.XT.
60xT-39X45
T-39X45
60
39 RPM T - 29.25
The closest sprocket size is 29T, but 307
would suit the recommended sprocket usage of
odd/even teeth.
Note; Most calculations will not work out to an
even figure so you should go to the nearest size.
t
I
s
I
il
E BELT DRIVE 203
f
t
t:

Reduction Units
The ratio in a reduction unit is a comparison
of the input rmp to the output rpm. A 10/1 unit
:akes 10 turns of the input shaft for 1 turn of output
shaft or has 10 drive N gearteeth to 1 drive R gear Figure 1

tooth.
Calculations:
motor rpm - output rpm of the unit
ratio
> ln figure 7 the unit output rpm - motor
ratio
1200 80 rpm
- 15
-
12OO RPM
Belting
Reduction Unit
The following calculations deal with speed
and size as they affect belting.
Speed is expressed as velocity in feet per minute
or metres per minute.
The rim speed or belt velocity 'l circumference
X revs per minute.
-
The circumference of a pulley in inches
- n X D,
where n is 3.14 and D - diameter in inches.
To convert the circumference f rom inches to feet,
divide by 12:
C-nXD-3.14XD-0.262XD
12:2
But 3.14 divided by 12 - 0.262
A more accurate value for n is 3.1416, but
3.14 is adequate for most practical purposes.
> The basic formula for belt speed in feet per
minute is:
V-rpmX0.262XD
V velocity ftlmin 10" Pulley
0.262- constant
-
D- diameter in inches
rpm - revolutions per minute
> Find the rim speed of a 10-inch diameter pulley
turning at 1800 rpm: lBOO RPM

V-rpmX0.262XD
- 1800 x 0.262 X 10
- 4716 ftlmin
 BELT DRIVE

> Find the diameter of a pulley needed to obtain a

rim speed of 4000 ftlmin at 1200 rpm:
V-rpmX0.262XD
Rim Speed
4000 ftlmin 4000-1200x0.262xD
4000 _ D
12OO RPM 1200 x 4.262
12.72 - D

After arriving at a 12.72-inch diameter as the

answer you should pick the nearest stock stand-
ard diameter.
250 mm
> The formula for rim speed or belt speed in

o 18OO RPM
metres per minute is:
V-rpmXnXD
1 000

-V metres/min
n- 3.14
D diameter in mm
-
1000 - to convert mm to m

> Find the rim velocity of a 250 mm diameter

pulley turning at 1800 rpm:
V-rpmXrrD
1 000

- 1800 x 3.14 X 250

1 000

- 1413

1 1 00 metres/m in Answer: 3 metres/minute

141
> A 200 mm diameter pulley is to have a rim speed
of 1100 metres/min; how fast will it be turning?
V-rpmXnXD
1 000
Figure 2
1 100 - rpm X 3.14 X 200
'1000

119!rl!!q-rpm
3.14 X 200
1751.6 - rpm
Answer: 1751.6 rpm
k-
It
Belt length is expressed either in feet and inches,
Pulleys ol Equal Dlameter or in millimetres or metres.
ln f igure 2 both pulleys are of equal drameter
and C is the shaft centre-to-centre distance.
 BELT DRIVE 205

The belt length is one circumference plus

twice the centre distance:
L- 2C * rr D
> lf the pulleys are 8 inches in diameter and have
20-inch centres find the belt length:
L-2C*rD
-2X20+3.14X8
- 40 + 25.12
- 65.12"
Answer:65.12"
For tape sizes, the belt length - 65 1/8"
> lf the pulleys are2OO mm in diameter and have
500 mm centres find the belt length:

L-2CfrrD
-2Xs00+3.14X200
'1000
- + 628
- 1628
Answer: 1628 mm or 1.682 m
ln practical use, most belt drives are con- Figure 3
structed with unequal diameter pulleys or
sheaves. Belt length can either be approximated
or calculated exactly.
> Approximation
- /o
These calculations are for approximate
figures only and should not be used when l-
cutting belts.
ln f igure 3 the driver pulley is 8 inches, the
driven pulley is 10 inches and the centre-to-
centre distance is 20 inches.
Find the approximate belt length:
D larger diameter
- smaller
d- diameter
L-2Cfn(D*d)
2

-2X20+3.14(10+8)
2

-2X20+3.14X9
- 40 + 28.26
- 68.26" Drlve and Driven Pulleys
206 BELT DRIVE

Metric math uses the same formula, but

diameters are in millimetres, centres in millimetres,
and the answer given in either millimetres or
metres.
> Accurate (for inch or metric)
L- 2C+ 1.57 (D + d) + (D - d)',
4C

- 2x 20 + 1.57 (10 + 8) + (10 - 8)'?

4X20
- 40 + 28.26 + 0.05

- 68.31
The answer is very close to the approximate
answer because there is Iittle difference between
the pulley sizes.
> Change the dimensions to a large reduction
with a driver of 8 inches, a driven of 24 inches,
and centres of 20 inches:
Approximate:
L-2C-n(D*d)
2

-2X20+3.14(24+8)
2

-40+3.14X16
- 40 + s0.24
- 90.24"
Accurate:
L- 2C + 1.57 (D + d) +(p-d)'
4C

- (2 x 20) + 1.57 (24 * 8) : (24 - 8)'?

4X20
-40+1.57X32+256
8o

- 40 + 50.24 + 3.2
- 93.44"
The approximate answer is short by 93.44 -
90.24 - 3.20"
 BELT DRIVE

Roller Chain
The following roller chain (RC) calculations
are used for determining speed and length.
Figure
Roller Chain Speed 1

The chain speed or velocity is expressed in

feet per minute or metres per minute.
V - velocity in ftlmin
T - teeth in sprocket -{
P - pitch in inches
V-rpmXTXP
12
> ln figure 7 the small sprocket has 19T and turns
at 80 rpm. The chain used is size 60.
Find the chain speed: Roller Chain Calculations lor Speed and Lenglh

V-rpmXTXP
12

-80x19X0.75 Figure 2
12

-95
Answer: 95 ftlmin 1000 ftlmin
> ln f igure 2 the small 35 RC sprocket turns
'1150 rpm. Pick the sprocket needed
chain speed of 1000 ftlmin:
to reach
at
a +
V-rpmXTXP
12

1000-1150xTX0.375
12
1000 x't2 - T
r rso x oszs
27.8 - T
The answer is 27 .8 the sprocket used will
be 28T or 27T. -
> ln f igure 3 the large 56T sprocket has a pitch of
31.75 mm and turns at 30 rpm. Find the chain
speed in metres/min:
P - pitch in mm
V-rpmXTXP
1 000

- 30 x 56 X 31.75
1 o0o

- 53.34
Answer: 53.34 metres/min
208 BELT DRIVE

Roller Chain Length

The approximate chain length can be easily
calculated, but the calculations for the exact
length require a set of correction tables to
/T adjust for the difference in teeth size between
the larger and smaller sprocket.
This section will show only approximate
length calculations with answers in either
inches or pitches:
> Length in inches:
L-2C+(r+t) P
2
L length in inches
- centres
C in inches
lr T - teeth of larger sprocket
l- t - teeth of smaller sprocket
P -- pitch in inches
ln figure 1:
the smaller sprocket - 80 RC - 207
the larger sprocket - 80 RC - 367
the centres - 40"
Find the approximate length of chain for the
drive:
L-2C+T+tXP
2

-2X40+s6+20X1

-80+28
- 108"
The length of 108 tnches wiil be less than
actually required. However, the answer is accur-
ate to the nearest box, which usually contains 120
inches of chain.
Note; Chain is expensive. Unused parts should be
returned to the shop or stores.
> Length in pitches:
L
-2C* T+t
P

L - length in pitches
C - centres in inches
.--l/
407
T - teeth of larger sprocket
t
- teeth of smaller sprocket
P
- pitch in inches
ln figure 2:
Roller Chaln Calculstlong the smaller sprocket - 19T 60 RC
Speed and Length
the larger sprocket - 40T 60 RC
the centre distance - 26"
 BELT DRIVE 209

Find the approximate number of pitches of

chain for the drive:
L- 2C +r+t
F 2

- 2X26 +40+le
0.75 2

_52f59
0.75 2
- 69.3 + 29.5
- 98.8
The answer is 99 pitches but the actual length
will be more than 99 pitches.
Nofe: A new installation will require an even
number of pitches.
> Metric:

f
the smaller sprocket - 23T 19.5 mm pitch / 767
the larger sprocket - 76T 19.05 mm pitch
the centre distance - 750 mm
L- length in pitches
C- centres in mm
T- teeth of larger sprocket
t- teeth of smaller sprocket
P- pitch in mm
L- 2C+ T+t
P

_2X750+76+23
19.05 2

- 78.74 + 49.5
- 128.24
Answer: 128.24 pitches change to the next
number of even pitches
-
- 130 Figure 1

The Renold engineering reference book

recommends a chain length ol 132 pitches
(130.05 pitches calculations f 1.95) to bring the
answer to the next highest even pitch.

Compound Drives
A large number of drives are installed with Typical Compound Drive with lnlermediate or Jack Shall
more than one reduction between the power
source and the final drive N shaft.
Figure 7 is a typical compound drive. The
shaft on which B and C are mounted is called the
intermediate or jack shaft.
210 BELT DRIVE

> ln figure 2:
Figure 2 A- 10 inches
B- 20 inches
C 12 inches
D -- 36 inches
The reductions in the drive size are:
driveA/B-Nsize-20-2
R s''ze 10 i
driveC/D-Nsize-36-3
Rri= A i
total reduction-?X9:9
Figure 3
111
> The sketch shown in igure 3 has a 9/1 f
reduction. lf A - 20T, B - 60T, and C - 19T,
find the size of D:
Reduction in A/B - N size - 60 3
R t',ze n - T
Total reduction - 9
1

1st reduction -3
T

2nd reduction - 9 +3-9X1-3

i i i5 T

N size - reduction
R size
Nsize-3
19
N-3X19
-57
Answer: 577
> The problems above can also be solved by
giving A an rpm, and solving the problem step
bystepusingRXD-R.XD.
ln the second calculation, suppose A turns at
180 rpm and D turns at 20 rpm:
RXT-R.XT.
180X20-R.X60
180X20-R.
60
60 rpm R.
-
 BELT DRIVE 211

Answer: C and B turn at 60 rpm

RXT-R.XT.
60x19-20XT.
60x19-T.
n
Figure 4
T.

Answer: 577
> Figure 4 represents a common setup for a belt
drive, where the motor turns at 1200 rpm.
reduction unil - 20/1
unit sprocket - 187
drive N sprocket - 45T, on a shaft with an 18-
inch conveyor drum
Find the rpm of the final shaft:
One Sfep:
rpm - drive R information
Common Assembly lor a Conveyor Belt Drive
drive N information

- 1200 x '18

20 45

-24
Answer: 24 rpm
fwo Steps:
unit putput rpm - motor rpm
reduction
1200 - 60
n
RXT-R.XT.
60x18-R.X45
60x18-R.
45
24-R.
Answer: 24 rpm
212 GEARS
11. Gears
Gears are used to transmit power and motion
from one revolving shaft to another without
sl i ppage.
Two smooth cylinders pressed together can
transmit power along the line of contact, but
slippage will occur when the load is greater than
the frictional force between the cylinders.
Gears can be considered a development of
the friction wheel. The circumference of the
cylinder is the pitch circle ol the gear, and the line
of contact is the pitch line of the tooth.
The pitch circle and the pitch diameter
represent the cylinder or disc on which the teeth
are built.
The amount of gear tooth above the pitch
circle is called the addendum. Ihe amount of
tooth below the pitch circle is called lhe deden-
dum, which is equal to the addendum plus a small
amount called lhe clearance. The working depth
of the tooth is equal to the whole depth less
clearance.
Gear Pilch Used to Transmil Power
The oufside diameter (OD) is the finished
diameter of the gear or "blank", and is equal to the
pitch diameter plus twice the addendum.
The root diameter (RD) is equal to the pitch
diameter less twice the dedendum, or the outside
diameter less twice the whole depth,
The distance between the centres of two
adjacent teeth, measured on the pitch circle, is
called lhe circular pitch. lt is equal to the
circumference of the pitch circle divided by the
number of teeth.
The thickness of a tooth is measured on the
pitch circle, and is equal to half the circular pitch.
Gear Pitch
The pitch of the gear is described as diamet-
ral pitch unless circular pitch is specified. The
diametral pitch of a gear refers to the number of
teeth per inch of pitch diameter. lt does nol mean
the distance between the teeth.
lf a gear has a pitch diameter of 4 inches and
 GEARS 213

24 teeth, it has 6 teeth for every inch of pitch

diameter. lt is called a 6-pitch gear and will only
mesh with other 6-pitch gears. Diametral pitch is
usually expressed as a whole number:
D - pitch diameter
P - diametral pitch
N - number of teeth {/
diametral pitch - number of teeth P-N )/ Driver
Point ol
pitch diameter D Contacl
.\
Line of
number of teeth - pitch diameter X pitch
Centres
N-DXP
pitch diameter teeth
- diametralofpitch
number D- N
F
Worm and worm gears can have a pitch
expressed as a fraction.
To simplify commercial gear design and
manufacture, certain pitches have come to be
known as "stock standard " pitches. Th is standard-
ization allows the use of "off the shelf" gears.
Pitch is also a means of measuring the :J;,.."J.
relative tooth size: a 4-pitch gear tooth is larger Calculating the Pressure Angle
than a 20-pitch geartooth. The lowerthe number,
the larger the individual tooth. Some gears will have a pressure angle other
than 14 1/2 degrees or 20 degrees. These gears will
Pressure Angle work eff iciently, but they are not stock standard
Standard gears are available in 141/Z-degree gears and any replacement gear must be ordered
or 20-degree pressure angle forms. from the original supplier.

20" 14
Gears in Mesh
at- .*
For a pair of gears to mesh they must have the

N N\]

The effect of the pressure angle on a gear tooth is shown

by its effect on rack teeth (above).
same pressure angle and pitch. A set of gear
gauges will give an accurate test of the pressure
angle and pitch.
Tooth Action
As the gears mesh, sliding and rolling occurs.
The maximum sliding takes place as the teeth f irst
make contact, decreasing with the meshing
action, and dropping to zero at the pitch line.
After the pitch line, sliding increases to maximum
as the teeth lose contact. Rolling is at a minimum
Tooth section of a 14 1/z-degree pressure angle on an at the beginning of the mesh, increasinE to
8-pitch spur gear maximum at the pitch line and decreasing to
minimum as the teeth leave the mesh.
On the driving tooth, the point of contact is
made below the pitch line; as the gear turns, this
is moved upward to the top of the tooth. On the
Tooth section of a 20-degree pressure angle on an B-pitch driven tooth, the contact is made at the top of the
spur gear
tooth and moves down until the teeth move out of
Pressure Angles mesh.
214 GEARS

Parallel Shalts
Spur Gears
The shafts of spur gears are parallel, and the
gear teeth are cut straight across the gear,
parallel to the shaft axis.
The larger gear is called a gear and the
smaller gear is called a pinion.
With any pair of gears having external
lnterval ol Approach contact, the shafts will rotate in opposite direc-
tions,

Pitch Line

Spur Gears

The formation of the oil wedge during mesh is shown by

the dark wedge between the meshing teeth.

lnterval ol Recession

Spur gears in mesh have a rolling contact

action. Helical gears have a combination of
rolling and sliding action. As the helix angle
increases, the sliding action increases.
Worm and wheel and hypoid gear assemblies
all have siiding action and must be fitted for oil
entry. Special lubricants are also required to
assist the sliding action.

Shaft Position Rack and Pinion

The shafis used with gears can take one of

th ree positions:
> They may be parallel;
> They may intersect at
degrees; or
> They may cross.
The position of the shaft will determine the
type of gears used.
Specialized forms of spur gears are:
> The rack and pinion
cating motion; and
- used to obtain recipro-
an angle, usually 90
> lnternal spur gear and pinion
- the teeth of the
gears in the annular ring are developed on an
internal pitch circle, while the pinion is a
standard form. Both shaJts rotate in the same
direction.
 GEARS 215

Two or more teeth are in mesh at the same

time, depending on the helix angle. For a pair of
helix gears to mesh, they must have:
> The same helix angle;
> The same pitch; and
> The same pressure angles.

The "hand" of the gear, either left or right, is

the direction the teeth lean or slope with the gear
horizontal and the bore vertical.

Left-h an d Right-hand

lnlernal Spur Gear and Pinion Helical Gears

Helical gears of opposite hands will operate

on parallel shafts. Helical gears of the same hand
The standard centre distance between two
operate on shafts crossing at an angle, depend-
spur gears is one-half the sum of their pitch
ing on the helix angle of the gears:
diameters. Spur gears cut to run at standard
Helix angle f helix angle
centre distances will have suff icient clearance or - shafthelix
With a pair of stock 45-degree
angle.
angle
backlash to allow lubrication and slight misalign-
gears, the shafts will cross at 90 degrees:
ment.
45'+ 45o 90o
Properly installed spur gears should not -
develop end thrust and the shafts can be carried
by a bearing with low end thrust capacity.
End thrust is caused by uneven shafts,
misaiignment,.or by an external force such as a
misaligned coupling, a belt, or a chain.
For a pair of spur gears to mesh they must
have the same pitch and the same pressure angle.

Helical Gears
Helical gears resemble spur gears, but the
teeth are cut at an angle, rather than parallel to
the shaft axis. The angle is known as the helix
angle and can vary from a few degrees to 45
degrees. Gear catalogues list 45 degrees as the
stock standard helix angle.

t
\
!

These Helicai Gears Produce an Axial Thrust in Opposite

Helix Angle Directions, Depending on the Direction ol Rotalion
 216 GEARS

Thrust Bearings Double helical gears, with the teeth at

opposing angles on a single gear, f orm a "herring-
bone" gear.
Due to the diagonal slant of a helical tooth,
the line of contact is a slanting line that moves
upwards on the driving tooth and downwards on
the driven tooth.

Th rust
<.-

Herringbone Gear

i1a
qltiF
-!\ Driver
(6+
Y
I
dE]1tr
-)#- c
(:+,{ Double Opposed Hellcal Gears
Y
With three teeth in mesh, the line of contact
r , Left-hand would be similar to that shown in the diagram
qiiffi dEliFr,,:, iHliF-,
riarmL
below.
l"ft tlnver
.Hlltr "qtlffi
H / ueanno k]

? +lltu, T'*'nn,-nrno -

ln practical use, thrust bearings are used on

both sides of the gear to cut down on parts
inventory. There is no guarantee that the drive will
Contact on Drivrng Tooth Lines of Tooth Contact
not be reversed, or that the driven end will not which is Entering Mesh
overrun the driver.
These gears can present a safety hazard as
the sliding action of the gears displaces the tooth
material to the leaving edge, setting up razor-
edged projections.
Double helical gears and pinions with op-
posed angles have no axial thrust, because one
gear counteracts the other. Simultaneous Contact on Simultaneous Contact on
Tooth at Centre of Mesh Tooth whrch is Leaving Mesh

Intersecting Shafts
Bevel Gears
Bevel gears are used on shafts which inter-
sect at right angles. The tooth form can be cut
straight across the face of the gear, or it may have
a sprral.
Bevel Gears
ln spiral bevel gears, one end of a tooth
enters mesh before the preceding tooth has
disengaged. As with helical gears, this makes a
smooth transfer of power. A spiral gear set
consists of one left-hand and one right-hand
gear.
Mounting Bevel Gears
lncorrect I ncorrecl
GEARS 217
Angular bevel gears are on shafts which do
not intersect at 90 degrees.
Bevel gears develop axial thrust as well as
radial thrust, and thrust bearings or washers
should be used behind the gears to take the thrust
load.
The correct mounting procedure for bevel or
mitre gears will have the meshing teeth f lush on
the outer ends.
lf the teeth are not flush on the back, the
gears are set with either:
> Too little clearance
- the teeth will bind and be
subject to excessive wear; or
> Too much clearance
- the gears will not be in
f ull mesh and will have excessive backlash.
Crossing Shafts
Worm Gears
The "worm" is a special form of helical gear
and resembles a screw, with the worm length
permitting the helical teeth to encircle the shaft
more than once.
The distance that one thread advances
during one turn of the worm is called the /ead. The
centre-to-centre distance between the threads is
called lhe pitch.
The worm tooth is called a thread and a worm
with one tooth is called a single-thread worm; a
worm with two teeth is called a two-thread or
double-thread worm.
The speed ratio is the number of teeth in the
worm wheel divided by the number of threads in
the worm.
Correct
218 GEARS

ln common construction, a hardened steel

worm driving a bronze worm gear is used to
create the best anti-f riction qualities f rom
dissimilar metals.
ln a non-throated worm gear set, tooth
contact takes place at a point or several points,
depending on the number of teeth in contact.
Contact at a point or points concentrates the
pressure on very small areas, leading to early
tooth failure.
The straight tooth form can be adapted to
-,) obtain greater contact area. This can be done by
t 'r'l altering the shape of the gear teeth to produce a
concave shape that conforms to the circumfer-
Helix ence of the worm. This is the slng/e-throated
Angle worm gear. Contact occurs alonE a line across
Worm Gears the gear teeth, with the line of contact moving
outward on the worm thread and inward on the
gear teeth.
ln double-throated worm gears, the profile of
the worm matches the circu mference of the worm
gear. The teeth of a double-throated gear are f lat
and have a large area of contact.
Worms and worm gears are right-handed and
left-handed, and like helical gears, are checked
with the gear standing on one end. Left-hand
threads lean to the ieft, and right-hand threads
lean to the right.

Left-h an d
I
Driven
:

Circular Pitch \l N
,vi$N\R.\i z(\\z
,i,;)|'L
throated
Contact
Circular Pitch

Rig ht-hand

Driven D riven

D river Driver,.i

Left-hand Thread Righl-hand Thread

Worm Gear Assemblies

Assembly of either worm and wheel, orworm
and gear is done by using gears of the same hand.
Standard gears are right-hand.
Fitting a worm and gear set for bearing
:learance and gear mesh is covered in the section
:n reduction units, later in this chapter.
Like helical Eears, worm gear assemblies
Jevelop end thrust which varies with the location
:f the worm and the direction of rotation.
Hypoid Gears
Hypoid gears are used fortransmitting power
cetween shafts crossed at a 90-degree angle.
They are usually constructed with the pinion
mounted on the end of the shaft.
Hypoid gears operate with extensive sliding
rrotion between the teeth of the pinion and the
ring gear. Because of this wiping action and the
rncidence of high pressure, the usual lubricating
oil is from the EP class.
When mounting hypoid gears, the position of
gears and the allowable backlash is usually
critical.
Hypoid Gears
Adjustment for proper clearances should be
to manufacturers' specificattons.
A light coat of mechanics' blue will give the
point of contact, and a dial indicatorwillascertain
the amount of backlash.
Gear Construction
Gear Materials
Gear materials can be divided into two broad
c I asses:
> Metallic gear material- can be divided into two
g rou ps:
GEARS 219
c Ferrous including cast iron and steel; and
-
e Non-ferrous- including brass, bronze,
aluminum, and die cast metals;
> Non-metallic gear material
plastic or laminate.
- can be nylon,
Gear construction can be disc or relieved
disc lor weight reduction (see helical gear
diagrams). Relieved disc gears are also designed
with lightening holes
- equally spaced holes in
the narrow web of the gear. This can be for extra
weight reduction, but its best advantage is to
allow a set of pulleys to be used to pull off the
gear.
Spoked gears are usually used for larger
diameter gears and are shown in the diagram for
herringbone gears.
Proper gear mesh depends on correct back-
lash, contact, and ciearance. Foraccurate dlmen-
sions and assembly, consult the manufacturers'
service manual.
Backlash
The "backlash" is the space between the
unloaded f lank of the driving tooth and the f lank
of the following tooth. lts purpose is to allow f or
minor irregularities in tooth form, or for minor
installation errors.
ln machines such as reduction units where
-
the gears are mounted on shafts with anti-f rictron
bearings sitting in machined housings, or in
machines using parallel shafts or worm and
wheel units the backlash is set by machine
desig n.
-
Backlash must be set oradjusted when using
hypoid, bevel, or mitre gears in machined
housi ngs.
When using a pair of gears on parallelshafts,
with one or both shafts being carried by a piliow
block, and anti-friction or friction bearings, the
backlash must be adjusted during installation.
Backlash can be checked in several ways:
> Rough Checks:
o Hold the gear stationary and rock the pinion.
lf there is any movement of the pinion, there is
backlash, but the amount is unknown.
> Precision Checks:
o Dial lndicator f ix one gear in a stationary
position. Mount- the dial on a rigid base with
the plunger in contact with a tooth on the
moving gear. The plunger should be at 90
degrees to a line f rom the centre of the tooth
22A GEAHS
to the centre of the gear. Rock the gear back
and forth to get the total travel.
o Gauge Material- run a strip of plastic gauge
material slightly wider than the gear face
through the gear mesh of one pair of teeth.
Then check the relative thickness after the
squeeze. The same principle can be used with
a lead wire
- p lace a s ho rt length at eit he r end
of the gear teeth.
Note:
o When measuring the squeeze, make sure
you know which is the lef'r or right side of the
gearlgauge material;
. Use common sense with gauge stock - do
not check 0.010 inch with 1/8 inch stock.
o Feeler Gauge hold the gears in contact and
use a feeler
-
gauge between the unloaded
f lanks of the next pair of teeth. lf the gears are
badly worn, keep the contact faces together
and measure between the good flanks.
Large size teeth (teeth with a small pitch
number) can be checked by using a wedge
between two teeth at either end, keeping the
wedge at the pitch line.
Accurate work can be done by making
wedges of a small diameter brazing rod. The
wedge is inserted from one side and a scratch
mark made on the f lat face at the edge of the gear.
The wedge is removed caref ully and inserted
between the same teeth at the other end, and
marked with another scratch mark. Any differ-
ence in the position of the scratch marks will
show the angular assembly of the shafts and the
backlash in the assembly.
, Sc ratc h
Gear Contact
The point and area of contact can be
checked:
> Rough Checks:
By running a strip of thin paper through the
gear mesh under a light load. The cutting or
bruising of the paper will showthe contact area;
or
> Precision Checks:
By using mechanics' blue. Both gears must be
clean and free of oil or grease. One gear has a
light coat of bluing applied to severalteeth. The
clean gear is held with a light force and the
blued gear turned against it. A colour transfer
will take place at the point of contact and this is
read as the contact.
Gear Math and Science
As most gear drives are used in industry to
obtain a reduction in speed between the driver
and the driven, the terms used in this section will
apply to reductions.
72 f eelh 72 Teeth
1200 rpm
1200 rpm
24 Teeth
24 Teeth
Direction ol Rotation
A pair of gears in mesh consist of lhe driver or
smaller gear called the pinion, and the larger
driven gear called the gear. The gear and pinion
rotate in opposite directions from the drlver when
the mesh is external, and in the same direction
when the mesh is internal.
The relative speed of the shafts depends on
the ratio of the number of teeth on each gear. lf the
meshing gears have the same number of teeth, the
speeds are equal. lf the driving gear has less teeth
than the driven gear, the speed of the driven shaft
will be reduced, but if the driving gear has more
teeth than the driven gear, the speed of the driven
shaft will be increased.
Simple Gear Trains
To f ind the speed of either gear, m u ltiply the
number of teeth by the speed of one gear and
divide by the number of teeth of the other.
 GEARS 221

RXT - R. X T. T - teeth one gear The idler has no bearing on speed calcula-
tions. Find the rpm of a 42T gear:
R
- revolution
T. - teeth other gear RXT-R.XT.
R. - revolution R X72
- 1200 X 24
Find the rpm of the driven gear in the
shown R - 12AOX24
previous sketch: 72
RXT-R.XT. RXT -R.XT. - 400
x 24 _ R.X72
1200 RX72- 1200X24 Speed ratio 1200 3 Gear ratio - 72 3
1200x24-R. R _1200X24 - 400 24
-
72 72
400- R. R -400 Change Gears
The order of the gear data makes no differ- Change gears are used on a machine having
ence in f inding the answer. two shafts with f ixed centres, a constant rpm
input shaft, but a variable speed (rpm) output
Single Gear Trains shaf t.
The ratio of speeds on single gear trains On a two-gear assembly, the sum of the teeth
in orR-1200-3 - must be the same.
N +OO 1
Speed and size problems for change gears
"rt are calculated using R X T - R. X T.
Therefore, this gear train has a 3:1 speed reduc-
tion.
607 607 80T 407
To reach the same 3:1 f igure using gear sizes,
the comparison will be: / \/
drive N size N 72 3
drive R size R 24 '1
(Txi)
v
\

The pair of gears will have a gear ratio of 3:1.

)-/
To obtain a 3:1 speed reduction, the drive N ["-,1
gear m ust have th ree times the n u rnber of teeth in
The distance C is the constant in the three figures
the drive R.
An idler is a gear mounted between the drive
R and the drive N gears. Allthree gears will be on A compound gear lrain consists of at least
separate shafts. The purpose of the idler is: four gears on three shafts - the intermediate
sha{t will have two gears.
> To rotate N in the same direction as R; and
> To bridge a gap or space.

Rotaiion with ldler

Two idlers would cause N to turn in the

opposite direction f rom R. Compound Gear Traln
222 GEARS

For mathematical calculations, the drive > Find the reduction obtained by a 4-start worm
consists of two simple reductions multiplied driving a 39T gear:
together.
Reduction - gear
- 39 - 9.75
A- 20T turning at 1200 rpm worm 4
B-8OT -
1

c-2aT This is the actual reduction obtained. For quick

D - 100T find the rpm
- approximations, reduction can be taken as 10.
For the final rpm of the intermediate shaft: 1

RXT -R.X.T. The size of worm and gear for a fractional

RXB0-1200X20 reduction is easily chosen:
R _1200X20 9.75 - I 3/4 - t9 = lqT on gear
BO 4 4T on worm
R -300 The centre-to-centre distances for spur
The intermediate shaft turns at 300 rpm. gears can be calculated as follows:
For the second set of gears: External centres-T*T.
RXT -R.XT. 2P
RX100-300x20
R -300x20 lnternal centres-T-T.
100
2P
R -60rpm T teeth of the larger gear
Solving for the unknown rpm can be done in one T. teeth of the smaller gear
step:
P pitch or diarnetral pitch (DP) of the gear
R product of drive R For a pair of 12-pitch external mesh gears,
- product of drive N with a pinion o'f 14f , and a gear of 42T, find the
centre-to-centre d istance:
- 1200 x20x20
80 x 100 c_T+T.-42+ 14-56-2.333"
R-60rpm 2P 2X12 24

The gear ratio of the compound drive is N X N. For a pair of 12-pitch internal mesh gears,
RXR. with a pinion of 14T, and a gear of 42T, find the
centre-to-centre d istance:
NXN.-80X100-20
RXR. 20X20 C-T-T. -
42 - 14 - 28 - 1.167"
zxa
'1

lf the gear ratio is 20 the speed ratio is also 20.

2XP a
I 1
Gear Tooth Forms and Gear
'1200 Formulas
Output rpm - input rpm - - qq
gear ratio 20 1
When a set of gears are engaged or in mesh
they will transrnit motion and/or change the ratc
Worm and wheel ratio calculations: each start of of speed and direction. The following formulas
the worm is a tooth. for spur gears give the standard solutions for
> Find the ratio of a worm and wheel gear set: interchangeable gears having the same diametral
Worm-lstart Wheel pitch and depth of tooth.
Ratio- gear -207
-20 > Diametral Pitch (DP)- The diametrat pitch is
worm 1 the ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch
The set will have a20 speed reduction. diameter of a gear. lt represents the number of
teeth per inch of pitch diameter. To find DP:
1
 GEARS 223

DP- No. of teeth * 2 T - 1.57

OD DP
DP- N
T-CP
PD
2
DP - 3.1416
> Clearance (C) The clearance is the space
CP -
between the top of the tooth oJ one gear and the
Pitch Diameter (PD) bottom of its mating tooth space. To find C:
>
- Pitch diameter is the
diameter of the pitch circle. lt is the diameter c- 0.157
that is used in making all calculations for the
DP
size of gears. To find PD:
> Whole Depth (WhD)- The whole depth is the
PD-ODXN total depth of space on a gear, measured
N+2 radically between circles containing the tops of
PD-N the teeth and the bottoms of the spaces. To f ind
DP WhD:
PD-OD-2
whD - 2.157
DP
PD-NXCP DP
31416 > Working Depth (WoD)- The working depth is
> Circular Pitch (CP)- The circular pitch is the the depth that the teeth of one gear extend into
length of the arc of the pitch circle that cor- the spaces of its mating gear. lt is equal to the
responds to one tooth interval. lt ls equal to the sum of the addenda of the mating gear. lt is also
circumference of the pitch circle divided by the equal to the whole depth minus the clearance.
number of teeth in the gear. To find CP: To find WoD:
cP _ 3.1416 WoD- 2
DP DP
CP-PDX3.1416
N
> Centre Distances (CD)- The centre distance is
the distance between the centres of a pair of
The number of teeth equals N. To find N: mating gears. To f ind the centre between
N-DPXPD distances (CD):
N-DPXOD-2 CD Add the number of teeth of both gears
N-PDX3.1416 - and divide the sum by two times the
> Outslde Diameter (OD)- The outside diameter diametral pitch:
is the overall diameter of the gear. To find OD:
cD-NG+NP
oD-N+2 Stubby Tooth 2XDP
DP
Addendum 0.8 CD Add the two pitch diameters and divide
oD-Pp+2 - - by two:
DP
DP CD-PDG+PDP
OD - (N + 2) X CP Dedendum - 2
3.1416 DP > Addendum (A)
- The addendum of a gear
tooth is the height of the gear tooth above the
OD-PD+2XAddendum pitch circle. To find A:
OD-PDX2CP A- 'l
DED '1.157
3r416 -
DP DP
> Tooth fhickness (T)- Chordaltooth
thickness
is the thickness of the tooth measured on the
chord of an arc of the pitch circle. To find T:
224 GEARS

Reductlon Units A double reduction, consisting of a primary

helical reduction combined with a worm and
A reduction unit consists of a pair of gears in wheel reduction, will give a range of approximate-
a rigid, strong, movable housing. lts purpose is to
ly 2A:1 to 280:1.
reduce the speed of a motor and to increase A double reduction, consisting of a primary
torque. The basic mounting styles are: worm and wheel combined with a secondary
worm and wheel, will give a range of approximate-
> The separate unit
motor are connected:
- the reduction unit and ly 25:1 to 4900:1.
Note: The input and output shafts are parallei.
o By a flexible coupling, with both parts bolted
to a strong, rigid base; or
. By a V-belt drive; motor anC reduction unit
can be on separate bases;
> The combination unit
- The motor and reduc-
tion unit are combined as a unit; usually the f irst
gear of the reduction is mounted on the motor
shaft; and
> Sha/t mounted
- The reduction unit is
mounted directly on the drive shaft.
-.F &. )

--'-t-
Gear arrangement in reduction units can be:
o Worm and worm gear with shafts at right
ang les,
-
or helicalgears
o Spur
o Bevelgears
- with parallel shafts;
with shafts at right angles; or
-
o Any combination of the above groups.

Reduction can be: Double Reduction Unit with a Secondary Worm and Wheel
o Single reduction
shafts; or
- with two gears and two The word "approximate" is used because
o Multiple reduction
- with four or more gears
on three or more shafts.
different catalogues show different ranges.
General lnstallation
Speed Range Reduction units joined to a motor by a
Sing/e reductions have a range of approxi- flexible coupling should be mounted on a firm
mately 5:1 to 70:1. rigid base that will hold the two components in
alignmeni without twisting or bending.
The base should be firmly botted to a solid
foundation capable of withstanding the load
imposed on it.
The unit and motor, or geared motor should
be in a position where lt can be easily serviced by
routine checks of oil, seals, hold-down bolts and
other minor work. lt should also be in a positron
where major overhaul work, such as removing
gears and shafts, can be done without having to
tear out surrounding equipment in order to get at
.r'--*= the unit.
...-{----v Too often the tendency is to design a drive
with the unit surrounded by equipment, and the
result is an almost impossible servicing situation.

Double Reduction Unit

 GEARS 225

Lubrication The direction of shaft rotation is shown by

arrows
Lubrication of most reduction units is by the - solid arrow to solid arrow and dashed
arrow to dashed arrow.
sp/ash method. Some units use a channel in the The hand of the individual gears worm and
housing to catch the oil splashed against the top worm wheel are right-hand - the
in stock
of the casing. The oil is then f unnelled to the shaft -
standard version. Left-hand worm and left-hand
bearings. wheel are special orders.
Under-driven worm Eear units use close- Changing the handing or hand of a unit is
fitting wipers on the worm gear to scrape oil off usually done by changing the complete wheel
the gear and convey it by channels to the gear shaft assembly. This cannot be done for allstyles
shaft bearings. of worm units, so a service manual should be
Some gear motors use an integral pumping consu lted.
system to lubricate the bearings.
Reduction units with vertically mounted Size ol Worm Gear Units
shafts have special provisions for lubricating the The size of the worm gear unit is based on the
top bearings of the vertical shafts. distance between the centres of the input/output
The grade of oil is specified by the manufac- s haf ts.
turer. lf not, any major oii company will recom- The working parts of the unit are the worm,
mend a suitable grade. Most operations use the worm wheel and four bearings.
several makes of reduction units. lt is therefore The worm shaft is one piece
more efficient to use a multipurpose oil that can with the worm ground to a precise - alloy steel
shape and
-
be used with several different makes of units, smooth finish.
rather than using a different grade of oil for each The worm wheel or gear is pressed onto a
unit. steel shaft
Worm Gear l"lnits
- which can be made of standard steel
or high tensile steel for heavy loading.
The bronze worm wheel can be constructed
Worm gear reduction units can be obtained in several ways:
with the worm mounted either below the worm
gear or above the worm gear with both shafts > Cast integrally with the hub for small sizes
horizontal. A third type of mounting is with the only;
-
worm vertical to a horizontal worm gear shaft. > A bronze ring cast onto a cast iron hub and disc;
Hand or handing of a unit refers to the extra holding power is obtained by welding or
position of the output shaft, looking at the unit pinning the ring to the disc; or
from the input shaft drive end. > A bronze ring dowelled and bolted to a cast iron

Handing a Worm Gear Unit

Left-h an d Right-hand Left-hand

226 GEARS
hub and disc this is available in large units
only.
- hand. Use a set of feeler gauges to measure the
The bearings must have a thrust capacity to
allow for the heavy thrust loading of the gear
action. Tapered roller bearings or angular
contact bearings are frequently used. On small
units designed for light loading, the bearings can
be standard radial deep groove ball bearings or
maximum capacity radial ball bearings.
lmported reduction units may use bearings
of either inch or metric sizes. Before doing any
bearing removal, the availability of replacement
bearings should be considered.
For North American demand, some English
worm and wheel reduction units use tapered
roller beari ngs instead of angular contact bear-
i ngs.
Adjusting for Bearing Clearance
There are two possible ways to shim a
tapered roller bearing assembly to control the
end float:
Figure a Figure
Shim to Control End Floal
ln f igure a, the bearing retainer is held tightly
against the unit housing and the shims are placed
between the retainer lip and the cup. Adding
shims reduces clearance; removing shims in-
creases clearance.
ln figure b, the bearing retainer lip is held
against the cup and the shims are placed between
the bearing retainer and the housing. Adding
shims increases clearance; removing shims
decreases clearance.
The amount of clearance will be found in the
machi ne specifications.
The correct thickness of shims can be found
in two ways:
> With no shims in the assembly, tighten one of
the end retainers. Slowly tighten the other
until the shaft starts to bind when turned by
gap between the housing and the end retainer.
Add a shim size to make up the required
clearance, keeping the required thickness of
the shim pack.
> lnstall a "working" shim pack, mount a dial
indicator bearing against the end of the shaft
and move the shaft back and forth to find the
amount of travel. Adjust the shim pack to suit
the dial readings.
b
Worm and Bearing Assembly
Once a shim pack thickness is found to
conform with the bearing clearance, the shims
can all be used at one end, all at the other end, or
split between the ends without changing the
clearance in the bearings. Changing the position
of the shims will change the position of the gear
or the worm.
Splitting the shims evenly between the ends
at initial assembly ean make f or less trouble when
fitting gears for correct mesh. Shaft end move-
ment is done by changing shims f rom one end to
the other.
The mesh can be checked by first wiping the
worm and worm gear free of oil and giving the
worm a light coating of bluing. The worm is then
rotated by hand in the desired direction while
snubbing the worm gear. The marking should be
roughly centred on the gear teeth inclining
slightly to the leaving side.
Gears on a reversing drive should have the
contact area f rom the centre to the leaving side on
both faces.
 GEARS 227

> Press the shaft cones and one cap out of the
housi ng;
> When the moving cup is free, lift out the shaft
Driving Face and cone assembly. The cup remaining in the
for Worm housing can be left in position or driven out.
Rotation B
The use of a hammer to drive the shaft and
bearings out of the housing should be caref ully
considered; if the bearings are to be used again,
Driving Face do not use a hammer because of possible impact
for Worm damage to the rollers or the raceways.
Rotation A
lf the beari ngs are worn out and are to be
replaced
- use a hammer, but take care not to
damage the shaft ends.
r-|-5-- Angular Contacl Bearings
,'^ :-'. lc- -.
.h"' + -l Angular contact bearings are considered
,t1,t' non-separable bearings, but they can easily be
separated by f orce applied in the wrong d irection.
(ra] )l;u,i
'ffi
nll t,'io) I
l-]-__1.1'/ < t
Move Wheel Correct
This=- Way Marking

Worm Gears Checking the Mesh

-
Removing Worm Shaft and Bearings
Units fitted with tapered roller bearings
present little trouble when removing the worm
shaft:
1
> Remove the end covers and tre or wire each L

shim pack to its corresponding cover. Do not I

Centerline
mix the shims, as this will change the position of
the worm in the gear mesh; Angular Conlact Bearings

Reduction Unit wilh Angular Contact Bearing


228 GEARS
The previous diagram shows two angular
contact bearings on a shaft and installed in a
housing. The inner ring is a press or shrink f it on
the shaft; the outer ring is a light interferencefit in
the housing. The outer ring cannot be classed as
a slip fit. The large shoulder on the outside ring is
for bearing contact. The smaller shoulder on ihe
outside ring holds the balls in the raceway, but is
not designed to take any loading. A good sharp
blow with a hammer on the inner ring will
separate the bearings.
Once the bearings are pressed onto the shaft,
the shaft bearing assembly can be installed tnto
the housing immediately. But, if the bearings are
shrunk onto the shaft, the shaft bearing assembiy
should not be installed immediately
ring will be larger in diameter, due- the outer
to heat
expansion.
A reduction unit may use angular contact
bearings on both shafts. The wheel shaft also has
a bearing assembly for overhung loading or for
extra heavy pull at 90 degrees to the shaft. The
sequence of the bearings is important. The
angular contact bearing outer ring has little or no
support its purpose is to take axial loading or
-
end thrust while the cylindrical roller bearing
takes radial load only.
Bearing Failure
The most f requent bearing faiiure takes piace
on the high-speed input shaft. Removal of the
shaft after the end covers and fan are removed is
often done by driving the shaft f rorn one end. The
bearing away from the driver end goes with the
Bearing Pusher
l
t-r-
t\
\:A' \\-
li
U
T/
ll
shaft, while the bearing at the driven end separ-
ates, and the outer rinE stays in the housing. After
the bearing is completely free of the housing, the
shaft and inner ring of the roller bearing can be
pulled out as a unit. The following steps are
involved in driving out the remaining ring and
removing the balls and separator from the oil
reservoir.
The following hammer-and-bang operation is
faster than setting up a press to push the bearings
through the housing:
> When removing bearings from the worm shaft,
do not press against the cast iron flinger ring
unless there is a flat surface to take a back plate;
> The bearing's inner ring can be removed by
driving it off with a soft steel drift and a hammer,
or wrth a bearing splitter; or
> ln extreme cases, the inner ring can be quickly
heated and driven ott or, as a last resort. burned
off with an oxyacetylene torch.
lnstallation ol the Shaft and New
Bearings
lnstallation of the shaft and new bearings
requires care and caution. One bearing will be
moved into or through two housing holes.
The housing should be set up in a press and
the first bearing pressed through the housing
bore by applying force to the shaft. After both
bearings are in the starting position of their bores,
a sleeve is placed on the outer ring of the second
bearrng and force is applied to it. Apptying force
to the shaft will separate the second bearing
.r.\.\\
:1- ':-'r \.,)
 GEARS 229

when the outer ring starts to bind. consists of studs of various lengths, pipe sleeves
lnstead of cap screws, the bearing end cap with faced ends, and a backing plate. The backing
and two studs are often used to seat the two plate or bar is tapped to allow for a jacking screw
bearings. ln this case, tighten the nut on each bearing on a plate that rests on the pipe sleeve.
stud only a turn or two at a time to keep the cap Oil Scrapers After the wheel is in position,
square with the bearing and the housing.
-
the oil scrapers should be set up giving a 0.010
The previous diagram illustrates a bearing inch to 0"015 inch clearance of the wheei if the
pusher that can be made in a small plant. lt maker's specifications are not known. They
should not be set closer than the allowable shaft
end float.
40 39 3B
I Helical and Herringbone Gears
37
Single reduction units give speed ratios f rom
36 4:1 up to approximately 10:1, while double
reduction units give ratios from 10:1 to 40:1.
Due to the end thrust imposed by single
helical gears, bearings are usually the tapered
roller style. Axial float is held to a 0.003 inch to
0.005 inch maximum, depending on the size of
the unit. The manufacturer's service sheet should
be consulted when fitting as the amount of
recommended axial clearance varies f rom maker
to maker. Slack caused by slight wear can be
taken up by removing the shims, bringing the
clearance to standard.
Reduction units with herringbone gears or
\\ double-opposed helical gears do not develop end
St\
th rust.
\25 Replacement units should be chosen for
hand or relative position of the output and motor
shafts. Unlike a worm gear reduction unit, the
slow-speed shaft and gear cannot be changed
Double Reduclion Unit with f rom end-to-end without affecting the Input shaft.
Herringbone Gears Bevel gears are frequently used in double

Single Reduction Unit with Herringbone Gears Double Reduction Unit with Single Helical Gears
I
230 GEARS
reduction units with helical gears set to the
angularity of the input or output shaft. Proper
mesh of bevel gear or pinion is obtained by the
use of shims in the end covers holding the
bearings or bearing cartridge.
Helical gear reduction units present few
fitting problems.
The rule of thumb for assembly is to fit the
largest gear first, the intermediate gear or gears
next, and the pinion last. The lighter gear and
shaft assemblies are easier to handle.
A unit may use tapered roller bearings with
clearance set by shim packs. Once the bearing
clearance is established, moving the shims from
one end to another changes the position of the
shaft and gear mesh.
A worn pair of gears of different widths will
show a change in the tooth profile of the wider
gear. The gears should be replaced in the same
mesh pattern. lf the gear mesh is changed to bear
on the unworn section of the gear face, the wear
will be concentrated on a small area, causing
early wear and contaminated oil.
Worn Gears
Due to the sliding action of the gear mesh,
the teeth can develop razor-sharp edges on the
leaving side. Be caref ul when taking an old unit
apart, as the sharp edges may not show through
the lubricant.
Compared to a pair of helical gears, herring-
bone gears in mesh have no side movement.
The gears must be placed in mesh and rolled
into the final position in the housing.
When both shafts use tapered roller bearings
and shim packs, the shims must suit two condi-
tions:
> Bearing clearance; and
> Gear mesh.
Backlash
ln the sketch, the backlash between the teeth
is 0.005 inch. What would happen if the wrong
shims were used to try to move the shaft sideways
by 0.010 inch?
The assembly routine for the herringbone
unit (see diagram below) is to first fit the gear for
bearing clearance, then fit the pinion for clear-
ance and mesh.
Herringbone Reduction Unit
The herringbone assembly of this unit has
few fitting problems. Pinion shaft end float is
controlled by the tandem taper roller bearing on
the coupling end of theshaft. Thegearfloats in the
cylindrical roller bearings and is held in position
by the gear mesh only.
Accurate alignment of components on the
output shaft outside the housing will prevent end
thrust.
Wire locks and bearing nuts, when used as
shown above, may indicate a slight interference
between the bearing, inner ring and shaft.
Shaft-mounted Reduction Units
Shaft-mounted reduction units with parallel
shafts commonly use helical cut gears. Due to
internal design and the need f or accurate bearing
control, service manuals should be consulted
when doing any rebuilding.
A reduction unit is constructed with a hollow
shaft through the output gear and is mounted by
siiding the complete unit onto the shaft.
 GEARS 231

pv
Single Reduction
V-belt Sheaves

Shaft-mounted Reduction Units

The reducer should be mounted as close as aA) .x)

possible to a support bearing. To prevent rotation
of the unit, the housing is:
lvlluDi
I rol I tol
l.E=--r.{-<it-l -.-_c-:--n
> Held by a tie rod; or
> Flange- or base-mounted.
The power source can be:
> A V-belt drive; or
> A geared motor or gear head.
/---,\
The illustration below shows a shaft-mounted
reducer held by a tie rod and driven by a V-belt. -\v-

(:>
;.@43
io @1.'"
----.-s;--l

Shalt-mounted Reduction [.Jnit Driven by a V-belt

Extra variations in speed can be obtained by r;-}

changing the relative size of V-belt sheaves.
Units of this style are best used in one of
several preferred positions: ['l L-'j ]-el @i
I Ol

Preferred Posiilons
 T

232 GEARS

Tie rods should be kept nearly at a right angle Tr'ouble Cause To Correct
to a line running from the output shaft to the point
of attachment. > Unit runs hot: Oil too low or Correct the oil
V-belt drive should be at right angles to a line overf lowing level and use the
between the output and input shafts. (heated from correct grade of
ln the diagram below, a gear motor unit is churning or oil.
mounted on a shaft. Springs on the moditied tie wrong grade);
rod cushion a certain amount of shock. This style
requires less space than the V-belt drive type. Worn bear- Change the
ings; bearings.

No air flow Check to see if

around the the fan is
housing; working; clean
or blow off the
outside of the
unit if it is
covered with oil,
grease or foreign
material.

Unit over- Check for

loaded; conditions
causing tempo-
rary overload
Gear Motor Unit Mounted on a Shalt
such as non-
turning pulleys,
How to Spot Gear Trouble idlers, etc. lf the
overload is due
Trouble Cause To Correcl to trying to force
a 5 hp rated unit
> Excessive Worn bearings Change the to do 10 hp work,
noise and (usually on bearings. change to a
vibration: input shaft), heavier weight
or additive type
Worn gears or Note the gear of oil. Ask for a
poor mesh; wear; a gear larger unit and
change is the motor.
last resort.
Unit loose, or Align and bolt
Unit loose or Align and tighten out of line; down the unit.
out of line the unit.
(coupling > Oil seals leak: Leather or Change the oil
noise); synthetic seal seals.
perished,
Motor bear- Check or have hardened or
ings worn (a the motor cracked;
difficult noise checked.
to pin down); Foreign mat- Remove foreign
ter under lip matter; check
Low oil level Bring the oil up of oil seal; the seal to see if
(no muffling to level. itiscut-replace
effect); if necessary.
 GEARS 233

Trouble Cause To Correct Trouble Cause To Correct

> Oil seals leak Shaft worn or Smooth the > Oil check put on without
(cont'd): rough at point shaft with a fine (cont'd): the drain at the
of seal con- emery cloth; bottom, oil will
tact; move the seal leak out.
a 1/16-inch
-
change of > Oil dirty General Oil turns darker
position in the even - deterioration with general
seal is usually discoloration: through wear deterioration,
suff icient. and oxidiza- but turns lighter
tion; when water is
Bearings worn Change the present.
(shaft vibration beari ngs.
preventing Water in oil
seal); through seals,
filter plugs or
Shaft loose Knurl or build up condensation;
and vibrating the shaft and
> Colour streaks Bearings or Replace the
in bearings; change the
or rings gears worn; bearings; check
pour test:-
bearings.
the gear condi-
> Oil check: Worn or Replace the oil tion; clean out
a regular damaged oil seals. the housing and
routine to seals; change the oil.
check the Oil with
unit, the Loose end Check and suspended
oil level plates; tighten all botts. metallic particles
and the lf the unit con- will show a dis-
couplings; oil tinues to leak, tinct wave effect
level drops take the top half or streak effect if
but the oil off and check the allowed to run
is clean. gasket, if used, slowly from the
or check for drain plug.
foreign matter
Bearing lmproper Change the oil;
caught between
failure: lubrication; check the oil
the faces of the
top and bottom foreign bodies level and grade
sections. in oil; of oil.
Unit running Check for over-
Possible crack Clean off the unit
too hot over load causes;
in the unit and check the
long periods; correcl where
base; feet.
overload; possible. Clean
I ncorrect
off the unit.
Some reduction
assembly of units use end Unit out of Line up the unit.
end covers or covers with line;
plates; annular grooves
and a drain hole Thrust Check for
to prevent oil bearings too proper end play
from leaking out tight or too after mounting
past the shaft. lf loose; the new
the end cover is bearings.
234 GEARS

Trouble Cause To Correct Trouble Cause To Correct

> Bearing failure Bearing too lf the same size cause of

(cont'd): light; bearing in a bearing failures
number of units on the input
of the same shaft. The
make and alignment will
capacity fail, it is be good when
generally a sign the unit is at
that the unit is rest, but when it
overloaded. is under load
Changing the the base flexes,
style of bearing allowing the
might permit an relative posi-
overload (SKF tions of the
6207 to SKF motor and
22207). For reduction unit
example, a to vary.
reduction unit
with a single ball
bearing can
have the bearing
changed to a
double roller
type
- speed
permitting.

Unit out oI Correct the

line; alignment. This
is the greatest
cause of failure
as the term "flex-
ible coupling" is
taken to mean
allowing too
much misalign-
ment. Flexible or
not, the closer to
perfect, the
longer the
coupling life.

Bearings worn; Change the

bearings.

Coupling too Replace the

for
small coupling with a
load; larger size.

Base too light, Rebuild or

allowing stiffen base.
flexing. This is
also a common
T
i
t,

ROLLER CHAIN 235

t,

12. Roller Chain

A roller chain drive combines the positive > A connecting link is a spare part for a roller
action of a gear drive with the wide choice of shaft chain assembly; it is available as a separate
centres of a belt drive. item.

Standard Roller Chain @ @re

!I
Construction
A standard roller chain is constructed of
several links.
NT
UU
> A roller /ink consists of:
o Two bushings press-fitted
plates; and
in two roller link
@re\ @
o Two rollers which revolve freely on the

m
G::= EA

m
bushi ngs.
>A plate link consists of the two outside plates
holding the pins on which the bushing pivots.

ffi
Connecting Links
ffi
--

Roller Free to Turn

on Outside of Bushing To assemble a connecting link, two pins are
press-fitted and riveted in the non-removable
Roller Link Plate
plate. The movable plate may have either a
Bushing (Press-fitted
press drive fit on the pi ns, or a slip fit on the pins;
in Roller Link Plate)
these are sold elther as "press" or "slip"
connectors. A slip f it connector ensures an
efficient, simple repair on the job.
> A one-pitch offset link is a combination pin-
and-roller link, consisting of two offset link
plates, a single bushing with a roller, and a
single pin. The link plates are offset to accom-
modate the difference between the widths of
the pin links and the roller link. The pin has a
Pin (Press-fitted Pin Link Plate)
head on one end and a flat on the other to
Oscillates lnside Bushing prevent rotation; corresponding holes in the
plate are sized for a slip fit on the pin, which is
Parts ot a Roller Chain ANSI Standard Slngle Strand Type secured in position by a cotter pin.
236 ROLLER CHAIN

Offset links permit the lengthening or (0.625 X pitch); this is not the overall width of
shortenlng of a chain length one pitch at a time. the chain; and
> Roller diameter
- the outside diameter of the
@ roller, approximately 5/8 of the pitch (0.625 X
pitch). The pin diameter is approximately 5/16
of the pitch (0.3125 X pitch).

NE These dimensions determine the profile and

width of the engaging sprocket.

UE The sizes and formulae for calculations in

this section apply only to two chain standards:

@
> American National Standards lnstitute (ANSI
previously ASA). All dimensions are in inches;
-
and
> lnternational Standards Organization (lSO)
u,-r Type A (American).
Ollsel Links All ANSI dimensions have been converted
into millimetres to two or three decimal places.
The ISO Type A chain will f it ANSI sprockets.
> A two-pitch offset link is designed for high-
speed or heavy service application, The pin is a i i.* :
press fit in the offset link plate. i "1FTl-iDF ,w
aY Il r-----I--'r
__L
1
r.-tr- Tr
t,
_- [-I{]f---T_It

Pitch
1'+ *
I

/-\-/'\-,':\
(eCE )G) O)H
\iXIl-.Y-z_E
f
6-fi6l
\_-.,-\:-,2-\-1-Z j
I
Cottered Type Riveted Type

The details below illustrate the relationship

between ANSI and ISO Type A chain. A one-inch
rJllsel Section
pitch is used as an example:

Under ideal circumstances, a new roller ANSI ISO Type A

chain drive should be installed, using standard Code 80 164 - 1
connectors to obtain a chain length with an even Pitch 1.000" 25.40 mm
number of pitches.
The driver and driven machines are usually
Pin diameter
- CD
Roller diameter
0.312" 7.94 mm
0.625" '15.88 mm
fixed in place and a new chain adjusted to the Roller width
-
W 0.625" '15.88 mm
required length, using offset links for extension.
-
Roller Chain Dimensions Roller Chain Numbers
A roller chain has three principal dimensions: Standard chain designations indicate that
chains f rom one manufacturer can be replaced
> Pitch the distance, in inches or millimetres,
-
between the centres of adjacent joint members.
with chains from another.
Pitch is the dimension which determines the American Standard (ANSI) Chain Code:
other dimensions for standard charn; The digit on the right specifies the type of
> Chain width * the minimum distance between chai n:
the link plates, approximately 5/8 of the pitch
 ROLLER CHAIN 237

0 usual, or regular proportion rollerless construction

1- lightweight chain
LJ
-
-
5- rollerless bushing chain
A
-
standard construction
The size is indicated by the two numbers
The number to the left of the right-hand which always appear in the code. The ISO Type A
figure specifies the number ot 1/B inches in the pitch number is always double that of the
pitch: corresponding ANSI number.
# 35 chain pitch; roltertess
- 3/8" pitch;
# 50 chain Roller Chain Pitch
# 100 chain
- 5/8" regular
- 1O/8" or 1 1/4" pitch; regutar. Chain Pitch Variations (in inches)
The hyphenated number following the chain
1/4,3/8, 1/2, S/8,3/4 't18"
variation
number specifies the number of strands. -
1, 1 1/4, 1 1/2, 1 3/4, 2
- t/4" variation
- 4 5/8 pitch reg ular 4-strand
50 2 1/2" - 1/2" variation
- 2 1 1/4 pitch regular 2_strand
100
Roller Chain Widths
The letter H following the chain number
denotes a heavy series. Chains in the ANSI or ISO Type A series are
available from single (simple) wide to six-wide or
ISO Type A Roller Chain Code: eight-wide.
The code marking for ISO roller chain does Chains in the British Standard (BS) or ISO
not have any apparent connection between the Type B series are available in single, double and
symbols and pitch dimensions in millimetres; it is triple widths.
necessary to refer to a catalogue for size specif i-
cations. Sprockets
ANSI ISO Type A Sprockets are classif ied into four groups, on
the basis of the style of construction: Types A, B,
Pitch Code pitch Code C and D.
> Type A sprockets are made of steel plate and
3/8" 35 mm
9.525 06C-i are designed without hubs f or mounting on
1/2" 40 12.70 mm 084-1 existing hubs, either by bolting or by machine
1" 80 25.40 mm t6A-l shop f it and welding. The sprocket can be f itted
to any length or shape of h ub. Appropriate Type
Construction is indicated in the ISO code by A sprockets are for a single chain only.
the letter:

Type A Steel Plate Sprocket Hub lor Bolt on Sprocket

r
Itl
L
!
,L

tl
t, Single Hub or
Single Plate
Double Hub or
s procket Double Plate
 ROLLER CHAIN

> Type B sprockets are one-piece steel units with r A larger number ol teeth than Type A or B
a hub on one side only; they can be used with sprockets, and
single and multiple-strand chains. o Hub projections on both sides.

O Type B Steel Sprocket

- Strsight Bore Type (Flnished)

Type B Steel Sprocket

Type B and Type C sprockets are designed

with a straight or tapered bushing bore to
accom modate various makes of tapered bush i ngs.
Straight bore sprockets are supplied with
either:
o A minimum plain bore to allow the purchaser
to size the bore, cut a keyway, and drilland tap
for setscrews to suit the particular job require-
ments; or
o A finished bore, where the bore, keyway and
setscrews are sized to standard dimensions.
> Type C sprockets are made of cast iron or semi-
steel and have: Type B Steel Sprocket
- Taper Bushing Bore Type

Type C Sprocket lor a Slngle-
strand Chaln wllh Equal Hub
Prolectlons on Both Sldes
Type C Orfset Sprocket lor a A Common Drive Arrangement
Multlple-strand Chaln using a Type B Hub on the
Pinion or Driver, and a Type C
Hub on the Drlven Sprockel

Note: ln some catalogues, disc sprockets with a
hub on both sides are listed as Type C sprockets.
> Type D sprockets have split hubs which can be
a Type B shape or a Type C shape. The toothed
section can be bolted or welded on, either as a
one-piece or as a two-piece ring.
j
I finer pitch will give longer service than one with
Split Hub lor a Bolted-on
Split Hub and Spllt Sprocket lor Type B or Type C Appllcation
Roller Chain Drive Assernbly
The advantages of this assembly are:
> Power is transmitted at approximately g8 to gg
percent efficiency;
> There is no slipping on overloads, or during
continual heavy loads;
> No special take-up devices are needed to
maintain tension; within limits, the chain will
work efficiently while running slack;
> The shaft centre distances are not critical
(chain vs. gear drive);
> One length of chain will drive severalsprockets
without slipping; this applies to straight line or
serpentine arrangements;
ROLLER CHAIN 239
> The chain can be shortened quickly by a single
link or any number of links, using an offset link;
> The replacement chain is accurate to lengths
within 0.015 of an inch per foot;
> The unit will deliver power even if the assembly
is misaligned; and
> The mechanism willtolerate high temperatures.
Chain Drives Operating
Guidelines
-
Small Sprocket (Driver)
> The small sprocket should have 17 teeth or more
unless the speeds are slow;
> A sprocket with a greater number of teeth and a
fewer teeth and a coarse pitch; often this
demands a multiple-strand chain when using a
finer pitch in order to deliver the required
horsepower. A hardened sprocket should be
used when:
o The operating speed is s/ouz, the drive is
heavily loaded, and the chain has been
selected for tensile strength;
o The
operating speed is moderate, and sprock-
ets have 17 teeth or less;
c The operating speed is high, and sprockets
have 25 teeth or less;
. Speed ratios exceed 4:1; or
. Operating conditions expose the drive to dirt,
dust or abrasives.
Large Sprocket (Driven)
> The speed ratio is the critical factor and is
expressed as:
@
low speed shaft rpm
@sprocket
number of teeth of driver sprocket;
> The large sprocket should not exceed 120 teeth;
> A single chain drive should not be used where
the speed ratio exceeds 7:1;
> Where the speed ratio exceeds 5:1, a double-
reduction drive or jackshaft should be used to
obtain maximum service life;
> Speed ratios up lo 12:l are allowed if the speed
drive is very low (not more than '100 rpm).
 240 ROLLER CHAIN

Centre Distances ol Shafts

> The chain wrap should be at least 120 degrees
of the smaller sprocket, meshing with at least
1/3 ol the teeth;
> Ratios of 3:1 or less give a 120 degree wrap, or
Total: I to 1 more;
> With ratios of 3.5:1 or more, the centre distances
should not be less than the difference in sprocket
diameters;
> The centre distance between the two sprockets
must be greater than half the sum of the outside
diameters, or the teeth of the sprockets will
Speed Reducllon - Large SProckets interfere;
> A centre distance of 30 to 50 pitches of chain is
adequate;
> For pu lsating loads, centres as short as 20
pitches of chain can be used (see diagram
on the left);
> Extra-long distances between the shafts should
be avoided. lt is better to install a jackshaft or
countershaft at half the distance.
Slack
Correct slack is usually expressed as percent
s/ack and is based on the arnount of def lection in
Speed Reduction Chain WraP
- the s/ack side of a chain drive.
For horizontal, or nearly horizontal, one-
direction drives, the required amount oi slack
ranges trom 2 to 5 percent, while for reversing
drives or shock-loaded drives, the amount is less.
lntroduce Cou ntershaf ts
Break down from one to two - three and more
For vertical drives the amount of deflection
stages depending on the distance of centres should be approximately one-quarter the chain
pitch.
ln the diagram , the tight side is on the bottom
and the slaek side is on the top - deflection is
found by measuring f rom a straight-edge across
the chain on the sprockets. S represents the span,
or centre-to-centre distance, between the shafts'
D and S can be measured in inches or millimetres.

D desired percentage X S
Dellectlon Measured Vertlcally ASA Dlmensions -
ll
- ln some ISO Type A manuals, the tight side is
on top. Deflection (D) is the total up and down
I

K -E+
l
travel of the slack chain.
D horizontal distance S
- K

K-25 for smooth drives

50 for shock drlves

Dellecllon Measured Vertlcally - ISO

 ROLLER CHAIN 241

Chain Adjustment on Fixed Sprocket Centre

Drives Driver
.r--- --\
tdter sprockets, as shown in the illustrations, /\
/$\
should be used as a means of taking up chain - ,\

slack where it is not possible to provide adjustable ,, '' ' ,,

centres. They are not needed for normal drives

where other means of taking up the chain slack
are available.
Driven i(. ) 'ip)"

ldler sprockets may be fixed or adiustable, +l+

\'ol:l
,
11*'l
,,
\ .i'
I 1

depending on their purpose. Adjustable idlers J

have the advantage that chain tension can be ld ler i l1 ldler

controlled. t+;i-i l--
Driven
I I+i r
ldler sprockets should be applied against the -1
\'.t' ; /
. - .. '1'- -
slack side of the chain. When running inside the
I
chain drive, idlers may be located f rom the middle i
ii
of the drive toward the larger sprocket. When
running outside the chain drive, idlers should be
located toward the smaller sprocket. On drives Driver
with short centres, the idler on the outside of the Two-point Drlve
chain should be as close as possible to the
The idler is on either the inside or outside of the chain
smaller sprocket.
depending on the direction of drive. lt can also be used
on both sides for reversing drives.

,\
.P- |

Driverrz/ Driver Driven

Adjuslable Supporting ldler

This keeps the chain sag at a minimum. lt is recom-

mended f or slow and medium chain speed applications
ldler
up to 500 f eet per minute.

Driven
/- -a-
/\-
{{+/; ) -
//
't ,/
\

zl\r
\ ,?))
Supporting guide rails - f or use at the top and bottom
of reversing drives. Use only for chain speeds less than
-'\-- lrore,
- j- o]il",
q,@re
300 feet per minute.

-_f,9
Two-point Drive Fixed Cenlres
ldler running inside and outside the chain drive
Figure a Figure b

Horizontal centres
- Sprockets are shown on hori-
zontal centerlines. The slack strand should be on the
lower side (figure b) although it can be on either the
upper or lower side of the drive for normal centre
d istances.
242 ROLLER CHAIN

Multiple-width Roller Chain

r3 Figure c
-I
I Y

Figure
-L

d I
rtlf'n rrTrq'
+--. rF-=--- -:
UIJLIELj t' L+LT
IT] T
l_[]
T T

(t
A()rLlf-^ i,,O)
",t.n
il,) ,g]-r9
Long centres
- Drives with comparatively long centre
distances should be run with slack on the lower strand
n (r
Gq) (o--Qt
0OUBLt-wrDTH aCLLf i ChlrN
(figure c) as there is a danger of the loose upper strand RLVTTTO TYPT

rubbing agarnst the lower strand after wear occurs

(f igure d).

T
L
I
Figure e Figure f l

- Where centres are comparatively

T
Shorl centres
short, slack on the lower side is preferable (f igure e). prrcHl
F-t
Slack on the upper strand (figure f) causes this strand .- xIF) --i
(cX(-4 (o) 1 H
to be pushed out of proper engagement with the teeth Ml I

COTTEREO TYP
of the sma//er sprocket.

Multiple-width Chains

Multiple chains are used to transfer maxi-

Vertlcal driyes
- When it is necessary to use vertical
drives, they should be run fairly taut to prevent the
chain from sagging and disengaging itself frorn the
teeth of the lower sprocket.
mum power with the smallest pitch size. A high
sprocket speed combined with a long pitch is
both destructive and noisy because of the impact
of the chain link on the sprocket. The force of this
impact increases in proportion to the weight of
the chain and the square of the velocity with
which the roller strikes the sprocket. The use of a
multiple chain with a small pitch at high speeds
will give the chain and sprockets a smoother
operation and a longer life.

1" chain drive

outline pitch

2" chain drive

outline pitch

Vertlcal drlves
- Whenever possible, chain drives
should be placed slightly off the vertical plane.

Multiple Chain lor Power Transmission

 ROLLER CHAIN 243

For power transmission, a multiple chain Side plate numbers are given either for ANSI
permits the use of a smaller pitch chain and or ISO standards.
smaller sprockets where space is at a premium.
A multiple-strand chain has a power delivery ANSI side
rating slightly less than the number of strands. plate no. tso ANSI pitch ISO
Single strand 1

Double strand-- 1.7 2040 208A 1" 25.40

Triple strand - 2.5 2050 210A 11/4" 31.75
Quadruple strand - 3.3 2060 2124 1 1/2" 38.1 0
Single-cut Sprockets cut so that each tooth is
Pitch Strength
-
effective in applying powertothe links in contact.
1" single 14,500 lbs.
1" multiple M X 14,500 tbs
(M no. of strands
-
in multiples)
'1"quadruple
4 X 14,500
- 58,000 lbs.
2" single 58,000 lbs.
Multiple-chain drives require very accurate
alignment in order to spread the load evenly over
every strand. Where alignment cannot be kept,
two single chains on special sprockets may be
more efficient than a duplex chain. Two duplex
chains can be used instead of a quadruplex.
Routine maintenance is much the same as for
a single chain. Single-cut Sprocket Double Pitch
-

Double-Pitch or Extended-Pitch
Roller Chains
Double-pitch drive chain can be used in
place of standard roller chain when speeds are
low and loads relatively light, or on low-speed
applications with long spans to reduce the chain
weight.
Double-pitch chain drive is similar to stand-
ard chain, except that the link plates have twice
the pitch. Double-pitch chain is not made in
multiple widths.

Double-cut Sprocket Double Pltch

-
Double-cut Sprockets
- every other tooth is
effective. The sprockets have an even number of
teeth so that wear will be on everyothertooth in a
regular pattern. When these teeth are worn, the
sprocket can be rotated by one tooth to provide a
new set of teeth for the chain"
Sprockets with an odd number of teeth wear
Double-pitch Chain
- Pitch Drive evenly on all teeth.
244 ROLLER CHAIN

Sprockets for a double-pitch chain are cut to
fit that type of chain. Standard sprockets with 36
teeth or more, can be used with double-pitch
chai n.
Silent Chain
Silent chain is designed for use on high-
speed drives. lt is preferable to roller chain f orthis
fu nction.
The notches or projections on the chain
prevent rotation of the pin and bushing and
therefore resemble a gear more than a roller
chain sprocket.
The chain is held on the sprocket by either a
row of centre guide plates fitting into a groove in
the sprocket, or by side guide plates on each side
of the chain, straddling the sides of the sprocket.

Silent Chain with Slide Guides

The general rules for design, installation, and

maintenance of roller chain drives apply to silent
chain drives.
Roller Chain Lubrication
Lubrication is necessary to minimize metal-
to-metal contact of the pin-bushing joints in the
Sllent Chain chain. Oil should be applied to the outside and
inside plate edges, as access to pin-bushing
Silent chain consists of a series of toothed areas is through the clearance between the
link-plates assembled on pin connectors. plates.
ln operation, the chain passes over the face A good grade of mineral oil, free flowing at
of the sprocket like a belt
- the sprocket teeth do
not protrude through it,The chain meshes with the
the prevailing temperature, should be used. A f ine
pitch chain will call for a lighter grade of oil
sprocket by means of teeth extending across the SAE 10 or SAE 20 while a coarse pitch chain
-
width of the underside. The links have no sliding -
will call for SAE 40 or SAE 50.
action, either on or off the teeth, and create a The types of lubrication will be determined
smooth, quiet action. by the speed of the chain and the amount of
power transmitted:
lubrication
> Manual
- ihe oil is supplied with
brush or a spout can;
a

l
ffi
t-lL
\-z_
l
----N-
trl
FX
H
Toothed Link-plates in Silent Chain Drip Lubrication Drip Cup
-
 ROLLER CHAIN 245

ln some high-speed drives, the oil stream is

Manual Lubrication Oil Can
- The amount of new chain needed to replace
> Drip lubrication the oil is dropped between the
link plates from a lubricator;
> Bath lubrication
- the chain runs through an oil
sump in the drive housing. The oil level should
reach the chain when it is running;
replaced by an oil mist directed at the chain.
Replacing a Chain
When a new chain is installed on an existing
drive, new sprockets should be installed, or the
existing sprockets, it in good condition, should
be reversed. Plant policy, based on cost or
production loss, may require the use of new chain
on existing worn sprockets. ln this case, chain life
will be shortened and there may be maintenance
problems due to the new chain climbing the
sprocket teeth.
an old roller chain is based on the total length or
number of pitches, depending on the drive and
the chain use. lf the drive chain has been
shortened during service life, the new chain will
have the same length, but more pitches. lf the
roller chain is involved with timing orsequence of
operation, the new chain will be shorter and have
the same number of pitches.
A chain with a cotter pin connecting the links
can be broken at any place using a pair of pliers, a
punch and a hammer. The connecting link may
be salvaged. To disconnect a riveted chain on the
job, grind off the rivet heads. This operation
wastes the connecting link which must be
replaced.

Bath Lubrication

> Oil stream lubrication

- the oil is supplied by a
circulating pump, and is applied in a continu-
ous stream across the chain width.

3/8" Diam
Disconnecting a Chain with a Hammer and Punch

Screw-operated extractors or chain breakers

are commonly used for removing the outer plate
Oil Sump of riveted chain. Before pushing the pin through
the pin plate on a large-size chain, the rivet head
Oil Slream Lubrication Force Feed Circulating Pump should be ground away to avoid distorting the
System
- thread on the screw.
246 ROLLER CHAIN

Maintaining a Chain on a Drive Chain joined between sprockets must be

Break a chain on a sprocket (if possible); the
sprocket will make a good rest or anvil fordriving
out the pins of the connectlng link. Put the chain
together again on the sprocket
- the teeth will
hold one end of the chain in position.
pulled together and held in position to insert a
connecting link. The quickest and easiest way to
pullthe chain together is by means of leather lace
a piece of leather 1/4 inch wide and 3 to 4 feet
-long
- wrapped around a roller at each end of the
chain. The best location is 3 or 4 rollers back, and
the chain must then be held flat between the
parallel wraps of lace.
For a tight or heavy chain, some form of
mechanical puller is needed. A handy puller can
easily be made f rom a small turnbuckle by cutting
the turnbuckle and bending the ends as shown.

Pull
;7

Lace Pulled through Slit in Broad End of Lace

Pulling Chaln with a Lace

Various types of commerical mechanical

pullers are available from chain sales outlets.
Mechanical pullers should be used with
caution the general tendency is to try to pull a
chain
-
together as tightly as possible, forgetting
that a chain drive should have some slack.
The advantage of the lace tightener is that it
lnserling a Connecting Link will not pull the roller chain together too tightly.

Cut
1 Light for Less r: rurnbuckte t=
than 1" Pitch =-t--]--,
-
Cut
d::t":"x'!:,,".F
a) to shape

Square or Hex Stock

1 Heavy for 1"

and Over Pitch

& L Hand Thread Nut with Two Prongs

Tighten wilh Wrench <

-----, --
 ROLLER CHAIN 247

Trouble-Shooting Chart for

Chain Drives Abrasives; Clean the chain
and install a
dust-proof
Trouble Cause To Correct guard.
> Noisy drive: Moving parts Tighten and > Chain climbs Chain doesn't Replace the
rub stationary align the sup-
sprockets; fit sprockets;chain or
pafts; ports, casing,
sprockets.
and chain.
Remove dirt or
Worn chain Replace the
other rnatter. or worn chain. Reverse
sprockets; or replace the
Casing or Tighten the
sprockets.
cover rattles; casing, cover
and supports.
Loose chain; Tighten the
chain.
Chain doesn't Replace with
fit sprocket; correct pans. > Stiff chain: Faulty Lubricate
lubrication; properly.
Loose chain; Tighten the
chain, keeping a Rust or Clean and
small amount of corrosion; lubricate,
slack. Long
chains need Misalignment Correct the
idlers, rollers, or or improper alignment and
guide shoes.
assembly; assembly of the
drive.
Faulty Lubricate
lubrication; properly.
Worn out Replace the
chain or chain. Reverse
Misalignment Correct the worn or replace the
or lmproper alignment and sprockets; sprockets.
assembly; assembly of the
drive. > Broken chain Shock or Avoid shock and
or sprockets: overload: overload, or
Worn parts; Replace the
isolate the chaln
worn chain or or sprockets
bearings.
through the
Reverse worn
couplings.
sprockets before
replacing. Wrong size Replace wrong
chain; chain parts.
> Rapid wear: Faulty Lubricate that does not
lubrication; properly.
fit sprockets;
No slack; Add extra pitch Worn out Replace the
or adjust idler. chain or chain. Reverse
worn or replace the
Loose or Align and sprockets; sprockets.
misaligned tighten the entire
pafts; drive.
248 ROLLER CHAIN

> Broken Rust or Replace the

chain or corrosion; parts; correct the
sp rockets corrosive
(cont'd ): conditions.

Misalignment; Correct
alignment.

lnterferences; Make sure no

solids obstruct
the chain and
sprocket teeth.
Loosen the
Checklng tor Wear
chain if
necessary for
proper clear- A more accurate way of measuring chain
ance of the
wear is to stretch the chain and compare its
sprocket teeth.
length to a length of new chain with the same
number of pitches.
Routine Maintenance New Chain No Length Variation
-
Every chain drive should be checked period-
ically for:
> Misalignment indicated when the sides of the
-
sprocket teeth or the inside surfaces of the
roller link plate show wear.

Ir\ Wear
Wear on Old Chain

iit Testlng tor Wear by Push and Pull Method

!t
)u Wear
The force applied can be a spring scale for
horizontal measurement or dead weight for
vertical measurernent.
-- -----rt---C! ---- )
1l I
Mlsellgnmenl lg lndlcated by Wear Force
Fixed -i rlw l(-
> Chain or Sprocket Wear (or both), other than II
misalignment - indicated when the chain is _-=o_tf___rn _)
running close to the tips of the teeth on the
Checklng lor Wear
larger sprocket.
When the drive is down try lifting the chain The distance W is the amount of wear and is
away from the large sprocket, making sure that expressed as a percent wear, found by dividing W
the chain is in mesh at the ieading and leaving by the original chain length (see section on chain
teeth. Wear will be indicated if the rollers ieave a math).
sprocket tooth gap. Percentwear- W X100
lf the chain is slack, support the slack with a length
board and try pushing several links together, then
Chain companies recommend that the chain
pulling them apart. The wear on the pins and
should be replaced when the percent extension
bushings will show up in a difference in length. reads '1 to 2 percent, depending on the speed and
The preceding checks for chain wear show operating conditions of the drive, and the
that the chain is worn, but not by how much it is production importance of the machine.
worn. Sprocket wear is indicated by the change in
 ROLLER CHAIN 249

tooth form. Normal wear is hard to detect, but

excessive wear from misalignment or overload-
ing is easy to detect.
> S/ack Control- generally indicated when there
is an increase in the amount of slack, but on a
drive with idlers or jockeys, excessive slack can
be caused by an idler becoming loose.
250 HYDRAULICS

13. Hydraulics

Circuits
A knowledge of circuit reading will help the
millwright understand the operation of both
hydraulic and air circuit systems.
The symbols below show the f unction of
each part. The complete circuit shows what each
component will do when the pump is started, or
when air is supplied at working pressure.
' A bill of material will give the make, model,
size and other details of each part.
Regardless of the size, shape, or make, the
parts of each system are represented by standard
f ig u res.

> Tank or reservoir

- Ll
> Eiectric motor,
hydraulic pump or motor - o
tr
Slmple Clrcult
> Valves to control
r Pressu re -
With the pump in operation:
o Direction
r Volume > The fluid willtravelthrough the relief valve;and
down, or retracted,
> Working parts
. Cylinder rF_ > The piston will be in the
position.

o Motor

> Lines
-
-
o Connecting
o The reservoi rs shown with the relief valve and
the direction control valve indicate that the flow
path is back to the main tank.

r Sensing - Note: These are not separate tanks.

-
> Spring
- V\A
The simple circuit consists of :
A- a reservoir or tank;
B- an electric motor;
a fixed displacement pump;
D- a relief or maximum pressure valve;
-t- a direction control valve; and
F- a single-acting cylinder.
The springs indicate that the valves are held
in position by spring force.
Circuit reading usually means following the
flow of fluid from the pump to the working part
-
a cylinder or motor
- to see what is open to f luid
flow and what is closed to fluid flow.
The next step is to see what operations can
be done by shifting the direction control valves:
what parts move, what is the change in fluid flow,
 HYDRAULICS 251

and what other control valves or parts are

Valve Body Schemata
in volved.
A valve body, regardless of its shape or size,
is represented by a square, or envelope.

Lines on the outside of the envelope show the

number of ports or pipe connections. Hydraulic
circuits use two-, three-, and four-connection
valves, or port valves, while air circuits often use a
five-port valve. *
tlJ

l1
H
Port and Pipe

Lines and arrows inside the envelope show

the direction of flow and the open or closed
positions (flow or no flow).
oo"" ril -h
LJJ LF trr
7Y

Closed
,frI -h I
u I t Il
i

il
Flow or No Flow

Direction control valves are frequently

marked with pressure, tank or exhaust symbols
-
Cylinder A and/or Cylinder B on three-connec-
tion or four-connection valves. The symbol will
r i lz
show the proper connections to make.
L_l
el lr
Pressure, Tank and Exhaust
252 HYDRAULICS

Direction Control Valves

Two or more envelopes joined together
l-L indicate that the valve can be used with two or
more f low patterns through it. Each envelope
rl-r-lllttr represents a position - a different flow pattern
obtained by shifting the spool inside the valve
I
body.
I
Two-position valves have all the port connec-
tions shown on one envelope, This indicates the
l

ltlr_-
lilrl
preferred or starting position, either normally
=T*- open or normallY closed.
The kitchen sink with the necessary vaives
drawn as two-port, two-position valves, is a good
Slnk Showlng Normal Valve Positlon example of a "normal" valve position.
The sink tap is normally closed, and is
Cylinde r
opened when flow-through is desired. The
shutoff valve below the sink is normally open, and
ff--
?+-. +
is closed when repairs are made to the sink taps,
Seal failure in the sink tap is common to all
hydraulic systems.
The diagrams show a simplif ied two-position,
PumP
J
Tank
three-port valve with the preferred position first,
Sh if ted followed by the shifted Position'
Ir- When the control nreans is released, the
LrI_l
compressed spring shown in f igure b will snap
Ia the spool back to its original position.
ln the diagram, a single-acting cylinder is
operated by a two-position, three-port direction
control valve. The solid lines show the fluid under
pressure, and the open lines show the fluid
returning to the tank.
The direction control valve and cylinder
should be drawn with the standard symbols. The
normal position of the ram would be fully
exte n ded.
A two-position, three-port valve will operate
a single-acting cylinder in one direction only. For
the piston to move in the opposite direction, three
Figure b
conditions must be met:
> The f luid suPPlY must be shut off;
Single-acting Cyllnder Pictorial
> The fluid in the cylinder must drain back to the
tank; and
> An external force such as the spring, or the
weight of the components, must be available to
move the piston.

Direclion Control Valve SYmbols

 HYDRAULICS 253

Four-Port Valves
Piston movement under power in both
directions is obtained by directing the fluid to
either end of a double-acting cylinder, using a
four-port direction control valve. The diagram
shows how the position of the spool determines
flow paths in a circuit.
>P
- pressure;
>T-tank; and
> A and B - cylinder or motor.
ln f igure a with the valve in the extreme left
position, flow from P enters cylinder port A and Figure a Figure b
moves the piston to the right
- the return flow
leaves cylinder port B and returns through T to
Flow Paths ln Four-port Valve8

the reservoir. ln figure b the valve is in the

opposite position and flow P enters cylinder port
alle ir
,ll l"l
r
B, moving the piston to the left. Return f low leaves
cylinder port A and returns to the reservoir L_ I _l X,
' il,
_
through port T.
A three-position, four-port valve is needed to
control or stop piston movement partway through
a stroke.
All lines are drawn to the centre, or neutral
envelope the end envelopes show the flow
pattern in- the shi{ted positions of the valve.
Working drawings usually show the end flow End Flow Dlagrams
patterns.
There is a wide choice of centre envelope f low
patterns
- the following are most common:
closed, open, tandem, float and regenerative.
Each centre has a definite bearing on:
l'
> The cylinder (or motor) control or position; and
l|
> The f luid flow from the pump heat rise and hp
ti
demand.
-
rii

Closed Centre all ports are blocked off in

neutra l.
-
The cylinder is "locked" and the piston will
stay in position over a perioC of time the piston
-
will driit, due to minor internal ieaks.
The fluid from the pump will go throuEh the
relief valve at maximum pressure, generating heat
and requiring maximum hp. The hp energy is
wasted in heat"

.1-',
HYDRAULICS

Open Centre
- all ports are connected in
neutral.
The piston will move down to the end of the
stroke when the valve is in neutral. lf the cylinder is
mounted horizontally, and there is sufficient
inertia, the piston may stay in position.
The flow from the pump is back to the tank
with minimum hp demand, and no pressure with a
low heat rise through the direction control valve.

Tandem Centre
- the cylinder ports are
blocked off , and the f low f rom the pump is back to
the tank.
This centre provides a hydraulic lock to hold
the piston in position, but allows the fluid to flow
from the pump back to the tank, requiring
minimum hp and generating a small amount of
heat.
 HYDRAULICS 255

Float Centre
- ports A and B are connected
to the tank, and the pump is blocked off .

When the hydraulic motor is shut off, the

conveyor will coast to a stop. As the motor slows
down, oil will flow from the motor, through the
centre, and back to the motor.
For maintenance purposes, the drive can be
turned manually without disconnecting the
hydraulic motor.

Regenerative Centre
- ports A and B are
connected to the pump. This design gives a very
rapid advance of the piston, as fluid displaced
from the rod side is added to the base or "blind"
end of the cylinder.
 256 HYDRAULICS

Pressure Control Valves

Pressure Control Valves
Pressure control valves come in two main
g roups:
> Normally closed valves which open when
pressure reaches a set limit, such as relief
valves, or unloading valves; and
> Normally open valves which close when pres-
sure reaches a set limit, such as pressure-
reducing valves.
Maximum pressure valves are normally
c I osed.
The standard relief valve is meant to be used
for a short period of time. Continuous oil flow
through the relief valve should be avoided as it:
> Wears out the pump;
> Consumes hp and energy;
> Generates heat, which is stored in the tank and
which is hard on seals;
> Shortens the oil service life; and
> lncreases the amount of pump noise.
lf the pump is to run for long periods of time,
a dump valve can be installed. The valve should
be large enough to handle all the pump f low
without creating too much resistance. The
control means for the valve can be either manual
or solenoid.
Pilot unloading requires:
> A pilot-operated relief valve with a "vent"
connection; and
> A small unloading valve a 1/4 inch size is
-
suitable.
All fluid flow from the pump is through the
main relief valve, at low Pressure.

I'
 HYDRAULICS 257

High-Low Systems
Some press installations use a long-stroke
ram or piston which must be removed rapidly,
then held on the press for several minutes.
The press on the right has a travel time (T) of
30 seconds, followed by a dwelt, or hold time (D)
of 4 minutes. A supply of 25 gpm will give the f-r --l fo
required speed to the ptston. Press
lf a single, fixed-displacement pump is used,
the pump will be working against the relief valve
for 4 minutes, causing a r,iaste of energy.
The high-low system, using a holding press,
is a more efficient way to obtain speed.
500 psi 1200 psi
On the advance stroke, both pumps deliver
fluid to the system until the resistance to ram or
piston movement creates 500 psi in the system. At
-tu
that point, the unloading valve dumps or unloads
the 20 gpm into the tank, leaving the 5 gpm pump
to supply the final motion and make up any fluid
leakage during the 4-minute press.
On the retract stroke, both pumps supply
fluid to the system.
The check valve prevents back-f low when the
20 gpm pump is unloading into the tank. The Hlgh-Low Syslem
pressure that seats the check valve will be system
maximum, while the pressure on the pump side rt
I]^\F--
will be low - whatever is formed by fluid (41iJ
resistance through the lines and unloading valve. LrJ
A high-low system can be obtained by using
two pump-motor units. A pressure switch is
connected to the start/stop controls of the larger
motor, and when the pressure reaches 500 psi the
motor is shut off, leaving the small pump and (,
motor to f inish the press.
Another means of obtaining a continued
press would be to use a pressure-compensated,
ll
variable-volume pump. When the ram or piston Two Pump-Motor System
stops moving and pressure builds up to the pump
setting, the pump will adjust to the "no delivery"
position.

Preggure-compenaaled Varlable Volume Pump

HYDRAULICS

Sequence Valves
Sequence valves are used to control the
order of operation of two cylinders.
When the direction controlvalve is shifted to
the advance envelope, the fluid has a choice of
two flow paths:
> Along the lines the flow is blocked by both
-
the check valve and the closed centre of the
sequence valve as shown at Point S;
> Along the lines
- to extend the horizontal
piston. As the piston moves, pressure will be
formed, and at 600 psi the sequence valve will
open to allow fluid flow to advance the vertical
piston.
Both operations will then move until resis-
tance creates pressure equal to the relief valve
setti ng.
The check valve is needed to allow the return
flow to bypass the normally closed centre in the
sequence valve.
The circuit below shows two separate f unc-
tions: press ure control and check valve. The two
components are frequently shown enclosed by
an envelope to indicate that they are contained in
one valve body.
Sequence Valves

Pregsure Control and Check Valve

 HYDRAULICS 259

Volume Control Valves

Piston speed depends on the area of the
piston and the volume of fluid supplied to the
cylinder.
ln the circuit, both cylinders are of the same
diameter, and if operated individually, they will
have the same speed.
lf operated together, the speed of each
cylinder should be half that of a single cylinder.
ln actual use, piston speed will be variable,
depending on which piston is moving the lighter
load.
Manually operated direction control valves
allow a skilled operator a range of usable speeds,
but the speeds will not always be consistent.
Flow,or volume control valves are designed
to give a unif orm speed of operation each time the
direction control valve is shifted. The position of
Volume Control Valves ln a Clrcult
the volume control valve in the circuit affects the
operation of the circuit.
Flow dividers control the amount of fluid to r-{ i ++
each circuit and are usually located between the
pump and the direction control valves. The flow
divider is shown in the circuit as two variable
_l
rt--[ _____rl
i-]..
Hl

restrictions, but it is usually drawn as a three-port

valve with two internal functions.
Volume control valves control the speed of -r-l+ I

motion, but they also have a secondary effect on

r-t
l-
.--}\
p ress u re.
lf the variable restriction is wide open, and
li ()
\-/
low is directly to the tank, gauge pressure will be
f

almost zero. As the resistance to flow occurs, L-lr

gauge pressure will be increased. lf the pump Flow Dlvlders
delivers 10 gpm, and the restriction allows less
than .10 gpm to pass, the remaining fluid must
pass through the relief valve, and the gauge will
show maximum pressure. This possible rise in
pressure must be considered when installing
pressure control valves with meter-in or meter-
out circuits.
Restrictions
The valve and the cylinder:
A single variable restriction between the
direction control valve and the cylinder will
control piston speed on both advance and retract
actions.
This restriction is used where speed control
in one direction is needed, but the speed in the
opposite direction is not important.
260 HYDRAULICS
Meter-in or meter-out valves can be installed
on both lines between the direction control valve
and the cylinder to control the piston speed in
both directions.
Slngle Varlable Restriction
Speed Control
Loss o/speed is a reduction in volume; ioss ol
force is a reduction in Pressure.
The following designs are frequently used to
give a controlled speed in one direction, and a
rapid return in the other direction.
Restrlctlons ln Bolh Dlrectlons
Speed Control
Bleed-Off
Meter-in controls f luid going to the cylinder
and is mainly used where the load resists piston
movement. A vertical push cylinder is a typical
meter-in control.
Meter-out controls f luid leaving the cylinder
and is used where the load can run away with the
piston. Air circuits use meter-out as the main
means of accurate piston speed control.
Bleed-off
- by drawing or "bleeding off" an
amount of fluid directly back to the tank, the
speed of the piston can be controlled in one
direction, but the speed in the opposite direction
is not changed. Bleed-off on both lines to the
cylinder can also control speed in both directions.
Trouble-shooting in a Circuit
Most problems on a hydraulic circuit can be
solved by having:
> An up-to-date circuit print showing all volume
and pressure control valves and, if possible, a
setting for each;
> Accurate pressure and f low gauges;
> Given time f or each step or cycle of the
operation;
> Operator assistance
- this may be necessary,
as a good operator who is familiar with the
machine should be able to locate the cause of a
malf unction.
Note: On a two- or three-shift operation, the
millwright should be familiar with the character
of the operators. An operator with tools, tinker-
ing ability, and limited knowledge may be a
potential hazard.
Meter-in Meter-out

Hydraulic Theory and Laws
Properties of Fluids
Shape
- a liquid has no definite form, but
takes the shape of its container. Similarly, a gas
has no definite form. ln either case the word f luid
can be used because the gas or liquid will flow.
The energy of the liquid or gas in a container can
be turned into work.
Com pressi on
- liquids are less compressible
than most solids. But when force is applied to a
fully contained liquid, the liquid shows the same
resistance to compression as a solid. When
pressure on a liquid is released, the liquid returns
to its original volume.
Hydraulic oil compresses about one half of
one percent at 1000 psi- the loss in volume is not
considered for practical calculations.
A liquid subjected to a force will seek the path
of least resistance. lf the f orce is g ravity, the liq u id
will seek its own level.
The liquid rises to a common level on each
side of the bottom walls, and the pressure from
the weight of liquid is uniform at allpoints shown
below.
Pressure Due to Resistance to Flow
No Gauge Reading
HYDRAULICS 261
lf subject to a pressure differential, f luid will
flow from the high pressure to the low pressure
area. There must be a pressure difference to
cause fluid flow.
Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force divided by
the area over which it is distributed, or the force
per unit area. lt is usually expressed as pounds
per square inch (psi). Metric or Sl math uses a
pascal (N/m'?) as the unit of pressure, with most
pressures being given as kPa in the low range,
and mPa in the high range (1 psi - 6894.757 Pa).
One atmosphere of 14.7 psi - 101.352 kPa or 100
kPa for approximations.
Pressure due to weight and height:
A cubic f oot of petroleum oil weighs about 55
to 58 pounds, so each square inch on the bottom
has a pressure of approximately 0.4 psi (55 to 58
divided by 144 and rounded to 0.4) per foot of
heig ht.
Water weighs 62.4 pounds per cubic foot,
and has a pressure of 0.433 psi per foot of height.
To estimate the pressure atthe bottom of any
column of oil, multiply 0.4 by the height in feet.
Pressure due to resistance to f low:
ln a working hydraulic system, pressure is
created by resistance to fluid flow. The pump
delivers f luid to the system, but resistance to f low
creates pressure.
Gauge Reading
ll
I
HYDRAULICS
Hydraulic Laws
Pascal's Law
ln the 17th century Blaise Pascalformulated
one of the basic laws of hydraulics.
Pasca/'s Law states that pressure at any point
in a static liquid is the same in every direction; and
pressure exerted on an enclosed liquid is transmit-
ted undiminished in every direction, and thus acts
with equal force on equal areas at right angles to
the containing surface.
tb
I potential energy from the pressure, and heat
Pascal's Law
Notei This law does not apply to the gravitational
forces on a liquid that cause the pressure to
increase with depth.
Pascal's Law deals with fluids at rest in a
confined container, where pressure is transmit-
ted equally in all directions. When the fluid f lows,
the pressure no longer remains the same, as f orce
is necessary to overcome friction.
Bernoulli's Principle states that whenever the
velocity of a fluid is increased at any point, the
pressure is decreased at that point.
ln the diagram below, pump delivery is
forced through the restriction under gauge B by
increasing the velocity of the f luid, with a
corresponding drop in pressure. After the fluid
leaves the restriction, the velocity decreases, and
the pressure increases. ln actual use, the three
ABC
VelocllylPressure Railo: Bernoulll's Prlnclple
gauges shown in the sketch for Bernoulli's
Principle will show three different pressures: A -
high, B - low, and C - pressure between Aand
B. The drop in gauge C is due to heat loss caused
by friction at the orifice. Disregarding f riction
losses, gauge C should read the same as gauge A.
Conservation of Energy Law
The Law of Conservation of Energy states
that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it
can be changed into different types of energy.
Fluid moving in the lines contains kinetic
energy f rom the weight and velocity of the fluid,
energy caused by friction.
Fluid leaving the pump has kinetic energy
and pressure energy. When fluid goes through
the restriction, the kinetic energy is increased
and the pressure energy is decreased.
Energy Loss Due to Friction
Friction is the resistance to relative motion
between two bodies. When a liquid flows in a
hydraulic circuit, the friction produces heat, and
some of the energy being transferred is lost in the
form of heat energy. Friction occurs between the
liquid and the walls of the tubing, and between
the layers of the f luid itself (viscous shear action).
The main causes of excessive f riction in
hydraulic lines are:
> Excessive length of lines;
> Excessive velocity (because the lines are too
small);
> Excessive number of bends or fittings, or
unsuitable bends or fittings; or
> A sustained flow at high pressure.
Streamline or Laminar FIow
ln straight runs and at low velocity, fluid
moves through a pipe in an even pattern with a
minimum of friction.
The actual velocity of fluid through lines to
obtain streamline flow varies according to the
pressure. Recommended speeds are:
> Two to f ive feet per second on pump suction
lines and on pressure lines up to 150 psi;
> Ten to twenty feet per second on pressure lines
up to 3000 psi; or
> Seven to twenty feet per second on working
lines.
 HYDRAULICS 263

1/2" diam pipe velocity 48 fps

1" diam pipe - velocity '12 fps
2" diam pipe
-
velocity 3 fps
-
The f riction in sireamline f low is usually
proportional to the velocity.
The f riction in turbulent f low is proportional
to the square of the velocity.

Slreamllne Flow
Transmission of Forces
When the end of a solid bar is struck, most of
.+ the force of the blow is carried through to the
-.'-..'..---.-* other end, with very little force transmitted at
----.> right angles to the blow. When a force is applied
to the end of a column of conf ined liquid however,
Lamlnar or Parallel Layers the force is distributed undiminished and equally
in all directions. Uniform pressure will be placed
For general use the limit of streamline flow on the plunger and on the wails.
for pressure lines is fifteen feet per second.
Turbulent Flow
- the straight-line flow is
broken into crosscurrents, eddies, and whirls in
the fluid, all independent of the generai flow
through the tube.
High velocity, roughness in the tubing,
obstructions, sharp bends, and a large number of I
bends will all contribute to turbulence. I
I
J
I
I
Solid Liq u id
Dlstribullon of Force

Turbulent Flow Multiplication of Forces

Flow Measurement
Volume the amount of f luid passing a point
-
in a given time, usually expressed as gallons per
minute (gpm) though small amounts can be
expressed as cubic inches per minute (cipm).
Velocity the speed of fluid passing a given
-
point, or the distance travelled in a unit of time. lt
is expressed as feet per second (fps), feet per
minute (fpm) or inches per second (ips).
Velocity varies inversely as the square of the
inside diameter of the pipe. Doubling the effective
diameter of a pipe increases the cross-sectional
area four times.
The same volume of fluid going through the
following pipes will have the velocities indicated:
Liquid can be used to gain mechanrcal
advantage
- acting as a force muttiptier. ln the
diagram following, piston P has an area of 'l
square inch, and piston W has an area of 50 square
inches. A force of 2 pounds apptied to P would be
transmitted undiminished in every direction.
When this force (2 psi) is applied to the undersur-
face of piston W, the upward force is 100 pounds.
Force-pressureXarea
2 psi X 50 sq in - 100 tbs
Force is gained at the expense of distance.
When P is moved 50 inches, 50 cubic inches of
f luid are moved into the larger cylinder. piston W,
with an area o'f 50 square inches, is moved 1 inch
to make room for this fluid,
264 HYDRAULICS

100 lbs Cylinder Force

The formula for calculating cylinder force is:
F- PXA
P- F/A
A- F/P
-r F - force to be moved
P pressure
A -- area
I
I

CU
I
Example 1: For a relief valve setting of 900
psi, and a cylinder with a two-inch bore, find the
--Y_
maximum load moved:
F-PXA
- 900 x 3.14
- 2826#
- 2800#
Example 2: For a cylinder with a three-inch
2 Lbs Downward Force Creates 100 Lbs Upward Force
bore, and a load of 5000# maximum, find the
pressure needed:
Hydraulic Math P-F/A
A set of tables giving areas of circles with - 5000
diameters increasing by eighths or tenths, and a 7
calculator with n-function, will aid in hydraulic 714 psi
calcu lations. -
Most preliminary calculations are approxi-
mate
- accuracy to four decimal places is not
necessary.

Multiplicatlon o, Force

50" -i

The Effect of Distance

 HYDRAULICS 265

Example 3; For a system pressure of 800 psi, Example 1: For a cylinder bore of 3 inches,
and a load of 5 tons, find the cylinder size: with a rod diameter of 1 inch, find the speed
A- F/P obtained by a 10 gpm supply:
Piston speed advance:
-5X2000
800 S-V/A
- 12.5 sq in (this is not diameter) -10x231
7
According to the tables of circle diameters,
the area of 4 inch diameter - 12.56 sq in. 330
-
Answer:4 inch diameter bore. A safer size to use approximately 330 inlmin
would be 4 1/2 inch diameter.
-
Piston speed retract:
Example 4: lt a pull cylinder has a bore of 4
inches, a rod diameter of 1 inch and mill air S-V/A
pressure of 90 psi, find the load lifted by the 10X231
cyl i nder: - 0.7843 (3' - 1')
The effective area of a pull cylinder is based
on the piston area, less the rod area, and can be -10x231
calculated in two ways: 6.28

> Use of tables to find areas: - 367.8 inlmin

P X (area of piston, less area Example 2: For a cylinder bore of 4 1/2

F of rod)
- inches, and a piston speed of 400 inlmin, f ind the
- 90 x (12.56 - 0.785) pump volume in gpm:

- 1060# or 1000# V-SXA

> Effective area 0.7854 (D, - dr)
- - 400 x 15.9
D piston
diameter
d- rod diameter - 6360 cu in
- - 6360
F-PXA 231

- 90 x 0.7854 (4' - 1') - 27.5 gpm

- 90 x 11.781 Fluid Velocity
- 1060# or 1000# Fluid velocity in lines is expressed as feet per
A 1000 # load will seldom be reached because of second (ftlsec), and can be calculated by:
fluctuations in the mill air pressure. > Using the same formula for cylinder speed and
Cylinder Speed converting inches to feet and minutes to
Calculations for cylinder speed in inches per seconds; or by
> Using a special formula with constants.
minute (1 gal - 231 cu in U.S.) are:
V gp.n
V- volume in cu inlmin -- 3.117 XA
S in inlmin
A- speed
area in sq in
- V - velocity in ftlsec
V-SXA A - area of pipe in sq in
S-V/A For a pump rated at 20 gpm and a discharge
line at 3/4 inch, find the fluid velocity in feet per
A-V/S second:
266 HYDRAULICS

V 9pm Pump-Over-Tank Mounting

3.117 X A
ln a pump-over-tank assembly, atmospheriq
_20 pressure of 14.7 psi pushes down on the surface
3.117 X 0.44 of the fluid. When the pump operates, it creates a
partial vacuum or pressure drop on the inlet side,
- 14.58 or 15 ftlsec and atmospheric pressure pushes the oil into the
The above answer will be approximate as lhe pump suction line.
cross-sectional area of the line is based on the The pump inlet line should be as short and as
nominal diameter, not on the actuai diameter. large as possible. Every foot of head (H) means
For a pump rated at 20 gpm, find the size of that the pump has to create a vacuum of 0.4 psito
inlet line needed to give a 4 foot per second flow overcome the weight of f luid (oil) as well as extra
velocity: vacuum to overcome fluid friction. (Low velocity
means low friction.)
A-9pmX0.3208
V

_ 20 X 0.3208
4

1.604

1 l12" diam from tables and nominal

S IZES

A area in sq in
V - velocity ftlsec
-
The previous formula for finding fluid velo-
city can also be used: Pump Above Fluld

V- gpm Some pump manufacturers recommend a

3.117 X A pressure differential of only 2.5 psito push oil into
A- 20gpm the pump.
Air dissolved in the fluid will vaporize if the
3..117 X V
vacuum is too high. These gas bubbles collapse
A- 20 violently at the pump high-pressure side, causing
3.117 X 4 damage to component parts. Cavitation is caused
by the collapse or implosion of the f ree gas
A-1.6sqin bubbles in the high-pressure area.
To avoid memorizing several constants and
f ormulas, choose one formula and work it to solve

any unknown.

Pumps
A pump is designed to perform two basic ::::H1:ffi
fu nctions:
,**.-_t*--
> To create a pressure drop or partial vacuum on
the inlet side; and
> To deliver a volume of f luid to the system.

ln either of the following positions, mounting

f luid is pushed into the pump inlet by the external
force of atmospheric Pressure. Pump Below Fluld
 HYDBAULICS 267

Pump Below Fluid Level

When the pump is located below the fluid
level, a partialvacuum iscreated, and atmospheric
pressure pushes the oil into the suction side of
the pump. The pump has an added advantage of
being charged, or pressure-fed by the head (H) of
f luid.

This pump arrangement is good for:

> Systems using synthetic fluids or water mixes
which have a weight per volume higher than
petroleum oils;
> Systems with the pump running at high rpm;
> Systems operating at high elevation atmos-
-
pheric pressure drops with an increase in
elevation; or
a ram, and having a very large Fluld Clrcult Worklng Drawlng
> Systems using -
change in fluid level in the tank.
Reservoir
Hydraulic Components The reservoir, while providing an adequate
The basic parts of a hydraulic system are: supply of oil to the system, also allows air in the
> An oil reservoir; fluid to escape, dirt and water to setile out, and
heat to dissipate. The capacity of the tank should
> A motor or source of power;
> A pump; be large enough to keep the oil level several
> A relief valve;
inches above the intake when the system is using
> A direction valve, or valves; the maximum volume of fluid. There should also
> Plumbing: tube, pipe and hose; and be an air space above the oil level when the
> A cylinder or oil motor.
system is using the minimum amount of oil.
The volume of oil in the reservoir should be
A working drawing for a f luid circuit will not equal to two to three times the rated pump
usually show these items in detail but will include delivery for one minute.
a series of symbols, each representing the For example, a system using a pump with a
function of a component. rated delivery ol 10 gallons per minute wouid

Parts ol a Hydraullc System

Piston *
Compound
Pressure Gauge
netiei vatue
Pressure Line -1 f

Venting Line

.]rJ,ll Air Vent

J l- ;
IC
Return Pipe
Coupring
IL
Pump -----J l"

Baff le Plate
268 HYDRAULICS

require a reservoir with a capacity of 20 to 30

gallons. Fr-p rntur"
Connection
The reservoir tank should be made f rom steel
plate, with all joints welded. A removable end
plate or plates will permit inspection and cleaning.
Large end plates
- sometimes difficult to seal -
also make it necessary to drain out a great dealof
oil before checking the interior of the tank. Oil Level
The baf f le plate prevents a direct f low of f luid Disconnect Pipe Union
to Remove Strainers
from the return line to the suction line. Slowing Through Cover for
the oil movement will allow trapped airto escape Clea nin g
and foreign material to settle on the bottom. The
recommended height of the baffle is about two-
thirds the height of the f luid.
A reservoir must meet general industrial
specif ications.
The return line is on one side of the baff le and
extends below the minimum oil level to prevent
foaming. The suction line is located on the other
side of the divider with the intake close to the
bottom. The recommended height of the return
and suction lines from the bottom is about one
and a half to two times the pipe diameter.
Cratering, a condition resembling the whirl-
pool swirl of water going down a drain, willallow
air to enter the suction line if the oil level is too
close to the intake. Plpe Connectlons
The strainer is constructed of fine mesh wire
screen or screens over a metal frame. lt will not The reservoir must be open to the atmosphere,
filter fine particles, but offers little resistance to with an opening large enough to let the air move
flow. More than one strainer can be used to as fast as the f luid is either removed or returned to
supply the demands of the pump The packed the reservoir. An air filter is recommended on any
joint on the suction line allows the removal of a air vent to keep out dust and foreign material.
strainer for inspection without removing an end To save space, and also to locate control
plate.

D rain Psrts in the Reservoir

Mounting
fls{srn
Plate

- L rne
-{\;-.r
1_:i\lirt ti

ill
I {--
litli
lli-'!
_il
):7-:,
--i=:,{
l]]
-=.-/
Baff le
Drain Plate
Pl ug
 I-IYDRAULICS 269

valves in one area, tank assemblies frequently

have a pump and motor, together with a panel for
direction control valves mounted on the tank.
A working drawing usually shows all the tank-
mounted components inside an envelope to
indicate a unit.

Pump, Motor and Direcllon Control Valves Mounted on the

Tank
in Plug

Electric
Motor Filtered Frller
50 hp at 1800

Level Gauge

Access Plate'1 4"

4 9/16',
-- Mounting Holes

Compact Units Worklng Drawlng ol Tank-mounted Componentg as a Unlt

Return Line
Connection Packed Slip Joint
Breather Filler Hole
Welded Coupling Oil Level Gauge
Air Filter ,with Screen
and Cap

Clean
Out
Door

Bottom Sloped
\ Drain at
Clean Out Door Low Point
Towards Drarn
,r

270 HYDRAULICS

A fine mesh wire screen should be installed in
the filter hole to trap any foreign material that
might fall in as the oil is being added. The air vent
and filter hole are frequently combined.
The filter screen will allow only a very slow
Filters can be classif ied as f ull f/ow when all
the oil passes through the filtering element, and
as partial f low when only part of the oil is passed
through the filter. The fullflow design gives more
f iltering action but builds up resistance to flow

f low of oil but it should not be removed merely to when the f ilter becomes dirty. Forthis reason, the
increase speed. filter housing often has a bypass valve.
the oil level indicafor should be located The diagram below shows a full flow filter
where it can be easilY seen. with a bypass valve for use on return lines. Fluid I

The reservoir should be set in an area away flows between the case on the outside of the
f rom any heat source. lf legs are not built on the cartridge, through the filtering element, and up
reservoir, it should be mounted on brackets or a the centre of the cartridge to the outlet port. When
stand to allow air circulation around the bottom. the filter will not handle the flow of oil, the valve
Compact Power Units
A compact power unlt comes in two main
styles:
> A rectangular reservoir with the motor and
pump mounted on the toP, and
> An L-shaped power package with the reservoir,
motor and pump mounted on a common f rame. Bypass Valve

The diagram below shows a quick check list

of service precautions for a compact unit.
Filters
Filters and strainers are similar in function
a strainer can be considered a coarse filter. ln
-
hydraulic terminology, however, they are distin-
guished by their use:
> Sfrainers remove larger solids f rom f luids
travelling in a straight path; whereas
> Filters remove fine solids from fluids travelling
in a tortuous path and confined in a small
container. Full Flow Fllter wlth Bypass Valve

Qulck Checks on a Compact Unit

Pressure Outlet Connection Check Return Connection from
to Hydraulic Control System Oil Recommendation Hydraulic Control SYStem
t and Condition Tank Capacity Should
Ordinarily Equal Twice
the Circulation Rate f or
Check Relief Pressure Setting One Minute
Clean Tank ThoroughlY
when Changing Oil
Clean lntake
Pressure Relief Valve
Filters Both
Before and
After Chainging Oil

Vane Type Single Pump Return Discharge

Must be Submerged
Check Direction of Rotation heck Tank Oil Level Below Oil Level and
Check Air Vent Opening Separated from lntake
Check Flexible Coupling Alignment

poppet unseats and some of the oil is allowed to
bypass it.
Metallic filters consist of closely woven
metal, or discs of metal. They will remove the
larger solid particles but will not remove water or
very f ine solids.
Absorbent "inactive" f ilters contain materials
such as paper, wood pulp, fabric waste or mineral
wool. They will remove fine particles, as well as
water and water-soluble impurities.
Adsorbent "active" filters remove impurities
by both mechanical and chemical means. Bone-
black, charcoal, fuller's earth and other active
clays are examples of these filtering materials.
These filters remove all solid particles, plus
nearly all water, insoluble sludge, and soluble,
oxidized material.
Note. Adsorbent filters may also remove
most additives used in inhibited hydraulic oils.
This factor should be considered in their applica-
tion.
Mechanical filters are considered coarse
filters, and consist of layers of wire screens or
drscs of perforated plates.
Particle size
- the size of the solids removed
by a filter is rated in microns.
A micron is one millionth of a metre, or
0.000039 inch (39 millionths of an inch). The
smallest particle that can be seen with 20-20
vision is about 40 microns.
Wire mesh strainers are graduated by mesh
size or standard sieve number. A nominal 100-
mesh strainer has openings of 0.0059 inch or 149
microns but will allow particles with a dimension
larger than 0.0059 inch to pass through.
lf a particle hits the mesh with its narrow end,
it will go through; if it hits the mesh broadside it
will be kept out.
'149 micron opening tl
particle fi
50 X 200 micron
"100" Wire Mesh Stralner
-I
Filters remove the flner particles and are
usually designed to move the invisible solid
particles from the fluid.
Nominal rating indicates that the filter will
remove most particles of that size or larger. A 20
micron nominal filter will remove most solids of
20 microns in any dimension, but it will allow
some particles of 20 microns and larger to pass
th roug h.
HYDRAULICS 271
Absolute rating means that a filter will stop all
particles of that size or larger. A 20 micron
nominal f ilter may have an absolute rating of 35
m ic ron s.
Warning indicators
- a large number of f ilter
housings are equipped with indicators that show
the condition of the filter unit. The two most
common styles are gauges with green, yellow and
red divisions of the dial or "tell-tales" with green,
yellow and red bands.
A f ilter can be located in th ree positions in the
system: on the inlet side, on the pressure side, or
on the return line side.
lnlet-Side Filters
ln a circuit drawing as shown below, f igure a
usually represents a strainer, and figure b
represents a filter. However, in some drawings
only one f igure is drawn to show either a f ilter or a
strainer and the bill of material must be consulted.
Figure c with a bypass check valve of one psi
is def initely a f ilter. lnlet-side f ilters should have a
large area to reduce the amount of resistance to
flow through the filter. One pound per square
inch of pressure grade is considered maximum
for a suction filter.
I Strainer
I Filter
o o
A
*-/
lrl
Figure a Figure b
Slrainers and Fllters Symbols
-
lnlet-side filters will filter all oil going to the
system and will also protect the pump and the
relief, or unloading valves.
lsolated or lndependent Filtering
ln isolated, or independent filtering, a small
pump is used to circulate the fluid from the tank
through a filter and back to the tank. lt is often
used when the volume of fluid coming into the
system is extremely large and a suitable size in-
line filter is not a stock issue or is very expensive.
lsolated or lndependent Fllterlng
t'-

272 I..IYDRAULICS

Pressure-Side Filters Heat Exchangers

A filter on the pressure side protects the
valves but does not protect the pump or main Heat exchangers are f requently used to cool
pressure valves. The f ilter element and the ilter
f the oil in a hydraulic system but may also be
housing, because of their position, must be able needed to heat the oil for cold weather start-ups.
to withstand the maximum pressure allowed in Heaters
the system.
The basic symbol for a heater shows the
arrows pointing inwards, indicating that heat is
added to the system.
l

l-r
IA
A\/
-!1Y
< )l Heater Symbol
F- I t----.
I

,-!t_l ln cold areas, it may be necessary to heat the

t-A \ \-ar
I

oil to reduce the oil viscosity.

Heaters can be:

Pressure-Slde Fllter
'l > Electric immersion heaters

>
control; or
with thermostat

A. coil or length of pipe submerged in the tank, if

Return-Side Filters steam or hot water is available.

The return-side position is often considered
best for a fine filter as the fluid is at its highest
temperature and there{ore at rts lowest viscosity.
The return-side filter will remove all solids
resulting f rom wear on parts in the system, but it
will not protect parts f rom contaminants such as
scale and rust which may form in the tank, or
which may have been added to the tank by a
sloppy f illing routine. The f low through the f ilter
can range from nil to more than pump capacity,
according to the oPeration.
Heat can also be added by starting up the
hydraulic system and pumping oil over the relief
valve at maximurn pressure to create heat from
fluid friction.
Some operations keep the hydraulic pump
running through a dump valve during mill
downtime, so that the f luid wiil not have a chance
to cool.
Coolers
The basic synrbol for a cooler shows the
arrows pointing outwards, indicating that heat is
leaving the system.

*O-
Cooler Symbol

Return-Slde Filter Water coolers usually consist of a nest of

tubes in a shell or cylindrical container with an oil
f low in one direction and a cooling water f low in

the opposite direction. Parts should always be

checked for correct connections.
Air coolers consist of a set of vertically
mounted tubes with fins for heat removal - oil
flows through the tubes and a fan drives cooling
air over the tubes and fins to remove heat.

Hydraulic Pumps
Hydrauiic pumps convert mechanical energy
inlo hydraulic energy.T he mechanical action of
the pump first creates a partial vacuum at its inlet
side. Atmospheric pressure in the reservoir
forces liquid through the liquid line to the pump.
The pump's mechanical action then forces the
liquid to the pump outlet and into the hydraulic
system.
Pumps are often rated according to their
capacity and pressure.
Capacity is the amount of fluid the pump will
deliver in a given time when driven at a given
speed. Output is usually expressed as gallons per
minute (gpm) or cubic inches per minute (cipm).
Changes in pump speed will change the volume
of output and pu mps are sometimes rated
according to their displacement.
Displacement is the amount of liquid the
pump willdeliver per cycle. As most pumps use a
rotary drive, thls is expressed in cubic inches per
revolution (cipr).
Pressure in a hydraulic system is created by
resistance to flow. A pump can produce the f low
of liquid necessary to develop pressure, but
cannot itself produce pressure. Pressure, or
resistance to f low, is caused by the work load on
the system, f rom a cylinder or motor, and is
regulated by a pressure-regulating valve.
lf the f low f rom the pump meets no resistance,
the pump will continue to operate, but the
pressure in the discharge line will be negligible.
Pressure in the circuit affects the output of
the pump: as pressure increases, output de-
creases. This drop in output is caused by the
increase in internal leakage from the pump outlet
side to the inlet side. lnternal leakage or slippage
is common to all pressure pumps.
The pressure rating of a pump is a statement
by the manuf acturer that his equipment is rated to
work safely at pressures up to a specified
maximum under specified conditions.
Rotary Pumps
All rotary pumps can be divided into two
c I asses:
> Non-positive displacement, and
> Positive displacement.
A non-pos itive displacement pump will
produce a continuous f low, but since there is no
HYDRAULICS 273
internal seal to prevent slippage, the output
decreases as pressure increases. lf the outlet port
is blocked off, the pressure will rise until the
resistance force equais the pump force. The
pump will continue turning, but the sllppage witt
create a f ull release of volume past the pump. The
pump will then beat the fluid in much the same
fashion as an eggbeater.
A positive displacement pump produces a
pulsating f low and its output is relatively unaffec-
ted by pressure variations. lf the outlet is blocked
of f , the pressu re will almost instantly increase to a
point where the motor will stall or part of the
pump will break.
Positive displacement pumps are the basic
pumps used in a hydraulic system, and can be
divided into two groups according to performance:
> Fixed delivery when running at a given speed
-
volume is constant; or
> Variable delivery when running at a given speed
volume varies from maximum to zero in either
-d irection.
Pumps can also be classified by design as
follows:
> Gear (or gear-like):
> Vane; or
> Piston.
All three types can be used in constant voiume
systems, but only vane and piston pumps are used
in variable volume systems.
Gear Pumps
A gear pump consists of a drive gear ('1)
connected to a source of power, and a driven gear
(2). Both gears are in a machined housing with
very little clearance between the sides of the
housing and the teeth of the gears. The pressure
which can be developed with a gear pump
depends upon the closeness of the fit between
the Eears and the housing. The gears rotate in
opposite directions and the point of mesh
between the inlet and the outlet ports forms a seal
to prevent oil slippage.
When the teeth of the two gears separate, a
partial vacuum is formed, drawing fluid through
the inlet port tnto chamber A. The fluid is caught
between the teeth of the gears and the housing,
and carried around to the ouilet chamber. As the
teeth mesh, they form a seal which prevents the
oil from returning to the inlet side, forcing it
through the outlet port.
274 HYDRAULICS

Outlet
Pump Gears

Gear Pump Flow Path

-
Gear pumps have a minimum of parts. The
bearings are lu bricated by the hydraulic f lu id, and
a packing gland on the drive shafts prevents the
fluid from leaking to the outside.
Herringbone The gears can be spur, helical, or herring-
bone.
Fluid trapped between the teeth will build up
pressure as they mesh. On high-pressure gear
pumps this can be corrected by drilling holes
from the tops or roots of the teeth and discharg-
ing the fluid to the discharge side.
The fluid is forced out the discharge side
through the discharge port. On the suction side,
Fluid Leaves at Enters at:
BBrBz AArAz

Balanced Gear Pump

 HYDRAULICS 275

the fluid enters the drain holes from both sides,
preventing the formation of a vacuum.
The previous drawing shows a balanced gear
pump. Fluid enters at points A, A1 and 42 and is
discharged at B, B'l and 82.
A simple gear is hydraulically unbalanced
because the pump ports are subject to an
unbalanced force opposed to the direction of
flow.
lnternal Gear Pumps
tooth of the inner element to remain in sliding
contact with the surface of the outer rotor.
Each meshing pair of teeth engages at one
place in the pump. ln the diagram below, this is
taken to be the top position of the gears. Pockets
of increasing size (suction pockets) are formed
on the right side of the point of mesh. Pockets of
Rotor Element Outer Element
Housr ng lnner
Element

lnternal gear pumps have a drive gear which

is keyed on the motor shaft and which drives a
f ree-running internal gear or rotor. The two gears

mesh on the suction side of the pump. On the

opposite side of the chamber, a crescent-shaped lncreasing
Suction
form is spaced between the two gears to provide Decrea Port
Pockets Pockets Discharge Port
close clearance with them. The crescent is
Outer lnner
attached to one end cover of the pump housing. Elemenl
The rotation of the central gear causes the
outside gear to turn with it. Everything in the
chamber rotates except the crescent. The f luid is
trapped between the gear spaces and the crescent
and is carried to the discharge side. The meshing
of the gears forces the liquid into the discharge
Working Drawings
line.
of Pumping Action
Generated Rotor Pumps --.--''_\
Generated rotor pumps have a pair of gear-
,/H?\
/2// _. i \
shaped members, one within the other, and both llrit{ ) ,\
rotatrng in the pump housing. The inner gear is \\-) r.I f( /
connected to the drive shaft and drives the outer \w. )v
\ ---/\-r ,/
gear or rotor. The inner gear has one tooth less
than the outer gear. The tooth form allows each Generated Rotor Pump

lnternal Gear Pump

lnternal Gear
Discharge
or Rotor
t
Drive
Gear

Suction

@
\ Cas
Crescent
 HYDRAULICS

decreasing size (discharge pockets) are formed
past the centre on the bottom of the pump. Fluid
is forced out the discharge side when the gears
mesh.
Vane Pumps
A vane pump consists of a fixed ring or
housing, a rotor mounted in the ring, and a series
of metal vanes, fitting in slots machined in the
A balanced vane pump has two inlet and two
outlet ports to the pumping chamber. With
opposing outlets, the force exerted by the high-
pressure oil is balanced out, allowing the use of
light- to medium-service weight bearings.
This style of pump is more common than a
fixed displacement, unbalanced vane pump.
The diagram below shows the difference in
f low and force directions in an unbalanced vane,

rotor and pressing against the ring together with pump A and a balanced vane, pump B.
the necessary porting. Fluid
The pumping action is set on one side of the --.,-"+
rotor and housing, and as such creates an
rorce -- v''->
unbalanced pump where the force exerted by the
- ln
high-pressure oil acts in one direction only. An
unbalanced pump must have high capacity
beari ngs.
ioe-,
Figure a below shows one style of a vane
pump with the rotor mounted off-centre in the Pump
ring. Figure b is a simplified drawing of the
pumping action. When the rotor is turned in the ,n\
direction of the arrow, oil on the inlet side is
trapped in the gradually increasing pockets
between the vanes and the housing. As the rotor ) l/,.
continues to move the vanes past the point of x/
maximum stroke, the oil is forced out by the ()
..-r\,-/
decreasing size of the pockets. 'a4
The pumping action is all on one side of the
rotor and housing.
Pumping action can also be obtained by
mounting the motor in the centre of an elliptical I
ring. ln this way, oil is drawn in and discharged out
Pump
during each half revolution to give a more B

balanced action ano larger delivery. Balanced and Unbalanced Vane Pumps

Vane Pump

Vane Forms Seal

Against Eccentric
Casing Held Against
Casing by Oil Pres-
sure or Centrif ugal
Force
Rotor Carrying lnlet
Vanes

Vanes Fully
Retracted

Suction

Figure b Figure a
 HYDRAULICS 277

Variable Capacity Vane Pumps
A variable capacity vane pump does not use
the dual, or opposed suction, and discharge ports
found in a balanced pump.
Figure a below shows vanes with a suction of
about 180 degrees of shaft rotation. The rotor
runs in the pressure chamber ring which can be
moved so that it is either centred on the rotor, or
off-centre to the rotor. As the amount of off-
centre or eccentricity is changed, the volume u.f
fluid is varied.
ln f igure a below, the'rotor is centred in the
pressure ring and, because the spaces between
Pressure Ring
the rotor and the ring are even, there is no
pumping action.
Figure b indicates the maximum amount of
discharge created with the rotor turning in a
counter-clockwise direction. The left-hand side
is the suction and the right-hand side is the
discharge. Any setting in between a and b will
vary the volume of flow, provided that the
horizontal centerline of the ring is below the
horizontal centerline of the rotor.
Figure c illustrates how the pumping action
can be reversed by raising the horizontal center-
line of the ring above that of the rotor. The right-
hand side of the rotor will become the suction
side, and the left-hand willbe the discharge side.
Manual adjustment is used when the dis-
charge rate is seldom changed.

Pressure (psi)
ql

No Pumping Action Reversed Pumping

Flow (gpm)
Action
Figure a Figure c

Pressure (psi)

Flow (gpm)
Maxrmum Discharge
Figure b
Variable Capacity Vane Pump Working Drawlngs Automatic Conlrols Spring-loaded Governor
- -

Parts of a Variable Capacily Vane Pump Variable Capacity Vane Pump

Sliding Heavy-duty
/ Vanes Beari ngs
Adj usti ng
Bo ller-
Mechan ism rust
th
Bearing

Rotor
1',:.
Pressure-chamber Hing Pressure Compensator
- No Bypassing of Pressure Oil
278 HYDRAULICS
Automatic controls, with a spring-loaded
governor, are built into the pump to vary the
volume of flow to meet the demand. When the
hydraulic system does not require flow, the
pressure ring will be in a nearly neutral position.
When the pressure returns to a preset level, the
pressure ring is moved back against the compen-
sating spring until a neutral position is reached.
Systems using this type of pump are some-
times designed without relief valves, and depend
instead on the pump action to maintain a set
pressu re.
Rotary Piston Pumps
A rotary piston pump consists of the follow-
ing parts:
> A statlonary pintle with pumping parts, which
ports the inlet and outlet flow; lt
> A cylinder block which revolves around the
pintle and houses the pistons; and
> A rotor which controls the piston stroke.
The rotor centerline is located to one side of
the cylinder block centerline.
As the drive rotates the cylinder block around
the pintle, centrifugal force, spring pressure, or
hydraulic pressure forces the pistons against the
reaction ring, causing the rotor to move.
The reaction ring is of specially hardened
and finished steel to resist wear. Since the
centerlines of the rotor and the cylinder block are
offset, the pistons are forced towards the pintle
Rotary Plston Pumps
, Cylinder Block
/ 7 Discharge Port
B 8,,, Slide Block
Slide Block
Pintle
(Stalionary)
Compression Stroke
Figure a
during one half of the revolution, and away from
the pintle during the other half .
The pintle is ported to supply oil to the
cylinder block bores while the pistons are moving
away from the pintle, and to receive oil as the
pistons are forced towards the pintle.
ln figure a below, the piston P is on the
compression stroke. As the cylinder block rotates
clockwise, the piston is forced into the cylinder,
compressing the fluid and forcing it into the
discharge port.
ln figure b, a'fler the piston is discharged, it
passes over the land or solid port of the pintle,
and enters on the suction side in the lower half of
the pintle.
Suction is produced when the piston is
moved out of the cylinder by centrifugal force as
the cylinder block revolves. Once the piston
passes the land on the end of the suction stroke,
the compression cycle starts again.
lf the rotor is centred on the cylinder block,
there will be no pumping action because the
pistons will not move in and out. The degree of
offset will control the quantity of f luid discharged.
lf the rotor has sufficient movement to
position it on either side of the cylinder block
centerline, the pump will have a reversing action.
Most hydraulic pumps are lubricated by the
hydraulic fluid itself. The manufacturer's specifi-
cation sheets should be checked as to whether or
not the pump can be run for extended intervals at
a neutral position.
Cylinder Block
Pintle
--
. (Stationary)
C
]t *o,o,.
t
Pi.ton
Piston Discharged
Figure b
 HYDRAULICS 279

Axial Piston Pumps Varying lhe Houslng Angle to Aflect Pumplng Acilon
,Axial piston pumps consist of:
> A drive shaft to rotate the pistons;
> A cylinder block to house the pistons;
> A stationary valving surface facing the cylinder
block bores to port the inlet and outlet flow.
Drive Shaft '-,, Drive Shaft Bearings
ll
Drive Shaft Flange

,l
'r
Valve Plate Slot

No Pumping Action
Cylinder Block Bore Figure a
Port ,2
lnlet Port
Axial Plslon Pump

The d rive shaft is at an ang le to the cylinders.

Rotation of the drive shaft and a universal link
assembly causes rotation of the pistons and the
cylinder block.
Since the plane of rotation of the pistons is at
an angle to the valve surface, the distance
between the piston and the valve surface is
continually changing. Each piston moves away
from the valve surface during one half of the
revolution (causing suction) and toyvards the
valve surface during the other half of the revolu-
tion (causing compression). lncreased Pumping Action
Porting is arranged so that the pistons draw Figure b

the fluid in through the inlet chamber and force it

out through the outlet chamber.
An axial piston pump with a f ixed angle
betweeen the drive shaft axis and the cylinder
block axis (housing angle) will deliver a constant
volume. The pump can become a variable dis-
placement pump by varying the housing angle.
ln f igure a the housing angle is zero, with the
result that the stroke length is also zero and there
is no pumping action.
Fig ure b shows a slig ht housing ang le with an
increase in stroke length and an increase in the
volume of fluid being pumped.
Figure c shows maximum housing angie,
maximum stroke length and maximum pumping Maxin um Pumping Capacity
capacity. Figure c
Any increase of the housing angle from
f igure a to c will mean an increase in the pumping
2BO HYDRAULICS

capacity and, conversely, any decrease in the Pump maintenance can include:
housing angle trom f igure c to a will mean a > Discarding the worn PUmP;
decrease in the volume. > Sending the pump to a commercial overhaul
Radial Plston Pumps depot; or
> Repairing the PumP in the Plant.
Constant DisPlacement
- The constant displacement radial piston
Any in-plant overhaul should be done in the
shop under clean working conditions.
pump shown below has a rotating eccentric shaft The manufacturer's service manual should
rather than a cylinder block containing cylinders. be consulted for the correct position of parts,
The cylinders are contained in the f ixed housing clearances, and torque values for fasteners.
of the pump, and the pistons are actuated by the
cam action of the rotating shaft. Check valves, Trouble-shooting Chart for PumPs
port suction, and discharge openings for each
piston. Trouble Cause To Correct
Shaft seal
tn
> External lf there is no
Workang leakage worn; sign of bearing
around the
Drawing
shart: wear, rePlace

lx"";ffir'?;
i nstructi ons.

> Pump doesn't Drain line Clear drain line

deliver oil: plugged;

Closed shut- Check valve and

off valve in open fullY.
suction line;
pump mounted
below the f luid
level;

The pump did Bleed air from

not prime; the pump and
Conrtanl Displacemeni Radlal Piston Pump prime or
Mounting FumPs lubricate.

Punrps should be mounted on a strong, rigid The pump Must be

base and kept in positive aiignment with the shaft rotates reversed
source of power. in wrong immediately to
A f!exible coupling must be used to allorv for direction; prevent seizure
any slight misairgnrnent or end movement on the and breakage of
shaf t. parts due to lack
of lubrication.
Purnp Overhaul
The amount of allolable wear in a pump will The oil level Add a recom-
depeno on the demands put on the pump. if the is too low in mended oil and
pLrmp operates at 60 to 70 percent of capacity, a the tank; check the level
small amount of wear can be tolerated However, on both sides of
if a hydraulic system has been modif ied to work at the tank baffle
100 percent of pump capacity, no wear can be to be certain the
allowed. This will depend, however, on the size, pump suction
make and style of pump; the cost oi new parts and line is
labour; and comPanY PolicY. submerged.
U
{
$
$
HYDRAULICS 281
$
$r

i Trouble Cause To Correcl Trouble Cause To Correct

> Pump doesn't The oil intake The filters must > Pump is not control sys- by blocking off
deliver oil pipe or suc- be cleaned or developing tem (cylinders the circuit
(cont'd ): tion filter is replaced. The pressu re or valves); progressively.
clogged; filter capacity (cont'd):
should be at Free recircu- Direction
least twice the lation of oil control valves
maximum pump to the tank may be in open
voiume in gpm. through the or tandem
system; centre, or in
An air leak in This will prevent neutral, or the
the suction priming, or valve return line
line; cause noise and may be open.
irregular action
of the pump. Pump shaft Replace the
Tighten and is sheared pump with a
seal the due to spare.
connection. rotor seizure;
Oil viscosity Thinner oil Reiief valve Test the venting
is too hlgh should be used. venti ng; circuit (if one is
for the pump Follow recom- used) by block-
to pick up mendations for ing the vent line
prime; given tempera- near the relief
ture and service. valve.

Heat oil during > Pump is Small air leak Test by pouring
cold weather making ai the pump oil on the joints
start-up. un usual intake piping while listening
noise: loints; for a change in
Broken pump Replace with the sound of the
shaft or rotor; spare pump. operation.
Tighten as
> The pump is The relief Block the req u ired.
not develop- valve setting machine travel,
ing pressure: is not high or stop the oil An air leak at Pour oil around
enoug h; circulation and the pump the shaft while
test with a shaft packing; listening for a
pressure gauge. change in the
Set relief valve sound of the
to recom- operation.
mended
pressure. Relief valve Air being drawn
chatte ring; into the system
The relief Dirt under the at pump intake
valve is stick- pressure adjust-
or pump shaft
ing open; ment ball or packing (check
cone. (See relief as above).
valve instruc-
tion.) Cou pling Realign and
Leak in the Must be tested misalignment; replace the
hydrau lic independently pump shaft seal.
282 HYDRAULICS

Trouble Cause To Correct Trouble Cause To Correct

is
> Pump PartiallY The PumP must > Pump is Filter is too Capacity may
making clogged receive intake making small; be adequate
unusual intake line, oil freelY or un usual only when just
noise (cont'd): intake ilter,
f cavitation will noise (cont'd): cleaned
-
or restricted take Place normal size
- should be at
intake PiPe; clean the lines
and filter. least twice the
maximum pump
Fo reig n Disassemble volume in gpm.
material, rags and clean the
or paper, lines and pump.
Hydraulic Valves
pulled into Valves are used in hydraulic circuits to control
pressure, the direction of the fluid flow, and the
inBke; rate of fluid flow. They can be classif ied as:
.Pressure control valves
Air bubbles in Check oDirection control valves; and
;

the intake oil. thoroughly to oFlow control valves.

be certain
return lines are A simple relief valve, as shown in figures a
below oil level and b, uses a ball or poppet held on a seat by a
spring. A port on the spring side of the valve seat
and well
returns fluid to the reservoir. When force on the
separated from
ball or poppet due to fluid pressure at the valve
the intake. area is less than the spring force, the valve re-
mains closed. When the pressure exceeds the
Tank air vent Must be opened spring force, the ball or poppet is forced off the
pl ugged; through a seat, and fluid flows to the reservoir. When pres-
breather open- sure decreases below spring force, the ball or
ing or air f ilter. poppet is forced onto the valve seat, stopping the
f low.
Pump is Check the The pressure at which the valve f irst starts to
running too recommended open is called lhe cracking pressure. A higher
f ast: maximum pressure is needed to fully open the valve. The
speed. difference between cracking pressure and full
flow pressure is called the pressure override or
lhe differential.

Slmple Rellef Valve OPeratlon

Rellel Valve wlth Poppel -

+ ,MMfi

O pen
Figure b

Spring-loaded poppet valves are frequenily
-sed as safety valves to prevent damage from
-lgh surge pressures.
Pressure adjustment occurs when the ten-
s:on on the spring is varied by turning the
aCjusting screw f rom the outside.
Some direct-acting relief valves may use a
:uided piston instead of a poppet.
The dif f erential piston is a modif ication of the
guided piston. Pressure works against the major
:iameter of the spool in the pressure chamber
and when it overcomes the spring resistance, the
,alve is opened. This valve uses a lighter spring
and has a lower pressure differential than the
:rdinary spring-loaded relief valve.
12
Relief Valve with Plston
Pllot-Operated Rellef Valves
HYDRAULICS 283
Pilot-Operated Relief Valves
Figure a below shows a pilot-operated relief
valve with vent W blocked off and the valve acting
as a straight relief valve.
The pilot section is the spring-loaded relief
valve located at 2 and 3. System pressure acts
against both sides of the main valve 1 and the piiot
poppet 2 through orifice Y.
The valve position has a larger area on the
top than on the bottom and the force differential
plus the spring keep the valve closed.
When circuit pressure rises and overcomes
the pilot valve spring force, the pilot valve opens
up, allowing f luid to flow out of the pilot chamber
X. Fluid f lows out of the pilot chamber faster than
it can be replaced. Pressure on the top of the valve
piston becombs less than pressure on the bottom,
allowing the valve to open.
The valve remains open until the pressure in
the circuit drops, allowing the main valve to close.
When this happens, the pilot valve cioses to
equalize pressure on both sides of the main
p isto n.
Figure b shows a relief valve with vent W
connected to a two-position, solenoid-operated
pilot valve.
ln the position shown, the valve operates as a
relief valve.
When the pilot valve is shifted to the open
position, the fluid from chamber X flows to the
tank, lowering the pressure, allowing the main
valve 1 to move up and pump delivery to go to the
tank. The flow will be to the tank until the pilot
valve is shifted.
Return
 284 HYDRAULICS

Pressure on the secondary, or outlet side

Pllot Valve Worklng Drawing
-
Pressure-reduci ng Valves
A pressure-reducing valve reduces the
pressure g6lng to a secondary circuit which can
operate efficiently at a pressure lower than the
relief valve setting.
The valve is drawn as a normally open valve
with the sensing line downstream, or past the
valve.
Pressure-reducln g Valve
An ad justable spring holds the poppet or
spool open in a pressure-reducing valve. Fluid
from the main circuitenters atthe inlet port, flows
past the valve and through the outlet port to the
secondary circuit.
acts through a passage to the bottom of the spool.
When the pressure on the outlet side and against
the spool exceeds the spring thrust, the valve is
partially closed. This increases the valve's
resistance to flow, creating a greater pressure
drop through the valve, and reducing the pres-
sure at the outlet port regardless of pressure
fluctuations at the inlet Port.
The spring chamber is always drained to the
reservoir to prevent f luid pressure f rom building
up and holding the valve open. Back flow will
completely close off the valve.
Unloading Valves
ln many systems,continuous f luid f low may
a
not be needed. lf the pump output has to be
relieved by a relief valve at full system pressure,
considerable energy will be wasted. Unloading
valves will return pump output to the reservoir
after the system pressure has been reached,
without wasting much energy. Unloading valves
are usually installed in the pump outlet line with a
tee connection.
The unloading valve is spring-loaded to
maintain a closed position. The valve will open
when the system pressure transmitted to the
spool through the pilot port is sufficient to
overcome the spring f orce. Pump delivery goes to
the reservoir at low pressure until the pilot
pressure drops, allowing the valve to close. The
spring chamber drains to the reservoir line.

Pressure-reduclng Valve - Operatlon

.
 HYDRAULICS 285

Needle Valves
The simplest adjustment f low control valve is
a globe or needle valve. ln a needle valve the flow
is varied by moving the pointed section of the
valve either tqwards or away from the valve seat.
This changes the area through which the fluid
can flow.
Pump Tank
Unloading Valve

Sequence Valves
ln hydraulic circuits with more than one
cylinder, it is often necessary to work the
cylinders in a specif ic order. This can be done by
hand, by electrical control, or by sequence
valves.
Sequence valves are normally closed, two-
way valves which remain closed until pressure at
Needle Valve
the inlet reaches a set limit, At this pressure limit
they open and allow fluid to flow through the
valve. Orifice area can be changed by using a
Fluid f rom the f irst cylinder connects with the tapered shaft end. This type of orif ice adjustment
inlet port. Pressure on the inlet port acting on the gives accurate control and can be varied from
left of the spool opens the valve after overcoming zero (shut off )to rnaximum, with a half turn of the
the force of the spring. Fluid flows f rom the inlet shaft.
to the outlet circuit. Sequence valves are also
made to allow reverse flow.

Tapered Shalt Controlling Grlflce Area

Orifice area is determined by the position of

the slotted shaft in reiation to the two holes in the
Outlet Tank valve body.
Sequence Valve

Flow Control Valves

ln many hydraulic systems the speed of a
motor, or the rate of travel of cylrnder, must be
regulated by controlling the volume of fluid. ln
systems using a fixed displacement pump, the
only method of reguiation rs by flow control or
D,,W ;

flow metering valves. Altering 0rillce Sizes It

286 HYDRAULICS

Figure a represents a fixed, or non-adjust-

Control Chamber
able restriction. Figure b represents a variable
restriction where flow can be varied to suit
specific conditions.
_{

/----\ -=-7-
-1=.-

Figure a Figure b
Non-Ad justable Variable
or Fixed

Worklng Drawlngs

Large working circuits often show both Adlustable Flow Control Valve
figures the same on the bill of material.
A volume control valve controls the amount
The flow through a needle valve is not
of flow in both directions. A cylinder will often
constant, but varies according to the down-side
require a limited volume of fluid to move in one
p ress u re.
direction, and f ull f low to move in the other
Pressure-compensated Flow Valves direction, using what is commonly called a
"meter and bypass" valve.
A pressure-compensated f low valve main-
tains a constant rate of f low through the valve,
regardless of down-side pressure.
An adjustable f low controlvalve maintains a
constant pressure drop across the orif ice by
using a pressure-compensating spool. lf outlet
pressure increases, the spool moves up -
increasing pressure in the control chamber.
lncreased inlet pressure moves the spool down, Working Drawrngs Flow Pattern
-
decreasing pressure in the control chamber.
Orifice pressure drop is fixed by spring force. Volume Control Valve

Check Valves

\/
Check Valve

Ball Check

Cone Type Check Valve Poppet Type Check Valve

 HYDRAULICS 287

The correct f low pattern or position of

nounting is usually shown on the outside of the
',alve body.
Check Valves
Check valves allow fluid to flow in one
Cirection but shut off in the opposite direction.
Check valves in hydraulic systems are usually
reld closed by spring action. The three main
check valves are: ball, cone and poppet.
The spring f orce can be overcome by about 5 Fluid Motor
csi pressure and is intended to hold the valve
seated, regardless of the position of the valve.
Spring force must be considered when the
:heck valve is being used asa bypassforfiltersor
Gear Motors
reat exchangers or for supplying pilot pressure. Flow from the pump enters the chamber A
Check valves come in two main styles: in-line and travels in either direction around the casing,
nounting or right-angle mounting. forcing the tears to turn in the direction shown by
When reverse flow is required in a circuit, the arrows. Both gears are driven gears, but only
pilot-operated check valves can be installed. one is connected to the output shaft.
On large fluid lines, a swing check valve Outlet
should be installed. The mounting position is
important since the valve is not spring-loaded.

--eF
.-__----\

lnlet
Flow Path ln Gear Motor

Swing Type Check Valve
FIuid Motors
The construction of fluid motors is very
similar to that of hydraulic pumps. The design of
fluid motors is mainly the same as that of
hydraulic pumps and the precautions taken with
pumps should also be taken with motors.
When oil under pressure enters the motor it
causes the shaft to rotate, on leaving the motor it
usually returns to the reservoir. Motors may be of
gear, vane, or piston design. A variable oil supply
connected to the motor will allow the motor to be
run over a wide range of speeds.
Vane Motors
Fluid f rom the pump enters the inlet and
exerts force against the vanes and rotor. The
maximum amount of f orce will be exerted against
the vane with the largest area exposed to the f luid
and, as a result, the rotor will turn in the direction
indicated. Springs, or some mechanical means,
are needed to hold the vanes against the casing,
as no centrif ugal f orce exists until the rotor is put
into motion.
Piston Motors
Rotary piston motors are either radial piston
or axialpiston. ln radialpiston motors, f luid under
pressure enters half the cylinder block holes,
causing the pistons to be forced radially away
from the cylinder block axis. These pistons can
288 HYDRAULICS

only move radially by revolving to the point

farthest away from the Pintle.
Driving the pistons radially causes the
pistons and cylinder block to rotate. The cylinder
block is connected to the output or drive shaft.
Porting will allow fluid under pressure to enter
half the cylinder block, and to exhaust into the
reservoir line from the opposite haif.
ln let Outlet The principle also applies to the axial piston
motor: fluid under pressure enters half the
cylinder block bores, forcing the pistons away
f rom the valving surface. As the pistons are kept
at a constant distance away f rom the output shaft,
they move away from the valving surface by
rotating around the shaft axis to a point farther
Casing
\ vanes away f rom the inlet valve surface.
ln either motor, some of the pistons are being
Vane Molor
- Operation driven by pump f low and the remainder are in the
discharge cycle.

Rotor
Cylrnder Block MountinE Motors
Centerline \-- ;.zCenlertine Motors should be mounted on a strong, rigid
base and kept in alignment with the driven
Case
machine.
Pintle
Trouble-Shooting Chart
Pi stons
for Vane Motors
Cylinder
Block -- Rotor
Trouble Gause To Correct

External Seal failure; Fleplace the

leakage at seal.
Rotary Plston Motor joints:
Low torque Torque to
on fasteners; specif ications.

Rough cast- Lap mating

ing surfaces; surfaces or
replace the
casti ng.

Leakage from O-ring failure; Replace the

the vent port. seal.

Leakage Shaft seal Replace the

around shaft: f ailu re; shaft seal;
check that
Prstons pressure in the
Valve Plate drain line does
not exceed
Axlal Plston Molor man uf actu rer's
specif ications.
 HYDRAULICS

Trouble Cause To Correct Trouble Cause To Correct

Leakage at Damaged Clean up Motor fails to plate to move
fittings: threads; threads. start turning away from the
(cont'd): rotor.
Damaged Replace.
O-ring; Defective Cam ring worn;
O-ring on OD replace O-ring if
Bump on Use a flat file to front port damaged.
mating make a flat plate;
surface; surface.
lnsuff icient Pump worn, or
Loss in speed Lowinlet Check the pump too small;
under load: pressure; pressure. delivery; replace pump.

Excessive Check the Motor too Use a larger

back-pressure pressure. small; cam ring; or
at outlet; replace with a
larger motor.
Scored port Relap, leaving a
plate or end smooth surface. Shaft play: Worn Replace.
cap; beari ngs;

Worn cam Replace. Excessive Design

ring and vanes; side load or problem;
end load on consult an
High oil lf possible, shaft; engi neer.
temperature replace
(thins oil); pumping cart- Hammering Coupling
ridge unit. Use coupling onto should be slip-
an oil cooler. shaft; fitted onto the
shaft.
Poor speed Excessive Use a more
control: pump leak- efficient pump Burst line on Excessive lf a high inertia
age; or use a flow the motor: pressure; load overruns
control valve. the motor, relief
valve protection
Motor fails to lnsuf icient
f Check the is required in
start turning: torque, relief valve one or possibly
p ress u re both Iines be-
setting. Check tween the
for overload on direction valve
driven machine. and the motor.
Use a closed
Excessive Check the flow
centre valve I
motor from the motor
with caution. i

leakage; outlet. lf
Relief valve
i

excessive,
protection is
check the probably ln
shuttle valve in
required as des-
the front port
plate. Pressure
cribed above.
not loading the Excessive Worn or Disassemble to
plate, causing noise: damaged move the rotor,
290 HYDRAULICS

Trouble Cause To Correct

Excessive internal parts; the vane, and
noise (cont'd) the cam ring
assembly. ln-
spect for
excessive wear.
Check condi-
tion of the faces
of the port plate
and end cap.
Rework (lap) or
replace if
scuf f ed.
Replace cart- t_.,
ridge unit. Valve Adlustments Allecling Speed or Torque
Motor Maintenance
Motors and pumps of the same style have the
same maintenance routine:
> Overhaul on a clean work bench; and
> Work according to the manufacturer's service
manual.
Nofe: Any spring-loaded part should be
treated with care as it may fly apart if the spring
control is lost.
Motor Theory
Motors are rated for displacement:
> ln cubic inches per revolution;
> ln inch pounds of shaft torque at a given
pressure; Variable Speed Reverslng Drlve
> At a maximum pressure rating; and
> At a maximum recommended rpm, Speed variation is obtained by adjusting the
output of the variable-displacement pump;
The rpm of a motor is determined by the reversal of rotation is obtained by shifting the
volume of f luid supplied to the motor, divided by output to either end envelope of the direction
the displacement per revolution. control valve. ln neutral, the pump f low will return
Torque is a f unction of pressure and will be to the tank and the motor can coast, depending
determined by the relief valve setting. on load conditions.
The basic circuit is used to show how speed lf the motor must be held with the direction
or torque is changed by adjusting either the control valve in neutral, a closed, or tandem
variable restriction or the relief valve. centre must be used. This can result in high
pressure surges if the valve is suddenly shifted to
RellelValve Restrlctlon
Settlng Seitlng Speed Torque the closed position, or if a large external force is
applied to the driven component.
lncreased No change No change lncreased The fluid motor with a closed or locked
Decreased No change No change Decreased
No change lncreased lncreased No change position is shown with relief valves to take
No change Decreased Decreased No change care of pressure surges between the motor and
the direction control valve which is in the neutral
The diagram shows a simple circuit for position.
a variable-speed reversing drlve which can be The relief valve settings will be slightly higher
located in any position away from the pump. than the main relief valve setting.
.w

I
i;i
HYDRAULICS 291
,ili

Multlple Molors

Separate

Fluid Motor wlth Reliel Valves

When the relief valve opens up and the motor

turns, the displaced f luid can go to the suction or
inlet side of the motor to prevent a partial vacuum
being formed.
Multiple Motor Use
Two or more motors with individual direction
control valves can be accurately controlled for
speed by the use of variable restrictions or
variable flow control valves.
ln the diagram A and B can be made to go at
the same speed; A can crowd B; or B can take
away f rom A (speed up) by controlling the amount
of fluid through the variable restrictions.
Motor arrangements using two or more
identical motors past the direction control valve
will have the following features:
> Seriesof motors the speed will be the same,
-
regardless of the load on each; pressure
available to each motor will be proportional to
the load on each. The available torque will be
equal to that obtained by a single motor; and
> Parallel motors
- the speed will be divided: one
half on each variable, depending on the load on
each; the available torque will be double that of
a single motor.

Hydrostatic Drives
Closed circuit drives use a pump and motor
arrangement where the fluid discharged f rom the Parallel
motor is fed directly to the pump inlet. Make-up
fluid is supplied to the low pressure side:
292 HYDRAULICS
> By atmospheric pressure acting on oil in
tank; or
> By a small make-up pump.
ln each case, the tank issmallerthan thetank
used with an open circuit, and there is no means
of dissipating heat through the tank. Usually
heat exchanger is added to the circuit to keep the
fluid temperature at the proper level.
A one-direction, closed loop circuit is shown
below, with no direction control valves or volume
control valves.
One-Dlrectlon Closed Loop Circuit
The speed of the motor f rom stop to full rpm
is controlled by adjusting the variable volume
pump.
An alternate design would be a fixed dis-
placement pump and a variable displacement
motor.
The diagram below shows a reversing,
closed loop circuit with no direction control
valves.
Reverslng Closed Loop Circult wlth No DC Valves
The speed and direction of rotation of the
motor is obtained by changing the delivery of the
variable displacement, reversible pump.
As in the one-direction closed loop,
alternate design would be a fixed displacement
pump and a variable displacement motor.
a small Pumps and motors used in closed loop
systems are usually piston style, either axial or
radial.
Rotary Actuators
Rotary actuators or oscillating motors are
a
designed to give a shaft rotation of less than 360
degrees. Actuators commonly consist of a single
vane mounted on a shaft and are capable of
developing high torque at low speeds.
Rotary Actuator
Rotary Acluator or Oscillating Motor
Speed and force control can be adjusted in
rotary actuators by using valves in the same way
as in standard motors or cylinders.
Note: Excessive travel of the driven compo-
nent should be controlled by external mechanical
stops, not by the vane in the housing.
Hydraulic Fluids
HyCraulic fluids can be divided into two
groups:
> Fire-supporting:
o Petroleum oil; or
> Fire-resistant:
o Water;
o Water-oil emulsions;
r Water-glycol; and
. Synthetic f luids.
Fire-S upporting Fluids
Petroleum oll is most commonly used in
installations where there is no serious firehazard.
Viscosity is determined by the recommendations
of the pump manufacturer. The following qualities
of an oil should be considered:
an
> Viscosity its rate of pour at a given tempera-
tu re;
-

> scoslty index its change in viscosity over
:emperature range;
- easily replaced.
, )our point the lowest temperature at which oil
-
The pour point should be about 20"F
,',rll flow.
:eiow the lowest expected temperature;
> Srabi!ity
- the ability of an oil to resist chemical
:r physrcal change:
r Plunger piston pumps or multiple-stage
- hydraulic oilat a
Resistance to oxidization
high temperature and pressure can oxidize
rapidly to f orm soluble and insoluble products
such as acids and sludge. lnhibitors are added
to minimize oxidization;
. Besisfance ta rusting rust is f ormed on
-
ferrous parts by water in the system. The
water is formed by condensation of air
entering the reservoir. lnhibitors are added to
reduce rusting from the oil by natural means.
o,Sesistance to air forming
- the oil in the
system contains air in solution and willabsorl:
more under pressure. When the pressure is
reduced, air will come out of the fluid,
producing foam. Air develops heat as it is
compressed, and oil with air bubbies in
solution will generate heat while the arr is
being compressed during the pumping action.
Foaming can be reduced by additives, which
allow the air to separate quickly from the oil
and the bubbles to break away.
> Lubricating qualities the oil itself lubricates
the moving parts of- the system and must
maintain an oil film between all contact sur-
faces regardless of temperature and pressure;
Life of the oil
>
- the millwright should try to
obtain a hydraulic oil that will last over the
extended period of time between system oil
changes.
> Cost
- oil with long life may cost more than
lower quality oil but can save money in the long
run. The cost of changing oil and the incon-
venience of shutting down machines should
therefore be considered caref ully when choos-
ing an oil.
Petroleum oils can be commercial oils
designed for hydraulic use, or crankcase oils of
the API "MS" designation, SD and SE Service
Station classification.
Nole; Do not mix hydraulic and crankcase
oils.
Fire-Resistant Fluids
Water is not commonly used as a fire-
resistant fluid, but in low-pressure conditions
HYDRAULICS 293
with relatively large components it is cheap and
The disadvantages of water are:
> lts limited temperature range;
> lts poor lubricating qualities; and
> lts tendency to rust ferrous parts.
centrifugal pumps are usually used with water as
a fire-resistant fluid.
Water-Oil Ernulsions
Water-oil emulsions are composed as fol-
lows:
> Standard emulsions
fluid; and
- where water is the main
> lnvert emulsions
- where oil is the main f luid,
forming about 60 percent of the volume.
Both emulsions have additives to improve
rust control ancj lubrication and to keep the oil
and water from separating. Operating tempera-
tures should be kept relatively low to prevent
evaporation of the water content. ln cold loca-
tions water-oil emulsions should not be allowed
to freeze as this may separate the water from the
oil.
Emulsions should be checked regularly to
maintain the viscosity orthe water-oil ratio. Water
can be added to keep the required ratio.
Any seal material used with a petroleum oil
system is usually considered safe to use with an
emulsion.
Water-Glycol Fluids
Water-glycol fluid consists of 65 to 70
percent glycol, and water and additives to
improve viscosity, lubricating qualities and foam
co ntro l.
This fluid is heavier than oil and should be
used with either a very short suction lift or a
special inlet design, or where the f luid level is
above the pump inlet.
Most of the new synthetic seal materials such
as neoprene or Buna-N are suitable for general
use. As with emuisions, water-glycol mixes
should be checked on a regular basis to maintain
the water-glycol ratio.
Disadvantages of water-glycol fluids
compared to water-oil emulsions: -
> lt wili attack galvanized (zinc) and cadmiurn-
coated (bright finish) fasteners;
 HYDRAULICS

> lt will attack most common paints used around
an oil hydraulic system; and
> lt will attack some magnesium, aluminum and
die cast alloys.
Note.' When using a glycol mix, obtain the
supplier's specif ication sheets for restrictions on
the fluid as to seals, materials, or paints.
Synthetic Fluids
Synthetic fluids are special chemical com-
pounds which will not support combustion. They
have no water content and can therefore be used
at high temperatures with no evaporation prob-
lem.
These are the heaviest of the hydraulic fluids
and require special pump inlet designs or special
pump mounting positions.
Synthetic f luids will attack most common
cap; the other end is sealed with the head, which ls
bored to pass the piston and hold the necessary
sealing gland.
The moving pad
- the ram, plunger, or piston
can be classified according to its construction.
-A cylinder has the piston rod sectional area less
than one-half the piston face area. A ram has a
piston rod area greater than one-half the piston
face area.
Single-acting Cylinders
ln a single-acting ram, or cylinder, force is
applied in one direction only. The return action is
accomplished by an external force such as
gravity, springs, or a small diameter auxiliary
piston.
I

seal materials used with a petroleum system.

Ll_l
A new hydraulic system with synthetic fluids
should have all the component seals, gaskets,
L___i
pipe dope, and paint selected to suit the fluid. Slngle-acting Cylinder Symbol
-
lf an existing oil or water mix system is or Plunger
changed to a synthetic system, the old system Piston Rod
must be completely f lushed out, all seals and
gaskets changed and the tank interior cleaned Beari ng Close
and painted with a special epoxy paint. Fit
Fu Il
Note: Remember that even the spare valves
Length
and components must have the seals changed.
There are severaltypes of synthetic fluids on
the market phosphate esters is a common one
with
- its own characteristics.
Piston
- each
To avoid confusion, a manufacturer's speci- P ress u re
fication booklet or sheet should be checked for Seal

compatability, operating conditions and hand-

ling safety.

Working Components in a Parts ol Slngle-acllng Cyllnder

Hydraulic System Any spri ng-return single-acting cylinder

The working components, or the parts which
actually do the work in a hydraulic system are the
cylinders, the mofors and the rotary actuators.
Cylinders
Cylinders or linear actuators produce straight-
line motion and direction of force.
Cylinders create the linear motion needed to
move some mechanisms. A simple cylinder con-
sists of a tubular housing containing a piston and a
piston rod. One end of the housing is sealed with a
should be taken apart caref ully
constitute a hazard.
- the spring can
Double-actlng Cyllnders
Double-acting cylinders can have the fluid
under pressure delivered to the cylinder at either
side of the piston. This will produce force in either
direction, The force exerted by the piston will be
less on the side with the piston rod because of the
smaller pressure area.
The relationship between force and speed
can be illustrated with the circuit. Keeping the
T

HYDRAULICS 295

speed of travel, and equal displacement of f luid in

either direction.

Double-acting Cyllnder Symbol

-
same pump delivery and relief valve setting, the
advance stroke can exert more force but will Double-rod Cyllnder Schema
move slower than the retract stroke; or the retract
stroke will move faster but exert Iess force than Cylinders are usually sized by the bore and
the advance stroke. stroke (the distance the piston moves) and by the
A filter on the return line would mean less allowable maximum pressure. They are also sized
fluid going through the f itter than is delivered to to suit service conditions: lightweight, standard,
the cylinder on the advance stroke, but it would medium-duty, and heavy-duty.
also mean more f luid going through the f ilterthan
is delivered to the cylinder on the retract stroke.

-O-J

Double-actlng Cylinder in a Clrcuit

Double-rod cylinders using a rod of the same

diameter at each end will give equal force, equal Double-actlng Cyllnder

RECOMMENDED MOUNTING STYLES FOR ROD ENO STROKE

MAXIMUM STROKE AND THRUST LOADS CONNECTION CASE FACTOR
CLASSl-GROUPSlor3 Fixed and Rigidly
Guided 0.50
Long stroke cylinders for thrust loads should be moun-
ted using a heavy-duty mounting style at one end,
firmly fixed and aligned to take the principle force. Pivoted and
Riqidly Guided 0.70
Additional mounting should be specified at the
opposite end, which should be used for alignment and
support. An intermediate support may also be desirable Supported But
Not Rigidly 2.00
for long stroke cylinders mounted horizontally. Guided

CLASS2_GROUP2
Pivoted 1.00
Heavy-Duty Style D Tunnion on Head
-
Heavy-Duty Style DD lntermediate Trunnion Pivoted
- 1.50

Heavy-Duty Style DB
- Clevis on Cap
- Trunnion on Cap or Style BB
Pivoted
LflI ffi+r 2,N
296 HYDRAULICS

Cylinders can be classed according to

mounting style and method of attachment to the
driven part.
All machined parts shown in the diagram
below are held to very close tolerances to permit
parts to be rePlaced easilY.
The previous cylinder is double-acting with a
check, or cushion, at either end of the stroke. The
cushion is created by slowing the f low of oil being
discharged as the piston nears the end of the
stroke. As the pistcin enters the cushion area, the
normal discharge is blocked off by the cushion
spear or sleeve. The remaining volume of oil is
forced through a small orifice controlled by an
adjustable needle valve. The slow rate of fluid
discharge decreases the piston speed, while the
cushion of oil tends to absorb any shock.
The diagram below shows a double-acting
cylinder with no cushioning at the end of each
stroke. Shock and impact will be directly against
the cap or head unless the length of the piston
travel is controlled by the machine to which the
piston rod is attached; or the rate of movement is
quite slow.
O-ring Seal Cast lron Rings
Cartridge
Gland

Lip-type
Rod Wiper Tie Rod
O-ring
Lip Seal with
Gasket
Backup Washer
Noncushloned Cyllnder wlth Cast !ron Rlngs Cyllnder Stroke Operation

Deslgn and Malerlals

Floating Cushion Sleeve "Float-check"

Pressure Actuated
Cylinder Body Seals
Square Steel Head
Externally Removable
Bronze Cartridge Gland
Steel Piston Rod
- / One-piece Floating Cushion Bushing
Case Hardened and / Alloy lron Square Steel CaP
Chrome Plated
(Cap End)

(Head End) Prevailing

Torque Type
Tie Rod Nuts

Steel
Cylinder Body Alig n-A-Groove" -:-
Flush Cushion Flush Cusion
Check Valve Cast lron
Piston Rings Adjusting
High Strength Needle Valve
Steel Tie Rods Cushion Spear

Mounling Cylinders
Cylinders can be mounted in any position
and will work successf ully, provided they are on a
strong, rigid base and aligned with the part they
are to move.
Figure b
Non-aligned
Crosshead and Connecting Member
ln f igure a the crosshead of the piston is
aligned with the connecting member and will
remain aligned through the.length of the stroke.
ln f igure b the crosshead of the piston is not
aligned with the connecting member. lf they are
forced to fit, a severe strain will be put on the
piston rod and on the gland of the cylinder. This
strain will be increased as the crosshead ap-
proaches the cylinder head. Tilting the cylinder
will not help as the correction will be good for
only one position of the stroke.
Cylinder Maintenance
The most common maintenance problems
with cylinders are leakage and rod damage. A
cylinder has four possible leak paths:
Posslble Leak Paths
> Visible leaks:
. At packinggland
- may be caused by: worn
packing due to old age. lack of lubrication,
HYDRAULICS 297
overtightening; or damaged packing due to a
damaged rod, or to solids sticking to the
packi ng;
o Between cylinder walls and the cap or base
-
the tie rods may not be torqued to proper
value or they may be tightened unevenly. The
gaskets or seals may be damaged or missing.
> lnvisible leaks:
o Between the piston and the cylinder walls: the
piston seals may be damaged; cylinder walls
will be scored or grooved; or
o Between the piston rod and the piston (not
common).
The last two leaks can be checked by
breaking the fluid line from one side of the piston
and pressurizing the other side. The following
precautions should be taken:
> Use a container to collect the leaking fluid;
> Use the correct valve position;
> Keep the broken line and part clean; and
> Connect the line properly after the test is
f in ished.
Rod damage surface damage may be due
to:
-
> lmpact or hammering on the rod;
> Rough spots due to rusting
extended shutdown or outside - usually after
use, from
exposure to the weather;
> The chrome plate breaking off; or
> Pipe wrench or chain wrench marks on the
surface due to sloppy maintenance.
Bent rods are usually caused by an overload
in compression with clevis- or trunnion-mounted
cylinders. This can be corrected by:
> Using a larger diameter rod;
> lf the piston bottoms out at the end of the
stroke, replacing the cylinder with one with a
longer stroke, leaving space between the piston
and head. The piston can be stopped at the
required position by:
o Mechanical stops on the machine; or
o A stop tube on the rod; or
> A change in the length of the stroke caused by:
r The clevis head or attachment working
loose on the piston rod; or
o Wear in the pin linkage.
298 HYDRAULICS

Accumulators
Accumulators are used to:
> Absorb shock waves or dampen pulsations; or
> Store fluid under pressure for f uture use as a
Stop Tube
source of potential energy.
The basic orsimplified circuitshown below is
used to show three ways in which an accumulator
can be used.

Longer Cyllnder to Reduce Gland Wear

Worn Jr
Uses ol Accumulalors

n------frlol
lol
L_i-----f O > Cylinder is to be used intermittently with a rapid
rate of piston travel
- instead of using a large
volume pump and unloading it during the
waiting time, a smaller pump with an accumula-
tor is used. During the waiting period with the
direction control (DC) valve in the closed centre
position, the accumulator is fully charged and
the pump is unloaded into the tank. When the
New
direction control valve is shifted, the cylinder

o []
rl
> Susfained holding with an accumulator
Wear ln Pln Llnkage
will receive both pump and accumulator vol-
ume for a rapid advance. Once used, the
accumulator will not be fully recharged until:
o The piston is kept in the press position;
o The piston is bottomed out on either stroke; or
r The direction control valve is shifted to the
neutral envelope.
During the f irst part of the press cycle, the
-
accumulator is fully charged and at the unload-
ing valve setting. The unloading valve then
unloads pump delivery into the tank, leaving the
accumulator to maintain pressure for the
T
B
fil
,i{,
$
j
'equired period of time.
> ieserve power
- During the machine run, the
shutoff valve to the accumulator is opened, the
accumulator is fully charged, and the shutoff
,'alve is closed. To make mlnor adjustments by
shifting the piston during downtime without
starting the motor and pump, the shutoff valve
s opened and the direction control valve used
lo jog the pision.
Safety
- any system with an accumulator
,.:ould be considered a potential hazard.
Before doing any maintenance work on an
':cumulator-loaded System either:
> isolate the accumulator with a shut-off valve; or
> Discharge the accumulator fluid to the system
and back to the tank.
Accumulators can be classified as:
> Weight-loaded;
> Spring-loaded; or
> Pneumatic or gas-charged.
Weighl-loaded Accumulalors
A weight-loaded accumulator is a vertical
:ylinder f itted with a piston. A packing gland or
similar oil-retaining device keeps the fluid in the
:ylinder as the piston moves.
A platform on the piston is loaded with scrap
ron, concrete blocks or other heavy material.
To Hydraulic_
System
Wel ght-loaded Accumulator
HYDRAULICS 299
The force of gravity provides the energy to
keep the fiuid under constant pressure. With a
gravity-type accumulator, the pressure is con-
stant through the entire stroke of the piston.
Friction created by the cylinder packing tends to
slow the movements of the piston.
This style of accumulator can deliver a very
large volume of f luid at constant pressure. Due to
oil film on the piston, the accumulator should be
installed in a clean area.
Sprlng-loaded Accumulators
Spring-loaded accumulators are similar in
action to the weight-loaded type, with compres-
sion springs supplying the resistance to keep the
oil under pressure.
A series of rods are bolted through holes in a
disc at the end of the piston, and run through
corresponding holes in a flange on the cylinder.
The springs exert rninimum pressure when
the accumulator is at a low volume. As fluid is
pumped into the cylinder, the piston is forced up,
compressing the springs. This type of accumula-
tor does not produce constant pressure through
its entire stroke.
Springs must be evenly loaded to allow even
travel of the piston through the cylinder.
Spring
Pack i ng
To Hydraulic
System
Sprlng-loaded Accumulator
Pneumatic or Gas-charged Accurnulators
Pneumatic or gas-charged accumulators
depend on the compressibility of a gas or air to
produce the necessary pressure and delivery.
3OO HYDRAULICS

Boyle's Law states that at constant tempera- Piston or rigid

- the simple piston accumula-
tor has a free-floating piston between the hydrau-
ture, the volume of a gas varies inversely to the
absolute pressure: PrVr -PzVz (absolute pressure lic f luid and the high-pressure gas. The piston has
equals gauge pressure plus 14.7 psi). O-ring or V-ring packing or other seal' Leakage
For medium- to high-pressure systems, the past the piston should be kept to a minimum'
gas used is generally nitrogen, which is inert to oil
High-Pressure Gas Valve--
under pressure. Compressed oxygen should
never be used with petroleum oil as an explosion
or fire may result.
Gas-charged accumulators can be divided
into the non-separator or separator types.
Non-separator accumulators do not depend
on positive mechanical means to completely
separate the gas and fluid. PACKING-_
They usually consist of a vertically mounted
Free
cylinder, with a connector for the fluid line at the
Piston
bottom end, and a connector for the pneumatic
line at the top end. Only a limited amount of fluid
can be used as there must be a reserve left in the Bleed _
accumulator to prevent air f rom getting into the
_
Hole
circuit. A check valve or ball will seal off the outlet
before the cylinder can be emptied.

To Hydraulic ---*-7
System

H igh-Pressure
Air Line for Air Pressure
Prec hargi ng
Regulator

Fluid Level --- Check Sh op

Valve
Air
Piston
Air Chamber

Seal

Pack i ng
Oil Piston
Bleed Port
To Hydraulic
System

Non-Separalor Accumulator

Non-separator accumulators are used main-

ly on low-pressure systems due to low pressure in
the average mill air line.
An airloil accumulator should not be conf us-
ed with an airloil power system where oil is used
I - To System
to move pistons at a controlled rate of speed.
Separator accumulators are designed as
piston or "rigid", or flexible. Separator Accumulalors Rigid. or Piston
-
 HYDRAULICS 301

Differential area pistons are used to obtain High-Pressure

higher pressures on the oil side, using mill air at a t ,. Air Yalve

low pressure. An air piston of 20 square inches

with 100 psi air working on an oil piston of 5
square inches will produce400 psi pressure on the
oil side. This arrangement is more often used as
an intensifier than as an accumulator.
Flexible accumulators come in diaphragm
and bag designs and are similar in operation to
other accumulators. A rubber or synthetic rubber
separator is used to separate the gas from the
f luid.
Each design has a top connection for gas and
a bottom connection for fluid.
Both styles have a protective device or check
valve at the bottom to prevent the separating
element from being forced into the fluid line. The
accumulator is precharged with gas to a minimum
pressure and incoming fluid puts additional
pressure on the gas. When the pressure in the
circuit falls below that in the accumulator, the
Separator Accumulator Flexlble
fluid is forced out by the expanding gas. -
Flexible separator accumulators should not Gas for a pneumatic accumulator can be an
be fully discharged with every cycle, as it will inert gas such as nitrogen (not oxygen) in an
cause severe flexing in the material. industrial cylinder or bank of cylinders. Low-
lnstalllng an Accumulator pressure hydraulic systems can use compressed
air from the mill air lines with the air pressure
Before putting a new accumulator in use, being increased by using a differential piston
read the instructions on:
accumulator.
> The amount of oil to be added before the gas Direction Control Valves
charge;
> The recommended gas charge in psi Direction control (DC) valves are used to
- pre-
charge will be a percentage of the operating direct the flow of hydraulic f luid to or from
system maximum pressure. cylinders, motors or other actuating units. They
Phases o, Operallon ln a Flexible Accumulator

From Air at
Nitrogen System
Cylinder Press

oit
Press
to
System
3: l
Cushion Cushion Ratio
oir oir

Hump .l Cushion Oil L from Pump

Normal Position lnjecting Preloading with Charging from from
Charging Discharging Oil
Cushion Oil Dry Nitrogen or Air Pump Pump to System
Oil-Air Ratio 3:1 Oil-Air Ratio 4:1
302 HYDRAULICS

usually contain a close-fitting movable spool

which opens or blocks off various ports or
passages to control the direction of flow. Valves
of this type are usually classed as two-way, three-
way, or four-way valves.
ln addition to the previous classifications,
valves are classed by:
> Spool type sliding or rotary;
> Nominal size:
-
o Usually nominal pipe connection size; or
o The recommended maximum volumethrough
the valve;
> Maximum allowable pressure;
> Type of connecting means:
o Threaded
- pipe taper, or straight; or
o Flanged or flat face.
Valve Mounting
Valves are usually mounted in one of three
ways: Manually Operated Valve wlth Subplate Mountlng

VALVE CLASSIFICATION

CLASSIFICATION DESCRIPTION

Path o{ Two-way Permits total ol two possible paths ol flow into two extreme spool positions.
Flow Type
Four-way Permits total of four possible paths of Ilow in two extreme spool positions.

Control Type Manually Hand lever used to shilt spool.

OPerated

Pilot Operated Hydraulic pressure used to shift spool.

Solenoid Solenoid action used to shift spool.

Operated

Solenoid Solenoid action used to shaft integral pilot spool which directs pilot .flow to shift main spool.
Controlled, Pilot
Operated

Position Type Two-position Spool has two extreme positions of dwell.

Three-position Spool has two extreme positions plus one intermediate or "centre" position ol dwell.
Spring Type Spring Offset Spring actaon automatically returns spool to normal offset position as soon as shitter force is
released. (Always a two-position valve.)

NoSpring Spool notspringloaded;movedonlybyshitterforceandremainswhereshifted(maybetwoorthree

position type, but three position type uses detents).

Spring Centred Spring action automatically returns spool to centre position as soon as shifter force is released.
(Always a three-posation valve.)

Spool type Open Centre These are rive of the more common spool types; refers to lhe pattern of ,iow permitted when spool is
in centre position (three-position valves) or cross-over (two-position valves).
Closed Centre

Tandem Centre

Partially
Closed Centre

Semi-open Centre

> An individual valve with foot mounting
-
valve is fastened to a f irm, f lat base and lines are
connected to the valve body, making the spool
diff icult to shift;
> An individual valve with mounting plate or
subplate mounting
- the rigid subplate
oolted to a rigid support, and has tapped holes
or the equivalent for connecting to the f luid
lines. Sealing between the subplate and valve
body is done by O-rings or equivalent seals.
Beplacing a valvecan be done withouttouching
any of the line connections; or
> Stacked valves
- a series of special valve
bodies clamped together side by side with a
common internal supply and a drain to the
tank. These are used mainly on mobile equip-
ment.
Solenoids
A magnet in which the lines of force are
produced by an electric current is called an
electromagnet. A solenoid is a simple form of
electromagnet consisting of a coil of insulated
copper wire or other suitable conductor. When
energized by the f low of an electric current, a
magnetic f ield is produced which attracts iron
and many iron alloys. An armature or plunger
can then be drawn up into the core of a
solenoid. This movement can be utilized to
open or close valve ports. Solenoids are
available as either pull or push types.
Solenoid-operated valves are used to
control the direction of flow by electrical
means. They can be grouped into two classes:
Operailon ol Masler and Slave Valves
Master Valve
., Master Valve
HYDRAULICS 303
the > Direct-acting
- used with small diameter pipe
up to 3/8 inch and pressures of up to 3000 psi;
and
> Solenoid and pilot valves
- used with larger
diameter pipe at the same or higher pressures.
is
The valve spooi is shifted by energizing a
solenoid located at one end of the spool. When
the solenoid is energized, it forces a push rod
against the end of the valve spool, moving it to the
opposite end of the valve body. ln offset spring
models, a single solenoid is used to shift the
spool. In some valve spools, a solenoid is used at
each end. Spring-centred or no-spring models
are examples.
Solenoid-controlled, pilot-operated valves
are a combination of a smallsolenoid-controlled
valve and the main pilot-operated valve. The
solenoid-controlled valve is called the master
valve, as it directs flow to either end of the pilot-
operated spool which constitutes lhe slave valve.
The master valves is mounted on top of the larger
slave valve.
The following diagrams show the basic
operation of the master and slave valves.
At point 1, the pilot spool in the master valve
is positioned by the solenoid to allow pilot f low to
be directed to the Y side of the spool in the slave
valve. Return flow from the X end of the spool
passes through the master valve and is returned
to the tank through port DR.
The main spool allows pressure flow from
port P to port A to the unit. The return flow from
the work unit goes f rom port B through the hollow
spool to port T leading to the reservoir.
Slave Valve
2 . ../ /,./// .,
.2
.
t,,, 1_72,
twtww77,ry
304 HYDRAULICS
Point 2 shows the reverse flow when the
master valve is shifted by the action of the
solenoid.
Pilot f low is directed to the X end of the spool.
Main spool flow is from port P to port B, and
return flow from port A to Port T.
Solenoid control valves usually have
manual override built into the solenoid assembly
which allows the millwright to see whether the
trouble is electrical or hydraulic.
Note: Do not use manual override unless the
systern, machine, and operators are in the clear.
Valve Maintenance
Operational maintenance is not easily done
on four-way valves. lf a valve is giving trouble it
should be replaced and overhauled later.
Common valve problem$ are:
> Spoo/ sticking:
o Foreign material lodged between the spool
and the valve body;
o The spring is broken (if spring-positioned);or
c The detents have come out of position;
> Spoo/ not shifting:
o Burned-out solenoid,
> Excesslve leakage:
o Defective O-rings; or
o Spool or valve body scored.
Removlng a Direclion Control Valve
> Make sure that the power source is disconnec-
ted, so that the equipment cannot be started;
> Operate the valve control lever in all directions
to make sure that there is no trapped fluid;
> lf there is an accumuiator in the system,
discharge all its fluid or isolate it from the
system with the shutoff valve:
> Block or lower all actuators to their rest position
before disconnecting any Parts;
> Clean the valve and the surrounding area
before it is disconnected; steam clean the area if
possible, but prevent waterfrom getting into the
system from any leaky joints or connections;
> Use fuel oil or suitabie solvent if you cannot
steam clean; do not use paint thinners or
acetone; and
> Plug the disconnected lines and valve ports
immediately after the valve is removed to
prevent contaminants from entering the valve
or system.
Potentiai Trouble Areas lor Solenoid Pilol
Valves
> Sticking spool;
> Loose coil;
> Broken armature;
> Broken spring;
a > Worn pin between the armature and the spool;
or
> Speed control adjustment on pilot-operated
valves.
Overhauling Valves
lf possible, obtain the maker's service man-
ual and/or parts list bef ore overhauling any pilot-
operated or solenoid pilot-operated control
valve.
Valves are usually disassembled by removing
the end caps and extracting the spool and other
parts from the body.
Springs should be checked if they are loaded
before removing the spring keeper.
lf no service manual is available, careful
attention should be given to the position of the
spool as it will only work properly when installed
in one direction.
O-rings and seals should be replaced at
every overhaul, and coated with hydraulic fluid
before installing.
lf the valve is put away in storage for future
use:
> All internal components should be lubricated to
prevent rustinE (check on rust proof ing materi-
al when using synthetic fluids); and
> All ports or openings should be sealed off to
keep out contaminants.
Fipe and Tubing
The inside diameter (lD) of a line determines
the rate of flow that will pass without excessive
f rrction, heat, anC power loss. Velocity for given
f low is less through a large opening than through
a small opening, and varies inversely as the
square of the inside diameter of the line (since it
varies inversely as the cross-sectional area). As
the inside diameter decreases, turbulence and
f riction are increased, causing increased power
loss. Friction varies as the square of the velocity.
The wall thlckness and the inside diameter
determine the bursting pressure of a line. The
 HYDRAULICS 305

;':ater the wall thickness for a given inside ed into a fitting and tightened. This prevents f luid
: :rreter, the higher the bursting pressure. from leaking through the spiral clearance at the
l:^versely, the greater the inside diameter for a roots of the thread. Teflon tape, if used should
; ,en wall thickness, the lower the bursting start about two threads from the end of the pipe
:':ssure. and should be wound in the right direction.
Force equals pressure times area.
3/a" Taper per Foot
The safety factor for tubing varies according ,z
': cperating pressure:
Tubing and Pipe:
Pipe Thread Section
to 1000 psi
8:1
6:1
- pressure
pressure from 1000 to 2500 psi Remove
4:1
- pressure over 2500 psi Bu rr

Hose:
- Thread Sealer
on This Area Only
After
Cutting
- over 150 psi
5:1
Plumbing on hydraulic line installation is
.aid by some manufacturers to be responsible f or
:,'er 90 percent of the trouble in hydraulic
:;stems. Manufactured components are built to
-leet rigid standards, but the way in which they
connected may prevent them from operati ng
"eiciently. nternal

\ n-,r
I

:if r"l- \ :

Pipe ;,I \:/ \:l

Pipe is selected for economy and for its
ability to carry large flows in the larger sizes of
cipe. lt is best suited for long permanent lines.
Galvanized pipe should not be used because
scales or flakes of zinc may enter the system.
Black pipe for hydraulic use comes in four wall
th icknesses.
Schedule 40 Schedule B0
(Standard) (Extra Heavy)
Schedule 160 Double Extra Heavy
Black Pipe
- Four Thicknesses
ln all cases, the OD remains the same, and
the lD decreases as the wall thickness increases.
Pipe threads should be treated with a sealing
compound on the male end before being thread-
:.t. ,1,
Externa I Dryseal-hand Dryseal-wrench
American standard tight tight
Threads
Dryseal thread requires the use of special
taps and dies for thread cutting. The crests and
roots engage before the thread flanks, and are
crushed as the threaded parts are tightened to f ull
contact on the flanks. There is no leak path
between the crests and roots of the mating parts.
Tubing
Tubing for hydraulic lines is usually soft,
annealed carbon steel which can be easily bent
and f lared. Other tubing is: heavy wall, hard
temper steel, copper, aluminum, or plastic,
depending on pressure and other conditions.
Tubing sizes are taken on the outside diameter
and are held to close tolerance. The OD of 1/2-inch
seamless tube is 0.5 inch plus or minus0.0005 inch.
The nominal dimensionsare given in fractions of an
inch or dash numbers. The dash number repre-
sents the outside diameter in sixteenths of an inch.
For example, a 1/2-inch tube would have a dash
number of 8, meaning an outside diameter of 8/16
or 1/2 inch.
Tube fittings connected to the tubing allowthe
tubing to remain stationary while the fitting is
tightened. The fittings are of two basic types: //ared
306 HYDRAULICS

and flareless. Flareless tubefittings can be grouped

as blfe and comPression tYPes'

Correct Tube Flare

Flared F Iareless lncorrect Flare

Tube Flttings

lncorrect Flare
Tube Flare

The tube should be bent caref ully to avoid

Compression Flltlng distortion.
Bends near a fitting should allow a straight
length of at least twice the nut length, to allow the
connecting nut to slide away from the fitting when
necessary.

Minimum
Tube O.D. Bend
Nominal Radius R

O-rlng Fittlng
a /at' 1 1/4"
7 /16" 1 1/4"
1/2" 1 1/4"
Tubing should be cut with square ends, which 5/8" 1 1/2"
is best done by a rotary cutter. Tube f lares should J/.+ 1 3/4"
be properly made to give the best fit with the Radius of Bend (R) is 7 /8" 2"
components of the fitting. Measured f rom 1" J
Centerline of Tube 1 1/8" 3 1/2"
11/4" 3 3/4"
1 3/8" 5"
1 1/2"
Tube Bending Raiio

Bends should be formed properly so that the

f ittings are in alig nment. lf they are not in alignment,

stress will be created when the parts are connected.

Short straight runs should be avoided as they
will not allow for expansion or contraction due to
Tube Bending temperature.
U
$
fl HYDRAULICS 307
$
s&

ffi

di
> Make sure alljoints orf ittings are easily reached
for maintenance; and
t > Do not put the tube line where it will be ahazard
i, to workers, or where it can be hit by mobile
i
equipment servicing the machine.
l.
rtl
Hose
t Hose is used to connect parts which move in
relation to each other, or which are subject to
vibration. Most hose has an accumulator action
as it will bulge slightly with pressure surges.
Tubing formed correctly
The main parts of a hose are:
for alignment to fitting > The inner tube,
> The reinforcement; and
> The outer protective cover.

The inner tube is usually synthetic rubber

i n
Tube Formation (Tube Bending)
Tubing should be installed as follows:
> Start from a fixed point;
> Use proper hydraulic fittings; use as few as
possible, by making bends in the tubing: every
fitting is a source of turbulence as well as a
potential leak;
> Locate a route requiring the simplest and the
least number of bends:
which will stand temperatures of up to 275"F
(133'C) for short intervals. Hose for higher
temperatures is available in Teflon with a stain-
co rrectl y less steel braid reinforcement.
Reinforcement determines the pressure
rating. Low-pressure hose has two or more fabric
braid reinforcements and will stand pressure
from 250 psi to 500 psi depending on the lD.
Hose with one metai wire braid for reinforce-
ment is called single-wire braid and is good for
working pressures up to about 1500 psi. Two-wire
braid hose has a pressure rating of up to about
3000 psi. Substituting spiral wrap wire f orthe wire
braid brings the pressure rating stili higher
to 6000 psi for the smaller lD hoses.
- up
Nylon hose with nylon tubing, braided nylon
reinforcement, and nylon cover is rated between

Tubing lnstallaiion

Wrong
Wrong
308 HYDRAULICS

Hoses the two-fabric braid and the single-wire braid

hose. lt has a high flex, fatigue and abrasion
resistance.
Hose covers are usually neoprene, which has
high resistance to oil, abrasion, and weathering.
Some hoses are supplied with oil resistant fabric
covers.
Hose sizes are given with the lD, OD and
dash number corresponding to a matching
Fabric Braid standard tube size. The dash number also
corresponds to the lD of the hose in sixteenths of
an inch.
Hose end f ittings are permanent, or reusable.
Permanent fittings are crimped or swaged on the
hose ends and are discarded with the hose. They
are usually factory-assembled.
Reusable fittings are screwed or clamped to
Two Wire Braid the hose ends and salvaged when the hose is
discarded. Hose for reusable fittings can be
purchased in bulk and each section assembled as
needed.
Hose end fittings are fastened to the hose in
two ways:
With the cover left on
>
>
- no skive; or
With the cover removed to reinforcement
Single Wire Braid skive.
-

Teflon Core Reusable, Screwed

Spiral Wrap Reusable, Clamped

Reusable Hose Fittings

Hose should be installed as follows:

> Allow enough slack to avoid kinking the hose at
a rigid connection;
> Do not use a taut hose: pressure tends to bulge
the hose and shorten it;
> Do not twist the hose: this can be checked by
markings on the cover; use f ittings to avoid long
loops;
 HYDRAULICS 309

> Follow specif ications f or bend radius: the Shop lnstallatlon ot Hose Flttlngs
amount specified is for fixed hoses and should
be increased when used with hoses that will be
f lexing;
> lnstall hose lines so parts can be easily reached
for maintenance;
> Keep hoses from rubbing on fixed objects and
keep moving objects f rom rubbing on them;this 1. Cut hose to length with f ine tooth hacksaw or
can be done by clamping or tying the hoses out cut-off wheel. Skive if required (see Multiple Wire
of the way, or by using hose guards; and Braid). Screw hose counterclockwise into socket
> Keep the hose away from high heat sources; if until it bottoms. Back off 1/4 turn.
the hose cannot be moved, insulate it.
ln figure a below, it is almost impossible to
work a wrench between the two fixed objects to
tighten or loosen the nut. ln figure b the line is
easier to connect or disconnect.

2. For male ends, if required, insert correct

assembly tool mandrel (according to size) into
nipple and oil threads, assembly tool, and inside
of hose.

Figure a Difficult to Service

3. For male ends, screw nipple clockwise into
socket until snug against socket.

4. For female ends, tighten nipple and nut on

assembly tool if required. Screw nipple clock-
wise into socket. Leave 1/32" to 1/'l 6" clearance
between nut and socket.

Figure b Easier to Service

310 HYDRAULICS

Shop lnstallation of Hose Fittings

Fitlings
Fittings for tube and hose come in a wide
variety of sizes and shapes and are grouped to
meet two standards: American Standards Asso-
ciation (ASA), which is the hydraulic industry
standard, and SAE standard for automotive use.

Threaded ends for port connections can be:

1. Cut hose to length. To strip off protective
cover (if necessary) cut around hose down to > Tapered pipe thread American standard;
metal wire reinforcement, then cut cover length- > Tapered pipe thread
- dryseal; these two
wise and pull off cover. Clean wire with wire -
threads are not interchangeable; or
brush or soft wire wheel. Avoid f laring or fraying
> SAE straight threads.
wire reinforcement.
Flare angle for tubing can be:
> 37 degrees JIC standard, or
> 45 degrees
- SAE standard.
-

2. Screw hose counterclockwise into socket

until it bottoms.

3. Oil nipple threads and inside of hose liberally.

Use grease for larger sizes.

4, Screw nipple clockwise into socket. Leave

1/32" lo 1/16" clearance.
 HYDRAULICS 31.I

Standard Graphic Symbols

LINES AND LINE FUNCTIONS MOTOBS AND CYLINDERS

Line, working

Line, Pitot (L) 20W)

Motor, rolary,
fixed displacement r)
Y
Ljne, Drain (L ( 5W)
Motor, rotary
variable displacement
Connector a

Line. f lexible tt\/

\_-,, Motor, oscillating

Line, joining r

I
I
Cylinder, single-acting

Line, passing /\
_t
Cylinder, double-actin g

Direction of fiow:
Hyd rau lic Cyli nder, differential
Pneumatlc __- __D_- rod
----_-
I

Line to reservoir: i Cylinder, double-

Above fluid level L]
end rod
Below f luid level l

.t
I

Cylinder, cushrons
both ends
---1
l
Line to vented manifold
n MISCELLANEOUS UNITS
Plug or plugged Directron of rotation
con nectron (arrow in front of shaft)

Restriction, fixed Component enclosure

Reservorr, vented
Bestriction. variable L____l
Reservoir, pressurized
PUMPS

Pump, single A
Pressure gauge
o
fixed displacement Temperature gauge
V 0)
Flow meter (flow rate)
Pump, single
variable displacemenl Electric motor
312 HYDRAULICS

sPring- Pressure reducing

Accumulator, A valve
loaded V
Accumulator, gas- A Counter balance
charged Y valve with integral
check

Filter or strainer
Temperature and
pressure-comPensated
flow control with
integral check

Direction valve,
two-position, three-
Tern perature controller con nection

lntensifier Direction valve,

three-position, four-
con nection
Pressure switch

BASIC VALVE SYMBOLS Valve, infinite

positioning (indicated
Check valve -{- by horizontal bars)

METHODS OF OPERATION
Manual shutoff valve - -D<1-
Pressure compensatot E
Basic valve enveloPe

Valve, single-flow
path, normallY closed
Valve. single-flow
path, normallY oPen
Mechanical Cq
Valve, maximum
pressure (relief)
Pedal or treadle tr{
Basic valve sYmbol,
multiple flow Paths
Push button G1
Flow paths blocked
in centre Position
Multipie flow Paths (arrow nf*
LLil 1/l
l

shows flow direction)

Pilot pressure
VALVE EXAMPLES

Unloading valve, ,4 Solenoid fq

internal drain. 1_J-
remotely oPerated Solenoid-controlled, Zd
pilot pressure oPerated
,q
Deceleration valve,
normally oPen -+t- Spring "i
valve,
=r
.l
nce
*-1
i
directly operated, 3
externally drained

Definitions of Technical Terms
:3SOLUTE - A measure having as its zero point or
::se the complete absence of the entity being
-easured.
:35OLUTE PRESSURE - The pressure above zero
:csolute, i.e., the sum of atmospheric and gauge
:'essure. ln vacuum-related work it is usually express-
=: in mrllimetres of mercury (mm Hg).
:CCUMULATOR - A container in which f luid is stored
-rder pressure as a source of f luid power.
- Cf UATOR - A device f or converting hydraulic energy
^to mechanical energy. A motor or cylinder.
.ERATION - Air in the hydraulic fluid. Excessive
:eration causes the f luid to appear milky and compon*
:1ts to operate erratically because of the compressibil-
:7 of the air trapped in the f luid.
:MPLIFIER - A devjce for amplifying the error signal
to cause actuation of the stroke control.
-r;ff iciently
Several types of servo amplifiers are used at the
:r'esent time: electronic (DC, AC, phase sensitive, and
-lagnetic) and mechanical.
iMPLITUDE OF SOUND - The loudness of sound.
ANNULAR AREA - A ring shaped area often refers to
- of a cylinder
:re net effectrve area ol the rod side
piston, i.e., the piston area minus the cross-sectronal
area of the rod.
ATIVOSPHERE (ONE) - A pressure measure equal to
'4.7 psi.
ATIMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - Pressure exerted by the
atmosphere at any specific location. (Sea level
cressure is approximalely 14.7 pounds persquare inch
a bso lu te. )
BACK-CONNECTED - A condition
where pipe con-
rections are on norn'tally unexposed surfaces of
rydraulic equipment. (Gasket-mounted units are
cack-con nected. )
BACK PRESSURE - A pressure in series. Usually refers
to pressure existing on the discharge side of a load. lt
adds to the pressure required to move the load.
BAFFLE - A device, usually a plate, installed in
reservoir to separate the pump inlet from return lines.
BLEED-OFF - To drvert a specific controllable portion
of pump delivery directly to reservoir.
BREATHER - A device which permits airto move in and
out of a container or component to maintain atmos-
pheric pressure.
BY-PASS - A secondary passage for fluid flow.
HYDRAULICS 313
CARTRIDGE
> The replaceable element of a fluid filter.
> The pumping unit f rom a vane pump, composed of
the rotor, ring, vanes and one or both side plates.
CAVITATION - A localized gaseous condition within a
lrquid stream which occurs where the pressure is
reduced to the vapour pressure.
CHAMBER - A compartment within a hydraulic unit.
May contain elements to aid in operation or control of a
unrt. Examples: spring chamber or drain chamber.
CHANNEL - A fluid passage, the length of which is
large with respect to its cross-sectional dimension.
CHARGE (supercharge)
> To replenish a hydraulic system above atmospheric
p ress u re.
> To f ill an accumulator with f luid under pressure (see
precharge pressure).
CHARGE PRESSURE - The pressure at which replen-
ishing f luid is forced into the hydraulic system (above
atmospheric pressure).
CHECK VALVE - A valve which permits f low of f luid in
one direction only.
CHOKE - A restriction, the length of which is large with
respect to its cross-sectional dimension.
CIRCUIT - An arrangement of components intercon-
nected to perform a specific function within a system.
CLOSED CENTRE VALVE - One in which all ports are
blocked rn the centre or neutral position.
CLOSED CENTRE CIRCUIT - One in which flow
through the system is blocked in neutral and pressure
is maintained at the maximum pressure control setting.
CLOSED LOOP - A system in which the output of one
or more elements is compared to some other signal to
provide an actuating signal to control the output of the
loop.
COMMAND SIGNAL (or input signal) - An external
signal to which the servo must respond.
COMPENSATOR CONTROL - A displacement control
for variable pumps and motors which alters displace-
a ment in response to pressure changes in the system as
related to its adjusted pressure setting.
COMPONENT - A single hydraulic unit.
COMPRESSIBILITY - The change in volume of a unit
volume of a f luid when it is subjected to a unit change in
pressu re.
CONTROL - A device used to regulate the f unction of a
unit (see Hydraulic Control, Manual Control, Mechani-
cal Control, and Compensator Control).
314 HYDRAULICS
COOLER - A heat exchanger used to remove heat f rom
the hydraulic fluid.
COUNTERBALANCE VALVE - A pressure control
valve which maintains back pressure to prevent a load
from falling.
CRACKING PRESSURE - The pressure at which a ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SERVO VALVE - A direction
pressure-actuated valve begins to pass fluid.
CUSHION - A device sometimes built into the ends of a
hydraulic cylinder which restricts the flow of fluid at
the outlet port, thereby arresting the motion of the
piston rod.
CYLINDER - A device which converts f luid power into
linear mechanical f orce and motion. lt usually consists
of a movable element such as a piston and piston rod,
plunger rod, plunger or ram, operating within a
cylindrical bore.
DEADBAND - The region or band of no response
where an error signal will not cause a corresponding
actuation of the controlled variable.
DECOMPRESSION - The slow release of confined
fluid to gradually reduce pressure on the fluid.
DELIVERY - The volume of f luid discharged by a pump
in a given time, usually expressed in gallons per minute
(spm).
DE-VENT - To close the vent connection of a pressure
control valve permitti ng the valve to f unction at its
adjusted pressure setting
DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT - The algebraic summation
of the current in the torque motor; measured in ma
(milliamperes).
DIFFERENTIAL CYLIND ER - Anv cylinder in which the
two opposed piston areas are not equal.
DIRECTION VALVE - A valve which selectively directs
or prevents f luid f low to desired channeis.
-
DISPLACEMENT The quantity of fluid which can
pass through a pump, motor or cylinder in a single
revolution or stroke.
DITHER - A low amplitude, relatively high f requency,
periodic electrical signal, someti mes superi mposed on
the servo valve input to improve system resolution.
Dither is expressed by the dither f requency (Hz) and
the peak-to-peak dither current amplitude (ma).
DOUBLE-ACTING CYLINDER - A cylinder in which
fluid force can be applied to the movable element in
either direction.
DRAIN - A passage in, or a line from, a hydraulic
component which returns leakage fluid independently
to reservoir or to a vented manifold.
EFFICIENCY - The ratio of output to input. Volumetric
iciency of a pump is the actual output in gpm divided
eff
by the theoretical or design output. The overall
efficiency of a hydraulic system is the output power
divided by the input power. Efficiency is usually
expressed as a percent.
type valve which receives a variable or controlled
electrical signal and which controls, or meters
hydraulic flow.
ENERGY - The ability or capacity to do work. Measur-
ed in units of work.
ENCLOSURE - A rectangle drawn around a graphical
component or components to indicate the limits of an
assembly.
ERROR (signal) - The signal which is the algebraic
summation of an input signal and a feedback signal
FEEDBACK (or feedback signal) - The output signal
from a feedback element.
FEEDBACK LOOP - Any closed circuit consisting of
one or more forward elements and one or more
feedback elements.
FILTER - A device whose primary function is the
retention by a porous media of insoluble contaminants
fromafluid.
FLOODED - A condition where the pump inlet is
charged by placing the reservoir oil level above the
pump inlet port.
FLOW CONTROL VALVE - A valve which controls the
rate of oil flow,
FLOW RATE - The volume, mass, or weight of a f luid
passing through any conductor per unit of time.
FLUID
> A liquid or gas.
> A liquid that is specially compounded for use as a
power-transmitting medium in a hydraulic system.
FOLLOW VALVE - A control valve which ports oil to an
actuator so the resulting output motion is proportlonal
to the input motion to the valve.
FORCE - Any push or pull measured in units of weight.
ln hydraulics, total force is expressed by the product P
(force per unit area) and the area of the surface on
which the pressure acts. F P X A
FOUR-WAY VALVE - A direction valve having f ourf low
paths.
FREQUENCY - The number of times an action occurs
in a unit of time. Frequency is the basis of allsound A
pump or motor's basic f requency is equal to its speed

- revolutions per second multiplied by the number of
: -mping chambers.
=RONT CONNECTED - A condition with piplng
-cnnections on the normally exposed surfaces of
^ydraulrc components.
=LILL FLOW - ln a filter, the condition where all the
' r d must pass through the f ilter element or medium.
3AUGE PRESSURE - A pressure scale which ignores
:tmospheric pressure. lts zero point is 14.7 psi
a csol ute.
-l EAD - The height of a column or body of f luid above a
Eiven point expressed in linear unrts. Head is often
rsed to rndicate gauge pressure. Pressure is equal to
:ne heightti mes the density of the fluid.
-IEAT - The form of energy that has the capacity to
create warmth or to increase the temperature of a
substance. Any energy that is wasted or used to
3vercome friction is converted to heat. Heat is
'neasured in calories or British Thermal Units (Btu's).
One Btu rs the amount of heat requrred to raise the
iemperature of one pound of water one degree
Fah ren heit.
HEAT EXCHANGER - A device which transfers heat
through a conducting wall f rom one f luid to another.
HORSEPOWER (hp) - The power required to lift 550
counds one foot in one second or 33,000 pounds one
root in one minute. A horsepower is equal to 746 watts
or to 42.4 British Thermal Unrts per minute.
HYDRAULIC BALANCE - A condition of equal oppos-
ed hydraulic forces acting on a part in a hydraulic
com ponent.
HYDRAULIC CONTROL - A control which is actuated
by hydraulically induced forces.
HYDRAULICS - Engineering science pertaining to
liquid pressure and flow.
HYDHODYNAMICS - Engineering science pertaining
to the energy of the liquid f low and pressure.
HYDROSTATICS - Engineering science pertaining to
the energy of liquids at rest.
KINETIC ENERGY - Energy that a substance or body
has by virtue of its mass (weight) and velocity.
LAMINAR (FLOW) - A condition where the ftuid
particles move in continuous parallel paths stream-
line flow. - PASSAGE - A machined or cored fluid conducting
LEVERAGE - A gain in output force over input force by
sacrificing the distance moved. Mechanical advantage
or force multiplication,
HYDRAULICS 315
LIFT - The height a body or column of fluids is raised;
for instance, f rom the reservoir to the pump inlet, Lift is
sometimes used to express a negative pressure or
vacuum. The opposite of head,
LINE - A tube, pipe or hose which acts as a conductor
of hydraulic fluid.
Ll N EAR ACTUATOR - A device for converti ng hydraul-
ic energy into linear motion a cylinder or ram.
-
MANIFOLD - A fluid conductor which provides
multiple connection ports.
MANUAL CONTROL - A control actuated by the
operator, regardless of the means of actuation,
Example: Lever or foot pedal control {or direction
valves.
MANUAL OVERRIDE - A means of manually actuating
an automatically controlled device,
MAXIMUM PRESSURE VALVE - See relief vatve.
MECHANICAL CONTROL - Any control actuated by
linkages, gears, screws, cams or other mechanical
elements.
METER - To regulate the amount or rate of f luid f low.
il/ETER-lN - To regulate the amount of f Iuid f low into
an actuator or system.
METER-OUT - To regulate the f low of the discharge
fluid f rom an actuator or system.
l"4lCRON - One-millionth of a meter or about 0.00004
in ch.
M ICRO N RATING - The size of the particles a f ilter will
remove.
MOTOR - A device which converts hydrauiic fluid
power into mechanical force and motion. lt usually
provides rotary mechanical motion.
OPEN CENTRE CIRCUIT - One in which pump
delivery f lows f reely through the system and back to
the reservoir in neutral.
OPEN CENTRE VALVE - One in which atl ports are
interconnected and open to each other in the centre or
neutral position.
ORIFICE - A restriction, the length of which is small in
respect to its cross-sectional dimensions.
path which lies within or passes through a component.
PILOT PRESSURE - Auxiliary pressure used to actuate
or control hydraulic components.
316 HYDHAULICS
PILOT VALVE - An auxiliary valve used to control the
operation of another valve. The controlling stage of a
two-stage valve.
PISTON - A cylindrically shaped part which fits within
a cylinder and transmits or receives motion by means
of a connecting rod.
PLUNGER - A cylindrical shaped part which has only
one diameter and is used to transmit thrust a ram.
- REGENERATIVE CIRCUIT - A piping arrangement for
POPPET - That part of certain valves which prevents
f low when it closes against a seat.
PORT - An internal or external terminus of a passage in
a component.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT - A characteristic o{ a
pump or motor which has the inlet positively sealed
f rom the outlet so that f luid cannot recrrculate in the
component.
POTENTIOMETER - A control element in the servo
system which measures and controls electrical
potential.
POWER - Work per unit of time. Measured in horse-
power (hp) or watts.
POWER PACK - An integral power supply unit usually
containing a pump, reservoir, relief valve and direction
control.
PRECHARGE PRESSURE - The pressure of compres-
sed gas in an accumulator prior to the admission of
liq uid.
PRESSURE - Force per unit area; usually expressed in
pounds per square inch (psi).
PRESSURE DROP - The difference in pressure between
any two points of a system or a component.
PRESSURE LINE - The line carrying the f luid f rom the
pump outlet to the pressurized port of the actuator.
PRESSURE OVERRIDE - The difference between the
cracking pressure of a valve and the pressure reached
when the valve rs passing f ull f low.
PRESSUBE PLATE - A side plate in a vane pump or
motor cartridge on the pressure port side,
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE - A valve which limits
the maximum pressure at its outlet regardless of the
inlet pressure.
PRESSUBE SWITCH - An electric switch operated by
fluid pressure.
PROPORTIONAL FLOW - ln a filter, the condition
where part of the f low passes through the f ilter element
in proportion to pressure drop.
PUMP - A device which converts mechanical force and
motion into hydraulic fluid power.
RAM - A single-acting cylinder with a single diameter
plunger rather than a piston and rod. The plunger in a
ram-type cylinder.
RECIPROCATION - Back-and-forth straight line
motion or oscillation.
a differential cylinder in which discharge f luid f rom the
rod end combines with pump delivery to be directed
into the head end.
RELIEF VALVE - A pressure-operated valve which by-
passes pump delivery to the reservoir, limiting system
pressure to a predetermined maximum value.
REPLENISH - To add fluid to maintain a f ull hydraulic
system.
RESERVOIR - A containerfor storage of liquid in afluid
power system.
RESTRICTION - A reduced cross-sectional area in a
line or passage which produces a pressure drop.
RETURN LINE - A line used to carry exhaust f luid f rom
the actuator back to sump.
REVERSING VALVE - A four-way direction valve used
to reverse a double-acting cylinder or reversible motor.
ROTARY ACTUATOR - A device for converting
hydraulic energy into rotary motion - a hydraulic
motcr.
SEQUENCE
> The order of a series of operations or movements.
> To divert f low to accomplish a subsequent operation
or movement.
SEQUENCE VALVE - A pressure-operated valve
which, at its setting, diverts flow to a secondary line
while holding a predetermined minimum pressure in
the primary line.
SERVO MECHANISM (servo) - A mechanism subject-
ed to the action of a contolling device which will
operate as if it were directly actuated by the controlling
device, but capable of supplying power output many
times that of the controlling device, this power being
derived {rom an external and independent source.
SERVO VALVE
> A valve which modulates output as a function of an
input command.
> A {ollow valve.
SIGNAL - A command or indication of a desired
position or velocity.

SINGLE-ACTING CYLINDER - A cytinder in which
hydraulic energy can produce thrust or motion in only
one direction. (May be mechanically or gravity
retu rned. )
SLIP - lnternal leakage of hydraulic fluid.
SPOOL - A term loosely applied to almost any moving
cylindrically shaped part of a hydraulic component
which moves to direci f low through the component.
STRAINER - A coarse filter.
STREAMLINE FLOW - (See laminar f low.)
STROKE
> The length of travel of a piston or plunger.
> To change the displacement of a variable displace-
ment pump or motor.
SUBPLATE - An auxiliary mounting for a hydraulic
component providing a means of connecting plping to
the component.
SUCTION LINE - The hydraulic iine connecting the
pump inlet port to the reservoir or sump.
SUMP - A reservoir.
SUPERCHARGE - (See charge.)
SURGE - A transient rise of pressure or flow.
SWASH PLATE - A stationary canted plate in an axial
piston pump which causes the pistons to recrprocate
as the cylinder barrel rotates.
SYNCHRO - A rotary electromagnetic device generally
used as an AC feedback signal generator which
indicates position. lt can also be used as a reference
signal generator.
TACHOMETER (AC, DC) - A device whrch generates
an AC or DC signal proportional to the speed at which
it is rotated and the poiarity of which is dependent on
the direction of rotation of the rotor.
TANK - The reservorr or sump.
THROTTLE - To perm it the passrng of a restricted f low.
May control f low rate or create a deliberate pressure
d rop.
TORQUE - A rotary thrust. The turning effort of a f luid
motor usually expressed in inch pounds.
TORQUE CONVERTER - A rotary f tuid coupling that is
capable of multiplying torque.
TORQU E MOTOR - A type of electromechanical
transducer having rotary mction used in the input
stages of servo valves.
HYDRAULICS 317
TRANSDUCER (or feedback transducer) - An element
which measures the results at ihe load and sends a
signal back to the amplifier.
TURBULENT FLOW (TURBULENCE) - A condition
where the fluid particles move in random paths rather
than in continuous parallel paths.
TURBiNE - A rotary device thai is actuated by the
impact of a moving f luid against blades or vanes.
TWO-WAY VALVE - A direciion control valve with two
flow paths.
UNLOAD - To release f low (usually directly to the
reservoir), to prevent pressure being imposed on the
system or portion of the system.
UN LOAD ING VALVE - A valve which by-passes f low to
the tank when a set pressure is matntained on its pilot
port.
VACUUM - Pressure less than atmospheric pressure. lt
is usually expressed in inches of mercury (in Hg) as
referred to the existing atmospherrc pressure.
VALVE - A device which controls fluid f low direction,
pressure, or flow rate.
VELOCITY
> The speed of f low through a hydraulic line. Expres-
sed in feet per second (fps) or inches per second
(ips)
> The speed cf a rotattng component rneasured in
revolutions per minute (rpm).
VENT
> To permit opening of a pressure control valve by
opening its pilot port (vent connection) to atmos-
pheric pressure.
> An air breathing device on a fluid reservoir.
VISCOSITY - A measure of the inrernal friction or the
resistance of a f luid tc f low.
VISCOSITY INDEX - A measure r:f the viscosity-
temperature characteristics o{ a f luid as referred to that
of turo arbitrary reference fluiCs.
VOLUME
> The srze of a space or chamber in cubic units.
> Loosely applied to the ouiput of a pump in gallons
per minute (gpm)
WOBBLE PLATE - A r"otating canted plate in an axial
type piston purnp which pushes the piston$ rnto their .t:
bores as it "wobbies". :
WORK - Exerting a f orce through a def inite d jstance,
Work is measured in urrits of force multiplied by
distance; for example, pound-foot.
Reproduced with the permission of Vickers Division
Sperry Rand Canada L-imited.
 318 SEALING

14. Sealing

Sealing is used to prevent or control leakage

of a fluid or gas between moving and stationary
parts, or between two stationary parts. I

External Sealing
Positive
- to prevent any fluid or gas from
reaching the atmosphere; or
Non-positive
- to control the amount of f luid
reaching the atmosphere. Compression packing
in a pump stuffing box is an example of non-
positive external sealing.
lnternal Sealing
Taper-to-taper
Positive - no designed leakage f rom the
high- to low-pressure side; or
Non-positive
- designed leakage from the
high- to low-pressure side. Leakage past the
valve spool for lubrication is an example of non-
positive internal sealing.
lnterference fit
Dynamic sea/s are seals between a moving
and a stationary surface. Sealing action is Stationary Seals
f requently helped by system pressure.
Stationary Seals Gaskets
Stationary seals are seals between two Gaskets are installed between parallel sta-
surfaces which have no relative movement. tionary surfaces:
> Metal-to-metal contact: > To seal against a pressure load in hydraulic
or pneumatic systems;
-
o Taper-to-taper - f requentiy found with
hydraulic components. lt consists of two > To seal against leakage
- no pressure involved,
tapered contact surfaces which are loaded by in a joint in a reduction unit; or
being pulled together. Fastener loading must > To seal and control axial position.
be uniform to correct torque; Gasket material can come in sheet form for
o lnterf erence f it the piston is installed on the
shaft with
-
an interference, light press or
cutting on the job, or in special forms for specific
applications. Sheet material is usually rubber,
shrink f it. lf installed with a slip f it, a leak path neoprene, cork, paper, asbestos compounds, or
may occur which must be controlled with a copper.
gasket or similar seal. Gasket material should be able to: withstand
the bolt load without being crushed; withstand
the necessary temperature and pressure ex-

ri
 I

SEALING 319

iremes; and be chemically inert to the material Figure a

celng contained.
ln pressure sealing, the gasket is subject to
ihe force of compression exerted by the bolts.
This compression force must be greater than
coth the hydrostatic end force which tends to Deformed Surfaces _ Unequal Pressure on Gasket
push the pipes apart, and the internal pressure
which tends to move the gasket sideways. Figure b

Gasket materials are designed to give or f low

slightly to flll small irregularities in the machined
surfaces. The gasket material is squeezed be_
:ween the mating surfaces with more pressure
:han the pressure trying to leak past.
Pressure is greatest at the bolt locations, and
weakest halfway between the boits. The pressure
cn the gaskets will be more even if the bolts are
close together. The thickness of the metal of the
mating parts will also determine the number of
oolts required. Two flanges of 1/ -inch plate will
require more bolts to hold an even pressure than
two flanges of 1-inch plate both flange sets
having the same tD and OD. -
Figure a shows the effect of bolting on light
material with widety spaced bolt holes. The
bendin g or deformation of the surfaces forms hi g h
pressure on the gasket at the bolt hole, and lower
Dressure between the holes. lncreasing the
number of bolts or the thickness of material will
allow pressure to be evenly applied.
Figure b shows bolting with heavy material.
When replacing gaskets between machine
parts, the oriEinal thickness should be main_
tained to avoid increasing or decreasing any
internal clearances. For example, if the gasket
l
f
lmproved Bolting Method _ Equal pressure
Bolting on LiEht and Heavy Materlal
between the top and bottom casings of a reduc_
tion unit is 0.006-inch thick and is replaced by a
gasket 0.0156-inch thick, litile or no pressure will
be exerted against the outside bearing rings,
allowing them to turn in the housing. Gasket
thickness should also be considered when
replacing gaskets in a horizontally split pump
with wearing rings.
Circular gaskets can be laid out with a
compass or a pair of dividers after the OD, lD, and
bolt circle diameter is obtained, either from
drawings or from actual measurement. The
gasket can be ring style, covering only the area
inside the bolt circle, or a full gasket using the
total flange area.

Gaskets

,1,
Bolt Load

lnternal Pressure
320 SEALING

An extension, or handle, left on the gasket

-lDBolt Circle
- All the cutting is done with a pair of scissors
-oD
Laying out Circular Gaskets with a Compass
The full face gasket shown below takes
considerable time to make and is awkward to
install as all the bolts must be removed.
will allow easier handling and positioning during
installation.
Circular gaskets or irregularly shaped gas-
kets can be marked on the mating parts in several
ways:
> By smearing the part with a marking ink or
graphite, then laying on the gasket stock to get
an impression; or
> By holding the gasket stock against the face
and drawing the outline and bolt holes.
or tin snips, dependinE on the gasket material,
and holes are punched out. A hole punch should
always be used against a block of wood to protect
the cutting edge.
The gasket is frequently laid on the face of
the flange or part to save time and is cut out by
lightly striking a hammer along the corners. The
correct position is maintained by cutting bolt
holes and inserting bolts through the gasket
stock to hold it in position. This method will save
time but tlte metalsurface, corners, orthe leading
threads of a tapped hoie may be damaged.
Bef ore installing a new gasket, all old gasket
stock should be removed and the metal faces
checked for irregularities and smoothed where
necessary.
The bolt tightening procedure is important in
the successful installation of a gasket. Regard-
less of the shape of the mating parts, the bolts are
f irst pulled snug around the casing, then tighten-
ed gradually, working across the body.

o
/c/ ^o
Gasket Types
e\
\ ----=\

()
\ \ _...-- \
(( ))
\a) \,/( \ \_ _/ t
o \___,,

FUII FACe Hrng GasKel I ongue ano Liroove Male and Femaie

Wrong Right
Too Tight
l ature range of the circuit;
i K
/ c_tz--\'1 0 \
c.(\/ ),o
B \\---'l uo
o; ^ > Where possible, sealing devices should be
Right Sequence
Bolt Tightening
A light f ilm of lubricant shculd be smeared on
the contact surfaces to help the gasket material
flcw between the rigid mating parts.
It is more eff icient to take two or moi"e passes
around the bolt sequence than to try to r.each fuil
tension the f irst time around.
ln certain applications involving no pressure
or low pressLi re, a gasket-forming compound can
be used. These compounds come in two styles:
non-hardening and hardening and should be
used according to the maker's specifications.
These compounds are frequently used with a flat
gasket to f ill up depressions in surfaces that are
slightly corroded or pitted. This is, however, only
a "make-do" means of extending ihe service life
of a joint.
Teflon circular packing in string form is
frequently used to replace flat gaskets when
mating faces are even and space between the
faces is critical. The packing is cut long enough to
form a ring gasket, the ends are twistecJ together
three or four times, and the resulting ring is
treated as a flat gasket.
The use of O-rings as gaskets is covered in
the section on O-rings.
Colour-coded plastic gasket material uses
the colour of the materiai to show the thickness of
the stock. The thickness of gasket material can be
readily checked against a colour-thickness chart.
SEALING 321
Packing and Seals
Packing and seals are used to prevent
leakage of hydraulic fluid through clearances
between stationary and moving parts, or between
two stationary parts. The packing should meet
certain conditions:
> lt must work eff iciently throughout the temper-
> lt should not deteriorate or swell in hydraulic
fl u id;
> lt should not scuff or mark any metal surfaces;
> lt should be long-lasting;
> Shaft seals should prevent all leakage unless
they are designed to pass a small amount o{
fluid for lubrication; and
pressure sealing.
Seals or packing used in pressure systems
are mainly dynamic pressure helps improve
their sealrng action. -
I nside-packed lnstallat5on
With an inside-packed installation, packing
is located on the end of a rod or plunger and
moves with the rod, or is held inside a valve body
by other components. O-rings are often used with
a short reciprocating motion such as in air valve
spools and shoi't-stroke cylinders.
U- and V-sections, cups ancj automotive
piston rings are used for long-stroke reciprocat-
ing piston seals.
Outside-packed I nstallation
Packing is held stationary in an outside-
packed installation, and the rod moves through
the packing. This is a typicat packing giand and
uses U-, V-, and C-rings, or f lange packing.
The cup, and flange packings are called
unbalanced packings as they seal only on one
diameter.
The U-, V-, and O-rings are called balanced
packings as they seal on both the lD and the OD
and pressure is balanced on the sidewalls of the
gland or recess.
Leather and elastomer-f illed leather seals are
used f or cup packings and as the contact material
on lip seals.
Most synthetic seal material is macle from
neoprene, Buna-N, Nitrile, silicone, Teflcn or
other materials to suit specific sealing jobs.
 322 SEALING

The hardness of a packing or seal will help The tables below give the recommended
determine its action under pressure and move- groove dimensions for standard diameter O-
ment. A hard packing will withstand extrusion ring s.
better than a soft packing, but it will also create )
more friction. Where clearances are excessive,
I
I I

hard packing, special packing, or packing aids

L

should be used.
The compound used in the seal material will
be determined by the material being sealed and Approx.
the temperature range. 0.005
I

O-rings Radi us

An O-ring is a c ircu lar ring with a ro u nd c ross

section, usually made f rom synthetic rubber. K F_
l

They can be used with static joints, as seals on

slow turning shafts, or as a seal with reciprocat-
ing parts. Seating
The diagram below shows an O-ring being
used as: The O-ring sits in a groove that is generally
135 to 150 percent of the O-ring's cross section.
> a static seal (A);
This allows for deformation due to squeeze, and
> a piston rod seal (B); anO as
swelling due to fluid contact. The groove shape
> a piston packing (C).
also allows the O-ring to roll slightly, providing
some surface lubrication during reciprocating
motion.
Clearance should be held to a minimum to
prevent extrusion into the clearance gap,

I
I

Uses ol O-rings O-ring Exlruding into Clearance Gap

O-rlng Wldth Dlametral Groove Length F Radlus Dlametral Eccen-

wtdrh E Squeeze +0.00s -0.000 R Clearance trlclty
Back-up Rings 2G
Nominal Max. Min. None One Two Approx. Max. Min.

DYNAMIC APPLICATIONS

1 /16 0.057 0.010 3/32 0.138 0.205 1/32 0.005 0.002

J/ JZ 0.090 0.010 9/64 0.171 0.238 1/32 0.005 0.002
1/B 0.1 23 0.012 3/16 0.208 0.275 1/32 0.006 0.003
3/16 0.1 88 0.017 9/32 0.s11 0.410 t/Jt 0.007 0"004
1/4 0.240 0.029 3/8 0.408 0.538 1/32 0.008 0.005

STATIC APPLICATIONS

1/8 0.1 23 0.012 3/16 0.208 0.275 1/32 0.004 0.003

 SEALING 323

Squeeze molded nylon washers are commonly used. Their

Diametral squeeze is necessary to maintain a purpose is to:
seal. lf there is no squeeze, leaks will start at low > Eliminate extrusion of the O-ring;
pressure, while too much squeeze will rapidly > Permit wider clearance between moving parts;
lvear out the ri ngs. and
The exact amount of squeeze is shown in the > Act as a dirt wiper.
previous table, but generally, squeeze is equal to
10 percent of ring diameter. Back-up washers used with O-rings require
wider grooves. A back-up washer and O-ring
should not be used in a groove designed for O-
rlngs only.

Acceptable Squeeze

Leaks at Zero or Low Excessive Surface

Contact
Squeeze
Pressure
-
Standard O-rings are rated to 1500 psi with
properly designed grooves, and up to 3000 psi
using anti-extrusion rings or back-up washers.
Figure a below shows the action of an O-ring
under pressure up to and over the rated maximum.
Figure b shows the action of the same O-ring with
anti-extrusion rings, under pressure up to 3000
psi.
Back-up washers are used to form a seal
across a clearance gap.Leather, Teflon and
O-ring with Lealher Back-up Washers
lnstallation
O-rings must be protected from cuts or nicks
by sharp metal corners. They should not be
stretched any more than is necessary and should
be lubricated with a light oil bef ore seating.
Back-up washers should not be cut. Teflon
washers are supplied as spiral-wound split
washers to permtt stretching. Leather back-up
washers can be stretched by soaking them in hot
water for thirty minutes before installing. The

Figure a
Zero
Press u re 3000 PSI

O-ring in rectangular groove

Figure b

O-ring with antj-extrusion rings

 324 SEALING

washers should be air dried at about 200"F (93'C) The g roove depth D below, must be less than
to shrink the leather. The flesh side should be put the Iip width to preload the seal.
next to the O-ring.
The seal life of the O-ring depends more on tl -lLo r D-!
+ r

the back-up washer than on the physical ---) E <- R V-

l

properties of the O-ring itself. At high pressure,

an O-ring must rely on the ability of the back-up
washer to resist extrusion. t<a
)
O-rings Used as Gaskets --1.
D
O-rings used as gaskets are standard
dimension rings with the material in the ring
chosen to suit chemical resistance and
temperature. Groove dimensions hold the O-ring
in place with no allowance for rolling.
An O-ring used as a gasket does not usually
fill up axial space or make a difference to the
U-rlngs
relative position of the machine parts.
The diagram below represents two ways of
sealing between a cylinder barrel and end caps:
A singie U-cup will withstand operating
pressures of 1 000 to 1 500 psi. Pressure above that
figure a is flat gasket sealing; and f igure b is O-
ring sealing.
will require the addition of an anti-extrusion
washer. U-cups are used singly, not in sets like V-
lf the gasketin f igure a is left out, it will make
rings.
a difference to the distance between the end
Packing glands using a U-cup require a
caps, but if the O-ring in f igure b is left out, it will
make no difference to the distance between end support ring to hold the U-cup in position.
caps. Leather
Figure a Figure b Back-up Max. Clearance 0.003
Washer (Diametrai 0,006)

Metal-
to-metal
Metal
Su pport
Flat Gasket Sealing O-ring Sealing
O-rings as Gaskets
Square or rectangular section rings are often
used as gaskets in hydraulic equipment. They U-cup wlth Back-up Washer
can be either molded or lathe-cut from tubing to
exact dimensions. The material will be the same
as that used in standard O-rings.
U-section Rings
A U-ring or a U-cup is a circular one-piece
ring with a U-cross section usually made from
one of the synthetic elastomers.
U-rings are used as inside or outside packed
I
seals for low to medium pressures.
Like O-rings, U-sectlons are installed
endless, one to a groove, and must be squeezed 1/16"
or preloaded across the lips to obtain initial
sea l i ng.

U-cups used as piston seals require no inside
support. The U-cup is stretched over the piston
and snapped into place in the retaining groove.
The slip-on U-cup can repiace the cup packing
and will require less maintenance time.
A two-piece piston will eliminate stretching,
and possibly distorting, the U-cup. lt is often used
with small diameter pistons and U-cups.
Fora double-acting piston, two grooves must
be used, as two U-cups should not be placed in
the same groove. Back_up
U-cup Leather
O-ring
lnstalled Parls
V-packing
V-packing is used in sets of three or more
rings, depending on the working pressure. The
minimum number of rings is three for pressure up
to 500 psi increasing to six for pressure over
1 0,000 psi.
-
V-packing must be used with shaped male
and female adapter parts or rings.
The female adapter should be hard enough
to prevent extrusion, yet soft enough to compress
slightly under pressure. The male adapter merely
shapes the V-ring and does not wear"
Where possible, sets should be installed as
end less rings. When V-packings are split f or easy
installation, the joints should be staggered about
90 degrees on successive packings.
Note: Do not put one joint above the other.
As with O-rings and U-sections, the V-
section is slightly wider than the groove it f its into;
contact on two sides is needed to obtain initial
sealing. However, V-sections are also loaded by a
gland or spring follower to ensure efficient
seal i ng.
Adjustable Packing Arrangement
An adjustable gland follower is a common
means of adjusting V-rings f or wear. At f irst
SEALING 32s
installation, the rings are tightened just enough to
prevent leakage. As leaks develop, the gland can
be tightened to reduce the amount of leakage.
Excessive tightening during first installation will
cause friction and rapidly wear out the packing.
Female
Support
Ri ng
V-pac,k ings
Male
Support
Ri ng
Adjustable Packing Gland
lf the pack ing is f req uently replaced, a spacer
S can be made to the necessary thickness and the
gland tightened down to the spacers at first
tightening. This willensure correct loading,
regardless of who installs the set.
Spacer lo Ensure Correct Loading
Some applications use spring-loaded male
adapters to maintain constant pressure.
The gland follower is tightened down to the
housing, leaving no chance of overloading the
packing set (provided it has the correct number of
rings and has been properly installed).
V-packings on double-acting pistons should
face away from each other. The female adapter
should be supported by a solid backing, not by
the opposrng series of V-rings.
There is no way of adjusting the loading on
tlre ring sets when they begin to leak, they must
-
326 SEALING

be replaced.
The ring holder is often a non-metallic
material such as Celaron, and acts as a bearing to
guide the piston.

Spring-loaded Male Adaplers and Gland Followers

Materials in the V-ring sets can be the same

for all rings, as illustrated, or of dissimilar
materials, as in the packing set shown under
Adjustable Packing,
Dissimilar materials consist of hard and soft
rings arranged in a def inite sequence. The soft
rings do the sealing while the hard rings act as
both spacers and bearing rings, as well as doing
some sealing.
When installing a set of mixed rings (which
will be a special order), the rings should be kept in
the same sequence in which they are packaged.
V-packings lor Double-acting Pistons
Cup Packing
Cup packing has only one lip and is called an
unbalanced packing. At low pressures, the cup
may seal at the lip, but it normally does not seal
until the heel diameter has been expanded to the
diameter of the cylinder wall.
Standard design will fasten the cup against
the piston by means of a tightly clamped plate.

Slngle- and Double-actlng Plstons Cup Seals

-

Single-
actr n g
 SEALING 327

Cup packing with double-acting pistons Piston Rings

requires a rigid separator between the two cups.
The assembly must be tight enough to
orevent leakage along the piston shaft.
ln some assemblies the spacer S is made of
synthetic or laminated bearing material and acts
as a guide as well as a clamp separator. There
should be a gap between the follower and the
Sack-up plate when installing new cups.
Automotive piston rings are often used for
piston seals when rapid travel and frequent
cycling are needed. Other advantages are:
> Less friction than synthetic seals:
> Ability to take high pressures; and
> Unaffected by temperature extremes.
Material in rings can be cast iron or steel,
either plain f inished or chrome plated. piston
rings are not a positive seal they will leak
slig htly.
-
Cast iron rings must be handled with care
they will often break when expanded to slip on-a
piston, or if dropped on a concrete floor.
Lip Seals
Lip seals are low-pressure seals used mainly
with rotating shafts.
A simple lip seal consists of:
> Housing usually lightweight pressed metal;
> Contact -
Material- either leather or a synthetic
rubber, bonded to the housing; and

<- Housinq

Separator Position
+ Contact Material

Cup materialcan be leather, synthetic rubber .-

Spring
or elastomers, or impregnated fabric, depending
on air or oil use or the maximum pressure. Lip Seals

Cup-packing Assemblies

t-

Shaft
-- t_

Follower Plate Back-up Plate

328 SEALING
> Spring to maintain a light pressure between
-
shalt and contact material. The usual spring is a
tightly wound endless garter spring' A leaf
s[ring can also be used in contact with the
outside of the seal materialto resist the internal
pressure contained bY the seal'
Pressure will range f rom 2 to 10 Psi,
depending on the shaft speed and shaft
concentricity. A seal bearing on a shaft which is
turning at a few rpm and which is absolutely true
may OL effective to 10 psi, while the same seal
bearing on a shaft turning at 1800 rpm, with a
slight bend and worn bearings may not seal at all'
Lip seal sizes are nominal:
housing will be
plus or
- athe
> OD, in f ractions of an inch
few thousandths;
machined to minus
> lD, in fractions of an inch - the shaft will be
machined to plus or minus a few ten thousandths;
and
>W or width, in fractions of an inch'
The seal manufacturer will determine the fit,
provided the seal is used for standard machined
dimensions.
Position
Lip seals are usually installed to "seal in" or
contain the lubricant in the housing, assuming
that the outside or exterior working conditions
are relativelY clean.
ln dirty conditions the seal can be installed
with the lip facing out, to "seal out" foreign
material. The small amount of oil that leaks out
Position of Lip Seals
Clean Conditions
will act as a flushing medium to keep the contact
surfaces clean.
For especially dirty use, specialdouble seals
can be obtained.
lnstallation
Lip seals are subject to more hammer-and-
bang installations than any other common
sealing means and, as a result, have a short
service life"
Before installation, the shaft and the housing'
all lips, and other seal contact surfaces should be
lubricated. Leather seals should have the leather
saturated with oil before they are installed'
Seal in Housing
The seal should be aligned with the bore and
press, or driven in, using a f lat, smooth surface
contact member.
i
v
Seal Alignment and lnstallation in Housing
lf the seal is to rest below the machine face'
the seal should be set in position using a short
length of turned shafting with a diameter slightly
tesJtnan the bore of the housing. The shafting or
Seal Out
-

plug will apply f orce to the outside rim of the seal,
not to the unsupported inner section.
Hammer installation (hammer-and-bang)
will put a seal in position but the external surface
rvill have a loading pattern similar to that shown
celow.
Seal Resting Below Machine Face
Hammer-and-bang lnstallatlon
Seal on Shaft
> Do not allow the sealing material to slide over
sharp edges such as keyseats or threads; cover
it with light plastic, shim stock, or even paper,
> Unless the shaft has a special long taper
chamfer on the end, the seal should be guided
over the shaft end;
o Use a taper made f rom light gauge brass shim
rfTr
stock and twist on the seal;
ii t 6
u-L__ \,
Seal lnstallation on Shalt
ilF
lnstallation with Leader
SEALING
r Make sure the seal twists away f rom the sharp
edge of the shim stock or surface damage to
seal material will occur;
o lf possible, obtain special leaders to install the
seal. A simple leader can be made f rom
standing shafting.
Shaft Worn
Washer lnstalled to Move Lip Contact
Emergency Repairs
Nofe: The rough method of starting one side
of the seal on the shaft, then using a screwdriver
to pry on the rest of the rubber seal material can
damage the contact surface.
Emergency Repairs lo Shafts
A shaft will wear under the seal contact point
when fine abrasives or dirt are held by the seal.
When the amount of wear interferes with proper
sealing, the shaft should either be replaced or
taken out, the worn area built up, then ground to
proper size. These repairs are time-consuming
and make-do repairs are frequently made instead.
330 SEALING

The following are common repairs:

> Change the seal to a wider seal to move the
location of the lips:
> Reverse the seal if the lip has a pronounced
offset; or
> lnstall a washer behind the new seal of original
size to move the lip contact to a new area.
Driving a seal partway into the housing will not
guarantee that the seal is square to the shaft or
housi ng.
> lnstall a sleeve:
o lnstall a thin sleeve over the wear spot. The
sleeve can be purchased from a sleeve dealer
as a stock item.

Rubber Wiping Device in Packing Gland

Seal with Sleeve

Rod Wipers
Hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders in dusty
or dirty locations will require some means of
protecting the piston and packing from abrasives.
A rubber boot of the type used for protection
on automotive brakes is suitable for small, short-
stroke cylinders.
Long-stroke cylinders can have the rod
protected by an accordion or bellows cover.
For large working cylinders, the usual
precaution is to use a wiping device in the
packing gland to prevent abrasive material from
becoming imbedded in the packing.
A synthetic rubber or plastic wiper strip
installed in the packing gland willgive protection
from dust.
Metallic wipers are used for protection
against solid abrasive materials.
A wiper can consist of two light bronze rings
and a rubber retaining ring. The pressure of the
rubber ring keeps tension on the metal wiper Bronze Wiper Rings
rings. Any wear on the rings will create a kniJe-
edge needed to scrape off abrasive material.
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 331

15. Centrifugal Pumps

Pump Terms surface of the liquid but it is not included when

determining the static suction lift.
L-
- suction lift (static) A centrifugal pump operating under perfect
D - discharge head (static) conditions could, in theory, lift water 34 feet at
T- total head (static) sea level pressure. However, shock losses occur
H- suction lift (static) as the liquid enters the pump housing, and
D- discharge head (static) f riction losses occur as the f luid f lows through the
T- total head (static) pipe. These reduce the normal lifting limits of a
T is sometimes referred to as the net static head. centrif ugal pump to 20 to 25 feet. To allow f or any
Suction Lift
- a situation where the level of
the source of supply is located below the center-
other unusual conditions, most pump manufac-
turers rate their pump capacities at a 1S-foot
line of the pump. The centerline may vary slighily, suction lift.
depending on the type of pump and its position, Suction Head
whether vertical or horizontal. The lift may be - refers to a pump's condition
when the level of the source of supply is above the
anywhere from one or two feet, to ten, twenty, or centerline of the pump. The term head indicates a
more. location above the pump, whereas /i/t indicates a
Static Suction Lift
- the measured vertical
distance, given (or expressed) in feet, from the
position below the pump. The letters NPSH fnef
positive suction head) are sometimes used.
centerline of the pump to the free level of the Stafic Suction Head
liquid to be pumped. The actualsuction, or intake - the vertical distance in
feet from the pump's centerline to the free, or
of the pump, may be several feet below the surface, level of the liquid that is to be pumped.

Static Suction Lllt Static Sucllon Head

332 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
This corresponds to the static suction lift as a
"plus" rather than a "minus" figure.
Total Dynamic Suction Head
- corresponds
to the total dynamic suction lift. lt is the vertical
distance (in feet) f rom the pump's centerline to the
free level of the liquid, minus the velocity head and
all frictional losses in the suction pipe and fittings,
The velocity head for the dynamic suction head is
calculated in the same way as the velocity head for
the suction lift.
Total Static Head - the vertical distance in
feet between the free level of the source of supply
and the free surface level of the discharge water.
The total static head is calculated in the same way,
whether the suction lift of the pump is above or
below the centerline of the PumP.
Total Dynamic Suction Lift - includes the
vertical distance in feet (as for the static suction
lift), from the free level of the liquid to be pumped
to the centerline of the pump. The velocity head
and all frictional losses in the suction pipe and the
fittings are also involved in determining the
dynamic requirements.
Total Dynamic Head - similar to the static
head. The dynamic head is the vertical distance
(measured in feet), f rom the f ree level of the source
of supply to the f ree point of discharge. ln addition,
the velocity head and all f rictional losses are added
to the vertical distance to determine the dynamic
head.
When calculating the total dynamic head of a
pump application, where the vertical height is
greater than the frictional losses through the pipes,
frictional losses will be of minor importance.
However, if the discharge pipe travels several
hundred feet horizontally, and makes any turns or
bends, frictional losses will become an important
factor in calculating the total dynamic head.
Volume
Volume/Pressure Curves
The solid line in the diagram represents the
delivery characteristic of a non-positive centrif u-
gal pump. The delivered volume drops gradually
as the pressure rises, then suddenly drops to zero.
The broken line represents the delivery character-
istic of a positlve hydraulic pump.The volume
drops gradually as the pressure rises, at predeter-
mined levels the relief valve will take over, or a
component breaks.
Centrifugal pumps are rated according to the
volume delivered at a given pressure setting or
head, and at a definite rpm.
Example: A pump is rated at 250 gpm with 120
psi and 1200 rpm:
lncreasing the rpm to 1800 will increase both
the volume delivered and the available pressure,
but not in direct proportion.
For a pump size indicated in a catalogue as a
3X4X9pump:
3 - 3-inch discharge nozzle
4 - 4-inch suction nozzle
I 9-inch stock diameter imPeller
-
Pump Theory
A centrifugal pump is a non-positive displace-
ment pump that produces a continuous flow of
liquid, with the volume of flow dependent upon
the resistance offered to flow. Without a positive
internal seal, the pump will slip in the liquid after
pressure is built up to the rated capacity.
Centrifugal pumps use the centrifugal force
generated by rotation which acts outward, away
f rom the centre of rotation. The liquid enters the
pump at the centre, or eye, of the impeller; and a
rolary motion of the liquid is produced by the
rotation of the biades or vanes of the impeller.
Centrifugal force moves the liquid away from the
centre. At the same time, the liquid increases in
velocity as it moves away from the eye until it is
finally discharged f rom the impeller. The velocity
as it leaves the impeiler is tangential velocity; il
operates in a path at right angles to the radius.
Pressure, therefore, is a combination of
centrif ugal force and tangential action or velocity
head.
Gradually widening the discharge chamber
will decrease the velocity of the liquid and part of
the velocity head will be transformed to the
pressure head.
V

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 333

point. To allow for this, pump design increases the

volume of space between the impeller and the
housing towards the outlet. This leads to a shape
called the volute, which is designed to expand in a
definite Dattern or ratio.

lmpeller (inside diffusion vanes)

lmpeller Flow from Eye to Rim

Outlet

- Eye

-- lmpeller blades

Flow Path
@:
The centrif ugal blades are curved, to push the
liquid, rather than carry it. The Iiquid iS discharged
f rom the impeller blades into the casing at ail
points, but will escape from the casing at only one Difluser Pump and lmpeller

Volute Position and Function

Volrrte E
334 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The volute is the most commonly used
design. The diffuser pump uses an impeller
discharging into expanding and curved passages,
formed by stationary vanes, to direct the f low
towards the discharge nozzle of the pump.
lmpellers
Enclosed impellers are f requently used in
centrifugal pumps. Open or semi-open impellers
are used mainly for small capacity pumps, or for
special purpose pumps.
lmpellers can be also grouped according to
the way the f luid enters the inlet. Single suction
impellers have the inlet on one side only and
double suction impellers have the inlet on both
sides. A double suction impeller is composed
rnainly of two single suction impellers mounted
back to back.
Open Impeller
ln a double suction pump with fluid supplied
to both sides of the impeller, there is very little
axial thrust. ln a single suction impeller, liquid
enters from one side only, creating axial thrust
conditions which are usually overcome by pump
design or by the use of special bearings.
Enclosed Impeller
lmpeller lnstallation
Single suction impellers on the end of a shaft
are usually held in position in three ways:
> Screwed onto a threaded shaft and butting
against a shaft or similar shoulder. The hand of
the thread must give tightening action when the
shaft is turning. Accidental reversal of rotation
may occur;
> A parallel bore with a light interference, or
sliding f it on the shaft, held in position by a shaft
shoulder or sleeve on one side, and a retainer
plate and nut on the inlet side. A key is needed
for a positive drive; or
> lnstalled on a standard taper shaft with a key f or
a driver. The nut driving the impeller up the
taper can be a standard, right-hand thread
which is unlikely to back off.
Double suction impellers in the midsection of
the shaft are held in position by:
> An interference f it press or light shrink;
-
> Retaining nuts on either side; or
> Shaft sleeves on either side.
Single suction pumps have the advantage of
only one stuffing box, which is the main mainten-
ance chore in pump operation. The single suction
pump has no shaft to impede f low through the eye
of the impeller.
Double suction pumps are used mainly with
axially split casings requiring two stuffing boxes,
while single suction pumps are designed with
vertically split casings using only one stuff ing
box. Multiple-stage, high-pressure pumps use
either single or double suction design impellers
in an axially split casing. , tntake
lmpeller
Discharge
Double Suctlon Pump

Discharge
Single Suction Pump
Most centrifugal pumps or single-stage
pumps use one impeller to deliver sufficient
volume and pressure.
le-stag e p u m ps combi ne several si ngle-
M u lt i p
stage pumps on a common shaft with the dis-
charge of one impeller delivered to the suction of
the next impeller in the series, increasing pressure
at each stage. Multiple-stage pumps with double
suction impellers need no special balancing
devices to eliminate end thrust.
Single suction impellers require the casing
design to have either a flow that will minimize end
thrust or special hydraulic balancing devices.
Screw-style lmpellers
Screw-style impellers are used in combina-
tion with centrif ugal pumps to increase pumping
ability when moving semi-solids such as wood
CaslnE and lmpeller Wearing Rings
Pump casing:
weanng nng
lmpeller
wearing ring
lmpeller
Vane
Figure a
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 335
pulp. The screw action ensures a steady flow of
stock to the eye of the impeller.
Wearing Rings
Wearing rings are used with enclosed impel-
lers.
To produce maximum pressure, the clearance
between the casing and the suction passage of the
impeller should be kept to a specified minimum.
Excessive clearance will allow the fluid under
pressure to circulate back to the suction side, thus
reducing pump eff iciency. Wearing rings fitted
onto the casing and the hub of the impeller will
allow close clearances to be maintained without
replacing the casing or the impeller. Wearing
rings in the casing are standard in the majority of
pumps. lmpeller rings are often considered
optional and must be specified when ordering.
The diagrams below show both casing and
impeller wearing rings (figure a), and two ways of
mounting wearing rings on the impeller (f igures b
and c). The wearing ring on the impeller is usually
a shrink fit, using screws to keep it from working
loose. The wearing ring in the casing can be
pinned or held in position in a groove with a light
clamping force exerted by the top half of the
casi ng.
The initial clearance between the wearing
su rfaces should be stated on the maker's specif ica-
tion sheet. The operator will decide the amount of
wear allowable, but wear can usually reach three
times the initial clearance before the pump loses
eff iciency. The ring or wearing rings are made of a
corrosion resistant material to suit the stock of
lmpeller vane
lmpeller eye
Figure b Figure c
336 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

liquid being pumped. The life of wearing rings can

be extended if the impeller is run in liquid at all
times: the liquid being the only lubricant in the
system.
Axial wearing rings are not common, but can
be used with pumps using single suction closed
impellers.

/
Wearing Plate

Wearing or Cheek Plaie

Pump Materials for

Specitic Liquids
"Liquid" as used in this text does not nec-
Axial Wearing Rings
essarily mean a clear liquid with no suspended
solids
- it can also include pulp stock, concen-
trates or tailings, slurry or even whole small f ish.
Cheek or Wearing Plates
The liquid can also be water, light petroleum
Open impellers can be supplied with a products such as gas or diesel f uel, or acids and
wearing ring or cheek plate to reduce the volute alkalines of various strengths.
wear in a vertically split housing. The pump rnaterial and impeller design will
The cheek plate f its in a machined groove in vary to meet the type of liquid being pumped.
the pump body and is bolted in position with the
nuts on the outside of the housing. Liquid Handled Materials for PumP
The clearance between the plate and the
impeller can be adjusted by shifting the shaft Water, gasoline and Standard cast iron
alrnost all liquids casings with bronze
axially, usually by means of an adjustable bearing that are chemically littings.
in the bearing housing. neutral,
After a period of time the impeller will have a
wear area corresponding to the cheek plate Acids:
position. lvl i ld: All bronze.
Mcderate: All stainless steel.
Concentrated: Speciai stainless steels,
such as SS type No. 20
and Hastelloy, and in
many cases other
material such as monel,
all-nickel, rubber and
ceramic.

Alkalies:
Mitd: All iron.
Moderate: All Ni-Resist or stainless
l
steel.
Concentrated: Special stainless steels
',lzDischarge such as SS type No.20 or
Balanced Flow Path - Multiple Stage Hastelloy.
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 337

Slurries. with neutral Hot Single suction,

chemical strength: corrosives with many
Low percent C.1., Ni-Resist and hard refinery pump
solids: irons. types also used
Moderate Hard iron and chrome because of the
percent solids: steels. high tempera-
Concentrated Chrome steels. Ni-hard, tures and
solids: manganese steels. correspondi ng
suction
lf slurries contain all rninus 1/8-inch mesh pressu res;
solids, rubber lined pumps are excellent, pro-
vided temperatures are within the range of Water with
limitations for rubber. solids in
suspension:
Pump Selection Based on Liquid Handled Fi ne Single suction Open, which
abrasives: with end clear- allows better
Basic Pump ance wearing application of
Liquid Type Type of lmpeller fits. lf all par-
the rubber,
ticles pass except in larger
Water and Single or Closed except through an sizes also
other clear double for very small '118-inch mesh made -in closed
non-corrosive suction; capacities. screen, rubber type.
liquids at cold lined pumps
or moderate will extend the
tem peratures: life of metal
pumps, pro-
Water above Single or Closed except vided no
250"F ('121"C): double for very small chemical
suction. This capacities. action or
is usually excessive
boiler feed ser- temperatures
vice at high deteriorate the
p ress u res rubber. Special
req u irin g rubber com-
multiple-stage pounds can be
pumps; applied to
improve resist-
Hydro- Single suc- Closed with ance to certain
carbons, hot: tion often large inlets. chemicals;
special ref in-
ery pumps, Coarse Single suc- Closed.
desig ned abrasives. tion: not avail-
particularly ableforafull
for high range of
temperature ratings
service, -
small capaci-
ties are not
Corrosives: easily ob-
Mildly Single or Closed except tained. They
acid or double for very small often have very
alkaline: suction; capacities, or large impellers
where liquid operated at
Strongly Single or tends to form slow speeds for
acid or double scales on the use with solids
alkaline: suction
- surfaces of larger than one
single suc- moving parts. inch in dia-
tion, if avail- meter. This
able for the would include
rating, is prob- dredge pumps
ably less designed for
expensive: handling large
rocks;
338 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Liquid Basic Pump Type of lmpeller the pump "lifts" from the base. This exPansion
Type must be considered when aligning couplings.
Pulpy solids Single suc- Closed. Open
such as paper tion: double used to be
stock:
' suction is onlY standard but the Mounting lugs
used on verY change to end
light solid clearance
concentrations wearing fits
using sPecial made closed
end clearance impellers better
wearing fits; su ited.

Pump Design
Pump design with a single impeller falls into
Centerline Pump Mounting
three main groups.
> Double suction with the impeller shaft carried Centerline mounting carries the pump body
by two bearings at opposite ends of the pump on lugs which rest on the base. Expansion due to
casi ng; heat has very little effect on coupling alignment.
> Slng/e suction with the impellershaftcarried by Axial Flow Pumps
two bearings on a stand between the pump
volute and the motor; and
> Single suction where the motor shaft is exten-
Axial flow
ded to carry the impeller - a close coupled
pump.
Multiple-stage pumps are usually designed
with the impeller shaft rotating in bearings at
each end of the PUmP casing.
Some two-stage pumps, however, will use
two single suction impellers mounted on the end
of a shaft and contained in a vertically split
housi ng.
Pump Mounting
All of the pumps below are shown as base-
mounted. Any change in temperature means that Axial Flow Pump

Double Suctlon Slngle Suclion

Water seal
piping
lmpeller

Wearing ring
Sleeve -
Stuffing box -u - Stuffing box
Wearing ring -
Sleeve
A Water seal
Outside water seal PiPing
, Sleeve

Beari ng Sleeve
Bearing
Wearing ring
Side plate- Stuffing box Stuffing box

Slngle Suctlon Two Stage


Axial flow pumps are grouped with centrifu-
gal pumps as non-positive displacement pumps.
They consist of a propeller-shaped impeller
which sweeps the f luid through the pump without
any change in the direction of flow.
Propeller pumps have litile suction power
and are generally mounted below the surface of
the f luid. They are used to produce a large volume
output against a low head, and can be mounted
horizontally or vertically.
Shaft Sleeves
Shaft sleeves are located on the shaft in the
area of the stuffing box and are used as a bearing
surface for compression packing. lt is cheaper to
replace a worn sleeve than to replace the shaft.
S/eeve material can consist of:
> A very hard brittle material such as Stellite.
(These materials may crack when subjected to
sudden heat extremes.);
> Stainless steel; or
> Brass/bronze with a chrome overlay
S/eeye sfy/es:
> Plain cylindrical, uniform bore and OD with no
steps;
> Hook style, the hook on the sleeve is forced
against a shoulder on the shaft and thus locates
the sleeve; or
> lnternally threaded on one end.
Hook Sleeve
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 339
S/eeye /it - to maintain concentricity,
sleeves must have a close fit with the shaft. The
sleeve must be sealed at the fluid end to prevent
fluid from working between the sleeve and shaft.
The amount of fluid leaking is usually not
important, but the possible rusting or corrosion
could make the sleeve diff icult to remove, besides
damaging the shaft.
S/eeye locking
- the sleeve must turn with
the shaft, and can be driven by:
> A key between the shaft and sleeve;
>A collar with lugs or tangs f itting into the sleeve
and setscrewed to the shaft. (For easy removal
of the sleeve
- locate the setscrew position and
f ile a slight f lat on the shaft to take the set screw
point); or
Sleeve Locklng Rlng
> Threaded onto the shaft
- the action
hand must ensure self-locking
thread of the
on the
sleeve.
Sleeve Threaded on Shatt
The shaft thread must be in good condition
otherwise:
> Hard materials will cut their own thread if the
mating thread does not fit; or
> Stainless steel will "pick up" and may bind
before the sleeve is fully seated. lt will then be
diff icult to remove the sleeve without damaging
it.
Sleeve removal
- A sleeve rnay be released
by using a small hand grinder to grind opposing
slots through the sleeve materialto the shaft, then
jarring it loose.
 340 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Frozen sleeves may present special prob-
lems which must be solved according to individu-
al requirements.
Sleeve Removal by Grlnding
Pump lnstallation
Pumps designed for general use:
Both the pump and drive source should sit on
a common, cast iron or fabricated steel base
which is firmly bolted to a concrete slab or
foundation to absorb vibration. A fabricated steel
base can be easily modif ied to suit minor changes
in design and is not liable to crack from stress
created by the anchor bolts. The base does not
become a rigid unit until it has been grouted in
position on the foundation and bolted down.
Proper alignment of the base plate will
ensure that the shaft of the pump is level and that
the coupling face and the suction and discharge
flanges of the pump are in true vertical or
horizontal position.
When the pump is not in position, a check for
level can be done by using a good carpenter's
level placed lengthwise and across the frame,
with the level bearing on any machined surfaces.
lf the pump is mounted on the base, the level
can be checked by using the machined faces of
the flanges for reference.
The use of a "fast" machinist's level is not
usually necessary, as level is not critical. (Foun-
dations, anchor bolts and grouting are discussed
,Ji :
in the section on foundations.)
x
Pumps designed for a specific use:
A pump should be installed either on a base
to match the manufacturer's specif ications or on
a base with the equivalent strength and rigidity.
Most pump manufacturers will supply a > Open the discharge valve slowly;
general base drawing to suit the sizes available in
one style of pump, or they will supply a "certif ied"
installation for one specific pump. The certified
drawing gives all the needed dimensions for size
and location.
The following page gives a general outline
dimension for a Type-CL pump
Bingham Willamette.
- provided by
Given the dimensions shown, the coupling
sizes, and NEMA sizes for a required motor, a
suitable base could be designed and fabricated in
the plant.
Pump Start-up
A start-up check for a pump should verify
that:
> The unit will turn over by hand;
All bearings are properly lubricated; and that
>
> The driver rotates in the direction shown on the
pump casing.
The steps necessary to start a centrif ugai
pump will depend upon its type and the service
for which it has been installed. Many installations
require steps that are unnecessary on other
in stallatio ns.
When starting the pump for the f irst time, the
operator should follow the procedure outlined in
the manufacturer's installation and operation
manual.
The following are general rules only.
Starting the pump:
> Prime the pump, opening the suction valve and
closrng the drarns to prepare the pump for
operation;
> Open the valve in the cooling-water supply to
the bearings;
> Open the valve in the cooling-water supply to
the stuff ing boxes if tirey are water-cooled;
> Open the valve in the sealing-liquid supply if the
pump is so fitted;
> Open the warm-up valve of a pump handling hot
liquids if the pump is normally kept at operating
temperature. When the pump is warmed up,
close the valve;
> Open the valve in the recirculating line if the
pump should not be started and operated
against dead shutoff ;
> Start the motor,
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 341

Outline Dimension Type-CL

o+ -t
H---J 0) o,
g)i O)
6 (g
sr l .c
o,
6l .@
6 | Rotation o

zf----

fr-ttt
1tF ..{rl

1 1/2 1 1/2

Motor and spacer coupling are extra equipment.

r-l
All dimensions are in inches. Do not use for construction unless certified.
I tl
Brack- Nozzle Sizes
i

eti
| I
i
Pump Size
I

Size Suction charge r A Bi lrl

3 1i -1'12,
f--_----r
i i

1
1% X 3 X I 7i 50 15 41h 10 4 19 srq
2X3X10r/i 7\ 3254 I

15 51h 11lz ( 19 rsro

2X3X12lz 7i 31254 t3 412 121, 412
'19 tlto
3X4X9 tl
I 43r54 15 41h 111/z 4lz 19 zra
3X4X10% 7l
ol
43,54 15 43lt 11lz 5 19 zrs
3X4X12'lz Jl 43i60 15 4114 13 E 1/^
21 ztrsz
4X6X9 9l
o'
64is6 15 43/a 1)1/" 5lZ 22
4X6X10'/z 64i60 '15
41/4 12'lz 51/z 21 vq
4X6X12,t, OI 64:60 15 21 trs
6X6X9 el 6. I 6 i 64 15
43la
43lt
131/t
13lz
6
q1/"
22 tra
6X6X10'/, oi 616i60 15 21 trs
6X I X 111, ei 816164 18
43h
51l4
13
13112
6
6/2 22 tn

Brack-
et
Pump Size Size
-t
I

1'l, X 3 X I 7 41, 24114 47 tru 5% 7lz

2X3X1072 7 3,h lJ14 51 rsrra q
61lz
2X3X121t, 7 '111, 23j/a 51 lo 7114 10
3X4X9 7 31lo 233/a 51trq b% q
3X4X1072 7
q
a1t )1.3/,
5.1 :rq 7 I
3X4X1211, J',/4 28 59 ra 73lq 10
4X6X9 o 4 251h 55 rra 7114 81h
4X6X10% o 4 26112 57 trq 711. 10
4X6X121t, I 4 JU'/4 62 rra 81h 10
6X6X9 I 4 26'lz 57 era 71/" I
6X6X10% o 4 291h 61 la 8 12
6 X 8 X 1lv: I 4 301/a 62 sre 8v, 12
342 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

> Observe the leakage from the stuffing boxes

and adjust the sealing liquid valve for proper
Safety
flow to ensure the lubrication of the packing. lf When working on pumps, the following
the packing is new, do not tighten up on the safety precautions should be observed bef ore
gland immediately, but let the packing run in
starting to work:
before reducing the leakage through the
stuffing boxes; > Lock out a// electrical controls;
> Close the valve in the recirculating line once > Shut off and lock or tag all main valves to and
there is sufficient flow to prevent overheating; from the pump, including the seal fluid supply;
> Drain the pumps
and
> Check the general mechanical operation of the
- this is important with
suction head mounting, and;
pump and the motor: > Flush the pump if it has been pumping acids,
o Bearings should not be over-heating; caustics or any substance liable to cause injury
o No unusual noise or vibration should be to the maintenance crew.
coming from the pump or motor; and
r The pump should be discharging. lmpeller Wear and Damage
The pump should be watched for about half
lmpeller wear will take place in all pumps
an hour to catch slowly developing problems. A
owing to f riction between the moving vanes and
short period of careful observation can prevent a the fluid, or between the moving fluid and the
mechanical failure that could take hours to f ix.
volute or housing. The rate of erosion will be
increased by suspended solids, or chemicals in
Pump Maintenance the fluid.
An impeller moving suspended solids will
When a new pump is purchased, most
wear off to a sharp edge at the end of the vane.
manufacturers supply:
> A cutaway or a parts drawing, showing the /tr'
position of all parts;
Ll
// Tio wear
> An information sheet showing such details as /\
the pump rating, model, packing seal and
bearing details; and
t,
> An installation and service manual giving the
step-by-step routine for general overhaul.
The sectional or cutaway print on the next
page illustrates a pump designed by Bingham
Willamette.
The day-to-day pump maintenance will in-
clude a routine check of:
> Water leaking past the gland volume and
temperature;
-
> The oil level in the sight glass;
The bearing temperature
>
method; and
- using the touch
> Any leaking joints.

Pump down maintenance usually involves Wear on Vanes and Housing

repacking the stuffing box.
Replacing the impeller, shaft sleeve, or
bearings is considered major down maintenance.
A single suction, open impeller will show
wear on both the housing and the leading edges
of the vanes.
Clearance can usually be adjusted by moving
the impeller shaft towards the suction nozzle.
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 343

Bingham Type CL

Open lrnpeller Process Pump * Adlustable Bearing

142

142

115
140-B 164-B 118

Unnumbered parts in the jllustratrons are the same as the corresponding parts shown
wjth numbers.
PABT| iPABT F
I tlO l 0EScRlPTl0ri __: N0. I]ESCB|PT|0N il;.' oEScBtpTl3N I

I :f I ] Gasket-vol't l1l Fetainer B ng 164-4 cover-Thrusr Bearrrg

102C I Gasket-BearinqCover 132-A Lockwasher-Bearing r05 Lantern Htng
102-D "0', Ring 132.8 166 i lmpelie, fletarner
L0c,(!^asne.-lmplller
l!9 iil:y:1p:1it!9
Badial Be^arins
I lfl^ IsturtnsB_ox I iil Iijdijcl,J,
:9?"
1 10 L oc(-ut-Bear ns
L
i 140 A
B 1 Deflector Disc-0utboard I tt i ii"iriil.r*
D,sc-rnb6ard 196 ] ;;;k;rq
lmperler
llq lVoluie 142 N-r-Aojrsring
l1g ieire5ror
20g Snin,s
111 ) 144 lCapscrewlmpetrer
.s+ t^speclron Cover L 213 2t3A i *;;",;rr,,u,
I 15 Sr,,d
;,; ] ;il;o i ir: s8 I] Kev-shatt ;r,
K;i S;;;i Extenston
I 163 Housins-Bearins r
 s44 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Wear on the volute can be corrected by
welding to replace the lost metal, but the cost of
welding and f itting to shape is usually high and is
done only with major PumPS.
tmpetter damage is usually caused by large
solids in the PumPed fluid.
Shrouded impellers can have either the
shrouds or the tips of the vanes warped.
Open impellers can lose the tip from one or
more vanes. This can be corrected by welding on
a surtable tip, then balancing the impeller.
Pump casing damage is usually caused by
impact, careless handling, bolting to an uneven
base, or f reezing.
Major cracks in the impeller can be cured by
welding any damaged contact surface must be
-
machined to a flat surface.
Minor cracks and blowholes can be filled in
with a properlyapplied epoxyf illersuch as plastic
steel.
Bef ore using epoxy m ixes, the instruction
book should be read f or base or crack preparation,
proper mixing, and curi ng time.
lf an impeller is damaged and has to be
replaced, or has to be moved off the shaft for any
reason, its location on the shaft should first be
checked and a note made of the necessary
distances before moving it. When put back on the
shaft, the impeller should be returned to its
original locatron to prevent any unnecessary
shifting when trying to put it in the pump casing.
For shrink-f itted impellers, correct positioning is
important. When placing the rotor and shaft in a
horizontally split casing, all parts should be
:t,,
I
properly seated bef ore the top half of the casing is
placed and bolted down.
Pump Seals and Leakage
Stuffing Box
A stuffing box controls the amount of fluid
leaking along the shaf t to the atmosphere. lt also
prevents air f rorn working along the shaft to the
pumping chamber or volute.
Where there is positive pressure on the
suction, the stuffing box can be packed solid and
gland pressure adjusted so that slight leakage will
lubricate the Packing.
When the pump is working against a suction
lift, it is necessary to prevent air leakage into the
stuff ing box. This is done by mounting a seal ring
(seal cage or lantern ring) between the rings of
packing, usually at the centre of the stuff ing box,
and by supplying water under pressure to seal
any space between the packing and the shaft.
The seal ring or lantern ring is an H-section
brass ring designed to permit a flow of f luid
around its outer circumference which reaches
the shaft through a series of holes.
Larninates or plastics can be used instead of I
metal to make a seal ring.
The siuffing box code for the Bingham (or
equivalent) pump would usually be shown as 2-L-
3-G which indicates the packing sequence has 2
rings of packing, a lantern ring (L), 3 rings of
packing, and a gland (G).
The throat bushing is considered part of the
bushing
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 345

pump housing and is not included in the stuffing Figure a

box code.
The sealing fluid should:
> Cool the shaft and packing;
> Lubricate the shaft and packing;
> Prevent air passage along the shaft to the
volute; and
> Flush any solids, or prevent solids suspended in
the f luid from entering the stuffing box.
When the sealing liquid is taken from the
liquid being pumped, it creates an internal seal
/f igure a). When the sealing liquid comes from an Stuff ing
outside source it creates an external seal (f igure gla nd
b) Seal Fluld from Volute
External sealing liquid pressure should be Figure b
kept to a minimum as excessive pressure can Liquid from
quickly reduce packing eff iciency. The external
pipe valve should not be opened wide, nor should
the leakage be controlled through the packing by
tightening the packing gland. More pressure is
required for slurry or semi-solids in solution. lf
the leakage through the gland indicates that
slurry is present, the pressure in the seal cage
should be increased until only clear liquid
escapes.
ln some cases, soft grease can be used to
both lubricate the packing and to form a seal.
When the liquid being pumped is corrosive,
or is carrying solids, the external seals are used
with a pressure of approximately 10 psi above the
pressure in the casing to prevent the stock from
working its way out along the shaft sleeve. The
seal cage can be in its regular position as shown Seal Fluld lrom External Source

Packing Procedure

Wrong
 346 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
in f igure b, or located next to the throat bushing.
The seal ring or lantern ring m ust line u p with
the fluid supply line drilled through the pump
housi ng.
Packing Routine
Routine pump maintenance will keep the
amount of leakage under control. When leakage
becomes excessive and cannot be controlled, the
complete set of packing should be changed, not
just one or two rings.
After the old packing has been removed with
a hook, the shaft should be checked for wear and
the bore of the stuffing box cleaned out beJore
new packing is installed. New packing should be
the same, or equivalent, (see manufacturer's
specifications) as to size and grade.
New packing rings should be carefully
placed in the stuffing box one at a time, each ring
being seated irmlyf bef ore the next one is
installed. Split bushings made from wood or pipe
can be used to seat each ring of packing until
there is sufficient packing to use the gland as a
seating tool. The joints are staggered so they are
not in line and should be at at least a 90-degree
angle to each Preceding joint.
The seal cage should be properly located
under the sealing fluid inlet.
lf molded rings are used, the rings should be
opened sideways and the joints put in the stuff ing
box first.
lf coil packing is used, the rings should be cut
to an accurate size to create a tight joint. The
rings can be cut by wrapping the packing on a
mand rel the same size as the shaft and cutting of f
the desired number of rings. Another method is to
n
il
II
U
rri
l:l
!'
I
Gap Caused by Cuitlng on a Flst Surface
ii
[;
cut a trial ring off the coil and fit it to the shaft,
then use it as a pattern to cut the rest. This is
preferable to packing on a mandrel as the ends
will be square when the packing is wrapped on
the shaft.
Cutting packing on a flatsurfacewill result in
a gap in the outside of the Packing.
Square cutting is preferred to bias or diag-
onal cutting as there is less chance of error.
Coil packing is sometimes slightly oversize.
It can be reduced by placing it on a clean flat
surface and rolling with a short length of pipe or
shaft. Another method is to place the packing
between two boards and strike the top board with
a hammer. The coil packing can also be reduced
by f lattening it with light direct blows f rom a
hammer. This is usually the easiest and quickest
method, but it will also mean lumpy packing and
the possibility of damaged fibres. The packing
may be increased slightly in length, and should
be checked before being installed.
When the pump is first started, the packing
should be slightly loose. The gland nuts are
gradually tightened to reduce excessive leakage,
then tightened a nut f lat at a time until leakage is
reduced to the desired amount.
Note: Do not tighten packing in a rush and
then leave the PumP.
There are no general rules for packing
because of the wide choice of pump design and
the range of operating conditions.
Seal ring centred
under pipe connection
Gland not
too tight
/
Always replace
these rings
SIight driP
from here
Packlng Checks
Excessive packing wear will result from
p The wrong grade of packing;
p A scored or rough shaft sleeve;
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 347

> Abrasives between the packing and shaft due to

Packlng Recommendation Chari
faulty sealing;
> The shaft vibrating or not running true. Packing
Designa-
The first three causes can be checked by tion Service Descrip!ion
visual inspection when the packing is renewed.
Vibration is more difficuit to determine as it
PAC-1: Clear water, hot White asbestos or
or cold sewage, cotton plaited con-
can be caused by: pipeline problems, material slurries, calcium struction with
lodged in the impeller, or misalignment. brine or liquids. general service
Maximum temp- lubricant.
Misalignment can be checked by the stand- eralure 212.F Graphited.
ard coupling routine, but it may often show up as (100.c);
visible wear in the coupling components. PAC-2: Clear hot or cold Special white
An rmpeller shaft which is suspected of being lvater, or neutral asbestos plaited
bent will have to be removed from the casing and liquids. Maximum construction with a
set up in a lathe for a dial indicator check. temperature high temperature
400"F (204,'C); lubricant.
Normal maintenance consists of tightening G raph ited.
g land bolts to compensate for wear and compres-
sion of the packing. PAC-3: AciCs: sulphuric, Blue Afrrcan
Note; Normal leakage should not be prevent-
nitric and other asbestos plaited
acids. lvlaximum construction with
ed. temperature an acid resistant
250"F (.1 21"C); lubricant.
Choosing Packing G raph ited.

The choice of packing is determined by: PAC-4: Alkalies: caustic White asbestos
stuff ing box design, temperatures and pressure, soda, silicate of lattice braid con-
soda, sulphates, struction with a
and by the type of fluid being pumped. Kraft liquors. or non-saponifiable
Packing materials seal by filling the space in salt brine. Maxi- lubricant.
the stuffing box while under compression, and mum temperature Graphited.
250"F (121"C);
therefore must be resilient and also contain a
lubricant or sealer to f ill the voids between tiie PAC-5. Food products: First grade
individual packing strands. beverages and asbestos or cotton
any liquid where plalted construc-
non-contamination tion impregnated

m
is the governrng with an edible con.r-
factor. Maximum pound which is
temperature colourless, taste-
1 80"F (82.C); less and odourless.
Non-graph ited.
PAC-6: Solvents: White asbestos
alcohcls, fuel strands plaited or
New conventional packing in pump stuffing box kerosene, and interwoven con-
ch iorinated struction
hyd rocarbons impregnated with a
25C F 1t 21 C;: so lven t-res rsta n t
lu bricant.
Graphited.
PAC-7: Where rnstallic Crinkled leao foii
packing is prefer- sheets with resilient
red f or cold or asbestos core
Conventional packing compressed to 60 percent of originai hot water, mild
voiu rne.
alkalies, mild acids,
brine boiier f eed
New Packing in Stutfing Box se.vice. Maxrmum
temperaiure 450"F
(232"C) where
Individual rings of packing in a stuffing box suction pressure
will not all compress the same amount. The ring exceeds 50 psr.
or rings closest to the gland will be subject to the
most pressure and compression.
348 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Unequal Compresslon of Packing
Packing is composed of strands made of
f ibres braided into a square form or section. Flax,
cotton, or rayon fibres are commonly used for
low-pressure service with temperatures below
212'F (100"C) pumping clear water. Asbestos
fibres are used for general purpose packing, and
asbestos with metallic strands or metallic foil
coverings are used for high temperature service.
Teflon fibre packing is used for corrosive condi-
tions.
Eight-carraer
Multiple carrier
I nterl ock i ng
Typee of Braid
The lubricant for packing can be mineral or
petroleum oil, wax, graphite or a Tef lon impreg-
nati on.
Graphite is often used as a surface coating
because of its lubricating qualities and its
tendency to fill any small depression in the
packing surface.
Commerical packing comes in forms other
than braided, each designed fora specific sealing
job under difficult conditions. Special f luids such
as acids, alkalies, or solvents will require special
packinE material.
Metallic packing for high temperature appli-
cations should be used with a hardened steel
shaft sleeve. Metallic packing includes lead,
copper and aluminum foils wrapped or twisted
around an asbestos core. They are usually
lubricated and have a graphite coating. Metallic
packing will require greater gland tension than
standard packing to form a bearing-like surface
on the shaft sleeve. Metallic packing will also
need leakage through the stuffing box or some
other form of lubrication.
lf new packing gets warm during run in, do
not back off the gland nuts, but let the packing
seat itself . Common sense should indicate what is
warm and what is too hot.
Plastic packing is a soft, easily-formed
packing designed to flow and assume the shape
of the stuffing box. lt is basically composed of a
loose filter or loose fibres, a lubricant, and
graphite, covered with a light binder. Special
applications can use shredded Teflon in bulk
form.
Mechanical Seals
Mechanical seals are dealt with under the
section on centrifugal pumps, but they can also
be applied to any pump with a rotating shaft, orto
machinery installations where lubricating oil
under pressure must be contained.
Only the basictheory, design and installation
procedure of mechanical seals will be covered
here. Manufacturers' information sheets should
be consulted in individual applications for the
recommended procedure and any necessary
dimensions or clearances.
A mechanical seal is basically composed of
two f lat sealing faces in contact with each other at
right angles to the axis of the pump shaft. Sealing
is done by axial contact between the two faces in
contact. ln application, they are separated by a
thin f ilm of f luid or lubricant.
The rotary seal ring, with one face, is
mounted on the shaft, while the stationary seal
ring bearing on the other f ace is usually mounted
on an end plate attached to the pu mp casing or in
a machined cavity in the pump casing.
Leakage between thesealing ring and shaft is
 CENTRIFUGAL PIJMPS 349

prevented by means of rubber bellows or dyna- Seals which are installed to take the place of
mic seals such as O- or V-rings. packing in a pump musi be installed accuratelyto
Constant pressure is applied by a spring or properly tension the spring and to maintain
springs on one sealing face. This maintains proper pressure on the sealing surfaces.
sealing contact and adjusts for shaft end play,
run-out, and seal face wear. The spring is usually
stainless steel or any spring metal that will resist
corrosion.
One seal face is usually hard carbon and the
other face a non-corrosive metal such as stain-
less steel, Ni-resist or one of the hard facing
metals. Both contact surfaces are ground and
lapped to an absolutely flat surface. They can
easily be damaged by careless handling.
Lubrication of the seal with a clear cool liquid I

is necessary at all times. Depending on the fluid

being pumped, the seai can come from the pump u),
or f rom an outside source. Pumps handling slurry
or abrasives need an outside supply of water at Control ol Spring Tension
least I0 psi over pump pressure to keep abrasives
from the seal. The distance D is critical as it controls the
A mechanical seal properly mounted and spring tension used to load the sealing faces and
seated will not allow any leakage to the outside. is adjusted by the position of the collar and the
Pumps which are designed for mechanical shaft. The installation manual for the seal shouid
seals should have all the machined faces and be consulted for the exact dimensions.
stops necessary to hoid the seal in the correct Most seals are mounted internally, but exter-
position. nal mounting is also possible.
Lapped faces
Stuffing Glan cj
gas ket Fl,rshing
box
co n necti on

Gland plate

Static
Spri ng O-rings
stop

older

Setscrews. ,r' Fluid O-ring \ Stationary seat

Spring Sea! ring

internal Parts of a Mechanical Seal

Oplional circulatino line

Mechanical Seals External Parls of a Mechanical Seal

350 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
With outside mounting, an effective guard is
needed around the assembly to keep out foreign
material and avoid contact damage.
Double seals work wellagainst high pressure,
vacuums or a gas. They are effective as a means of
stopping minute leakages of toxic or hazardous
fluids. Double seals require a special piping
system for lubrication as only clear fluid is
su itable.
All auxiliary piping connections must be
properly attached. The specific layout drawing
for each seal chamberwill indicatethe circulation
instructions. Seals should never be run dry.
Double Seal
Seal Installation
> Before installing a seal, study the engineering
layout. The seal is a precision product and
should be treated with care. Do not let the
Seal lnstallallon
Steeve /
about Press only on this section
1/32 inch of bellows and driving band
over shaft
diameter
_/
carbon washer drop or fall; and do not scratch
or mar the lapped faces on the washer or
floating seat.
> Check the shaft conditions and remove all
sharp edges, nicks and burrs, then lubricate the
shaft and casing surfaces with a light oil.
> Before installing, make sure the faces of sealing
units are cleaned and oiled.
> When sliding parts onto a shaft, use a sleeve to
apply pressure if the part cannot be moved by
hand. Use a protective ring of cardboard or
heavy paper between the sleeve and lapped
su rf ace.
> When mounting a seal assembly with a bellows,
use a sleeve to push against the assembly until
the assembly is in approximately the final
position. The bellows will have a tendency to
stick to the shaft after mounting, so installation
should be done without stopping.
> When tightening the gland or plate bolts, check
between the shaft and gland with a thickness, or
feeler, gauge to accurately centre the gland.
Pumps designed and built with mechanical
seals should have all stops and faced surfaces
necessary for an easy seal assembly. Pumps
which have been converted to mechanicalseals
will need more care when installing seals to
obtain correct distances and faces.
> Before trying out a pump, make sure the pump
is primed and fluid is in the seal ha'rsing.
Seal Maintenance
Basic seal maintenance is "leave it alone".
Once seal faces are disturbed it is usually
Cardboard ring
 I
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 351

impossible to get the seal to work properly until a

new face is worn in. lf either face is ruined, the
complete seal should be replaced, rather than
mixing seal parts.
Depending on the initial cost of the seal and
the cost of overhaul, it might be more effective to
send the seal to the supplier for a factory
ove rhau l.
ln an emergency, the seal can be replaced by
hand lapping. A sheet of lapping paper is placed
on a f lat surface or a glass plate and the seal face
lightly pressed against the paper and moved in a
figure eight motion. This is continued until both
surfaces appear f lat.
Hand lapping will not guarantee a "no leak"
seal, but it should reduce the leak from a f lood to a
dribble.
352 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS

16. Compressed Air and Compressors

flow; and
Compressed Air > Air f lows f rom high to low pressure.
\ _,/
Atnrospheric Fressure Pascal's Law, Bernoulli's Principle, and the
Law of Conservation of Energy apply to air as well
At sea level, and under normal conditions of
as to f luids.
temperature and humidity, the atmospheric
pressure caused by the weight of the atr is ln a sealed container, pressure ls formed by
rapidly moving moiecules of air strtking the walis
approximately 14.7 psia (pounds per square inch
of the container and creating a force on the wall
absoi ute).
area. Pressure can be increased in two ways:
,At absolute zero, which is 0' Kelvin, -273'C or
-459"F, a perfect vacuum occurs and all molecu- > Reduce the volume to create more impact on a
lar action of a gas ceases. At absolute zero, there srnaller wall area; and/or
is no pressure, i.e., pressure equals zero. > Heat the air so the molecules will travel faster
Gauge pressure ignores the atmospheric and increase the intensity and amount of
pressLl re: zero psig (pounds per square inch, impact on the same wall area.
gauge) is equivalent to 14.7 psta. Gauge pressure
The following gas laws also apply to air
is expressed as psig or more often psi with p ress u re:
"gauge" being understood.
Absolute pressure
Boyle's Law - at constant temperature,
absolute pressure varies inversely to the volume.
gauge pressure plus 14.7
ln f igure a below, the cylinder has a volume of
Gauge pressure -
100 cu in and there is a gauge reading of 15 psia.
absolute pressure minus 14"7
ln f igure b, the volume has been reduced by
Pressures less than atmospheric are expres-
one half to 50 cu in and the gauge will now read 30
sed as absolute: 10 psia is correct, -4.7 psig is not
psia.
correct.
Metric or Sl math will use the pascal (N/m'?) PXV-P1XV1
as the unit of pressure, with most pressures given P -. pressure
V
as kilopascals in the low ranEe and megapascals -- volume
in the high range.
'l psi 6894.757 Pa
- psi
- 14.7 -
1 atmosphere 1C1.352 kPa or
'100 kPa for approximations

Air ProBerties and Laws

The following properties and laws apply to
air under pressure or compressed conditions:
> Air can be compressed or reduced in volurne:
> Air will fill any container;
Frgure a Figure b
> There must be a pressure change to create air Boyte,s Law
 COMPHESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS 353

Charles's Law
- at constant pressure, the
volume of a gas is directly proportional to its
> Positive displacement:
r The pressure is increased when the volume of
absolute temperature. enclosed space is decreased as the air passes
ln f igures c and d, the weight W and the through the machine. ln addition to the
piston area are the same, giving the same common piston compressor, sliding vane and
p ressu re. screw sty/es are also used.
As the container is heated, the piston in o ln the lobe compressor the volume of air is
figure d moves, creating a larger volume below transferred f rom suction to discharge without
the piston. a reduction in volume as the air passes
through the machine. Pressure is creatQd by
resistance to f low at the discharge. This gives
t-----,-rl iow-pressure delivery in a single stage.
> Dynamic or kinetic:
o Alr is compressed by the mechanical action of
the rotating vanes or impellers, producing
velocity and pressure: in an axial compressor,
Figure c
flow is in an axial direction; in a centrifugal
cornpressor, f low is in a radial direction. This
Figure d type of compressor has a high shaft speed of
Charles's Law 2500 to 30,000 rpm. Turbines make excellent
drivers or power sources in the high rpm
Gay-Lussac's Law
- at constant volume the
absolute pressure varies directly to its absolute
range as a turbine is a high-speed machine
and does not require the speed increaser
temperature. needed with an electric motor.
Figure e shows a rigid container with a
Reciprocating Compressot s
pressure gauge
- as it is heated (f igure f ), the
volume of the container will not change but the A cylinder is used to contain the air; valves
pressure will rise. control its flow through the compressor; and a
m moving pision and an unloading, or maximum
Y pressure control keep the air pressure below a set
limit.
Both the inlet and discharge valves are
ll spring-loaded to keep the valves seated. The
piston does not touch the head, but leaves a
tl
l

clearance gap.
When the suction stroke begins, the move-
Figure e
t______l ment of the piston creates a partial vacuum.
(tt Atmospheric pressure then unseats the inlet
r-\
Figure f
valve, allowing air to fili the chamber.

Gay-Lussac's Law

A compressor will reduce the volume of air

and create heat in the process. These three gas
iaws m ust theref ore be considered in the eff ectrve
operation of a compressed alr system.

Air Gompressors Reciprocating Compresaor Opereilon

The discharge valve stays closed due to

Compressors are available in a wide variety spring pressure and air pressure. On the corn-
of shapes, forms, and sizes which may be pression stroke, the suction or inlet valve closes
considered under two general classifications: and the piston advances, compressing the air in
354 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS

the cylinder until the air pressure is greater than o Cooling fins on the intercooler;
the combined line and spring pressures.'At that o Air receiver
point, the discharge valve willopen, allowing the
-
most air-cooled compressors have an air fan
compressed air to leave. built into the drive pulley or sheave to ensure a
At the end of the stroke, the suction cycle steady air stream over the cooling fins.
starts again but the compressed, or residual air
Single-stage compression of free air at 60'F
left between the piston and head in the clearance
gap must expand to less than atmospheric and 100 psig gives a discharge temperature of
400"F to 450"F (204"C to 232"C), depending on the
pressure in order for the inlet valve to open. The
cooling efficiency and speed of compression.
amount of residual air will have an effect on
Two-stage compression of f ree air at 60"F will
compressor eff iciency.
give a discharge temperature of approximately
Staging and Acting Compressors 300"F (149'C), depending on the cooling efficidp-
cy and the speed of compression.
Single-acting compressors compress air on
The power source can be either a belt drive, or
one side of the piston.
a motor, or prime mover, directly connected to the
Double-acting compressors, common f or
crank shaft. Small compressors commonly use a
large, heavy-duty applications, compress air on
V-belt drive.
both sides of the piston.
Single-stage compressors reach final pres- Maximum Pressure Control
sure with one compression stroke.
The maximum pressure control for an air
Multiple-stage (two or more stages) com-
pressors compress air to a fixed pressure in the system is located in, or on the compressor, not on
the air receiver. The relief valve on the air receiver
large, low-pressure cylinder. The air is then
is used in case of failure of the unloading devices
discharged to a smaller high-pressure cylinder
when sudden pressure surges work back f rom the
where it is compressed to the rated pressure and
system.
discharged to the receiver. An intercooler be-
The usual maximum millair pressure is about
tween the cylinders reduces the temperature of
1 00 psig.
the air.
Two-stage compressors consume about 'l 5 Unloadlng
percent less power than single-stage compres-
sors when compressing from atmospheric pres-
> Clearance pockets for large reciprocating
compressors trap a large volume of air on the
sure to 100 psi.
compression stroke, and allow it to expand on
Two-stage, double-acting compressors are
the suction stroke, thus reducing the amount of
designed to give more compressed air per energy
free air that can enter the compressor.
dollar than any other compressor.
Heat Control
Heat is generated during compression. A rise
in temperature means both an increase in the
energy necessary to compress a given amount of
air and a decrease in volume when the hot air is
cooled in the receiver. Heat generated during
compression is wasted energy and should be
controlled as follows:
> Start with cool air;
> Machi ne construction:
Unloading wlth Clearance Pockel
o Water cooling
-
o Water jackets around cylinders; When the compressor is running below
o A water-cooled intercooler; or maximum pressure, the valve V remains closed.
o A water-cooled aftercooler; When air pressure in the discharge reaches a
e Air cooling set limit, air pressure moves the piston to open
-
o Cooling fins on the jacket; the valve, allowing compressed air to enter the

clearance pocket. The amount of unloading can
be controlled in steps, by using more than one
clearance pocket.
> Unloading f ingers consist of a set of f ingers
operated by air pressure to hold the intake
valves open. When air pressure is below
maximum, the valves are allowed to seal (f igure
a). At maximum pressure, the fingers are
activated to hold the inlet valve open (f igure b)
to allow air to flow in and out of the chamber.
With unloading fingers, the motor will run with
the least hp demand at maximum air pressure.
Figure a
Valve closed
Figure b
Va,ve open
Unloading Fingers
> Throttling the intake will allow less f ree air to
enter the compressor.
> Variable speed drive is common with gas or
diesel engine power sources. At maximum
pressure setting, the engine rpm is reduced and
the centrif ugal clutch disengages, allowing the
engine to run at a low rpm with no load.
> Small compressors are usually controlled by
starting and stopping the electric drive motor. A
pressure switch with a preset high-low range
stops and starts the electric motor. The com-
pressor is also unloaded so that it does not start
against full line pressure.
Rotary Compressors
Rotary compressors are generally smaller
than piston compressors, have less vibration, and
need less mass in a foundation when delivering
the same volume of usable air.
Some high-speed rotary compressors are
very noisy and must be used with silencers and
enclosed in a sound-deadening room.
COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS 355
Vane Compressors
The sliding vane compressor is composed of
a rotor with sliding vanes mounted in an eccentric
housrng. The vanes move in and out under
centrif ugal force and f orm a seal against the
housing. Air is picked up through intake ports as
the compartments expand. The air is first com-
pressed as the compartments decrease in size,
and then discharged through the exhaust ports.
Cylinder lacket
water outlet
Non-return or
discharge check Lubricating quill
val ve intake side
Relief line Regulator body
to reg ulator
Cylinder jacket
water inlet
Motor with blades in Cylinder sub base
running position
Sliding Vane Compressor
The wearing surfaces will require some
lubrication due to contact between the vanes and
housing. This is done either by injecting oitor by
supplying an oil mist to the air stream.
The injected oil will absorb some of the heat
of compression and must be cooled after it is
removed from the air stream.
Dry air can be obtained from a vane com-
pressor by using vanes with special wearing
materials in contact with the housing.
Lobe Compressors
Lobe compressors work through the action
of two closely meshed lobes driven by timing
gears. The pressure range is usually low, but the
volume delrvered is high.
Air is trapped between the lobes and the
casing and carried around without a mechanical
reduction in volume. Pressure is built up from
restrictions at the dlscharge port and from the
system's resistance to flow.
,A lobe machine can also be used as a vacuum
pump.
356 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSOHS
Lobe Compressol's
There is no metal-to-metal contact, theref ore
no surface lubrication or air stream lubrication is
req u ired.
lf the machine is taken apart, the timing gears
should be checked for mate marks. These marks
are often put on at the factory, but if none are
evident, a set should be put on. lf the gears are
already marked, do not add another set'
( ated and the male can drive the female Oil must
Male Marks
Screw Compressors
A screw compressor consists of two screws
or lobes on a helix. Air is trapped between the
rneshing units and reduced in volume as it moves
axially to the discharge Port.
The matching rotors do not have the same
number of lobes. The 4 -l- 6 assembly shown
for general use has f our lobes on the driver (male)
and six lobes on the driven (female)
Screw Compressors
Other possible lobe combrnations are 6 1 8
for high-pressure but lovr-volume conditions, or
3-f-4 for low-pressure but high-volume condi-
tions.
Dry machines use two timed gears to prevent
contact between the rotors. Gear backlash and
bearing wear rnust be held to a minimum due to
the very small clearances between the rotors'
Timing gears will require mate marks during
malor maintenance work.
Wet machines add oil to the meshing rotors
to reduce the amount of air slip and to remove
some of the heat of compression. As with vane
compressors, the oil must be removed from the
airstream.
A wet machine can have the rotors driven by
timing gears or the timing gears can be elimin-
be added to act as a lubricant when using the
driver/driven unit.
The amount of slip in a screw compressor
can be reduced by driving the rotors at a high
rpm.
However, a higher rpm also increases the
noise of the machine to the point where the
compressor must be isolated f rom the work area
or installed in a sound-reducing enclcsure.
Dynamic or Kinetic ComPressors
Dynamic or kinetic compressors are lrigh-
speed machines which deliver large volumes of
air.
 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS 357

The diagrams show the simplest form of Single-stage, Single Flow Cenlrilugal Gompressor
centrifugal compressor: a single-stage, single-
inlet unit.
The gas enters through the inlet nozzle and
encounters the impeller, which dynamically
compresses the gas and gives it a velocity slightly
less than the impeller's top speed. The diff user
surrounding the impeller reduces the velocity of
the gas and converts the velocity energy to
pressure energy. The volute or housing collects
the compressed gas and further slows down its
speed.
Multiple-stage units will increase the work-
ing pressure delivered by the machine.
lntercoolers
lntercoolers are found on two-stage com-
pressors and are used to cool the air as it leaves
the first stage.
Water-cooled compressors use a nest of
tubes with the air and water flowing in opposite
directions.
Air flow

lntercooler Flow Paths

Water vapour in the compressed air willsetile

out as free water if the intercooler temperature
falls below the dew point. The intercooler should
either be drained or the cooling temperature kept
above the dew poini.
Leaking joints or pin holes can allowwaterto
leak into the air line when the pressure grade is
from water to air.
Air-cooled intercoolers use f inned tubing or
convection tubing between stages. The f ins and
tubing must be kept clean for efficient heat loss.
Altercoolers
Aftercoolers are located behind the com-
pressor and are designed to cool the compressed
air bef ore it enters the receiver. The receiver can
also aci as an aftercooler.
Safely Devices
Safety devices, other than maximum pres- Detailed constructron
sure or unloading devices can be: pressure
and/or temperature sensors located on the
cornpressor body, or intercooler, or aftercooler,
358 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS
pressure oil supply and a shut-off for low oil level,
level.
Safety devices should be installed on the
machine, and on the interlocks. Read the instruc-
tion book (RlB) to find out which safety devices
are used and where they are located.
Recelvers
Air f rom the compressor will go to a receiver
which should be located close to the compressor.
The receiver acts as an aftercooler and as a
source of supply to the service lines. Maximum
pressure in the line is controlled by a safety valve
on the receiver. Water and oil emulsions which
settle out should be drained off by a valve in the
bottom of the receiver, either once a shift or once
a day.
The receiver is classified as an unfired
pressure vessel and is built to specif ic standards.
The relief or safety valve will take over: if the
unloading devices fail; if there is a fire in the
receiver; or if a shock wave is transmitted f rom the
work area back to the receiver.
Filters
The air supply to a compressor should be
from a dust free area. A filtering device in the
intake line will keep out fine particles of grit or
other solids. The f ilter can be any one of the many
dry or oil bath filters and is usually sold as an
integral part of the compressor.
The filter should be serviced at regularly
scheduled intervals: a dirty filter will throttle the
intake line.
Heat Economy
Most of the energy put into a compressor is
wasted as heat through compressor cooling,
i ntercoolers, aftercoolers or receivers.
Plant policy has usually been to waste this
heat into the atmosphere, but more companies
are now using compressor heat to warm build-
ings or domestic water.
Lubrlcatlon
Lubrication should be applied according to
manufacturers' specification sheets. The dis-
charge valves and ports are subject to heat
extremes and are lubricated by oil mist in the
cylinders. The wrong oil or excessive lubrication
will form carbon deposits on the valve ports,
permitting them to leak.
Maintenance
Maintenance and overhaul of parts should be
done to meet tolerances or clearances suggested
in manufacturers' specif ication sheets.
Factors Which May Prevent Efficient Compres-
sor Operation
> Excessive vibration and poor alignment can
-
result in accelerated wear if the compressor is
not installed properly;
> Excessive oil feed
- will lead to the f ormation of
unwanted deposits on valves, cooling surfaces,
and oil lines. Maintain the proper oil level in the
reservoir and the correct oil pressure to the
beari ngs;
> Compression of dirty air or gas - will cause
scoring or abrasion of cylinder walls, piston
rings and valves and will hasten the f ormation of
deposits;
> Dirty or ineff icient intercoolers and aftercoolers
will result in excessive temperatures in
-discharge
gas and will accelerate wear and the
formation of deposits;
> Entrained moisture or liquid "slugs"
- will
seriously affect cylinder lubrication and should
be avoided by adequate cooling and mainten-
ance of separators, knockout drums, and
intercoolers;
Air leaks or "blow-by"
>
- due to leaky valves or
stuck piston rings will lower the compression
output and materially increase discharge
temperatures. Compressor pressures and
temperatures should be checked frequently for
signs of possible malfunctioning;
> Knocking or excessive noise
- may be due to
worn or improperly fitted bearings, a loose
f lywheel, worn crossheads, a loose piston,
insufficient head clearance, deposits in the
clearance space or liquid in the cylinders.
Unusual sounds in the compressor will often
warn the operator of possible trouble; and
> Careless selection of lubricating oil
- precau-
tions should be taken to ensure that the right oil
is used in the right location.
Factors Which Control Dependable Compressor
Operation
Adequate installation
>
- manufacturers' in-
struction books provide an excellent guide for
the proper installation of the compressor and its
auxiliary equipment, in addition to recom-
mended operation, lubrication and mainten-
 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS 359

ance practices which should be carefully > lnoperative electrical system repair.
f ollowed; -
Controlled lubrication Control trouble:
>
- supply the proper
amount of clean oil to lubricate the cylinders, > lnlet valve unloader stuck in the open or in the
valves, rods and bearings. Drain and clean the closed position;
crankcase and lubricators at necessary inter- > Mercoid pressure switches faulty;
vals consistent with operating conditions. > Foreign material in three-way solenoid valves;
Effective lubrication can best be judged by > Vibration of control panel;
occasionally observing the condition of the > Voltage drop or loss of power;
lubricated surfaces; > Plugged air control line or control line strainer;
Clean intake air or gas
>
- f ilters, scrubbers,
knockout drums, separators and related equip-
or
> lncorrect voltage.
ment should be cleaned and adjusted at fre-
quent intervals to ensure that the gas or air Low oilpressure.'
entering the compressor is both properly > Low oil level;
cooled and as clean and dry as possible; > Plugged suction strainer;
> Adequate circulation of cooling water or air > Leak in suction or pressure lines (loose connec-
ens u
-
res satisfacto ry cyl i nder ope rati n g tem per- tion );
atures and the efficient performance of inter- > Worn out bearings (connecting rod or cross-
coolers and aftercoolers. Cylinder tempera- head pin);
tures should be sufficiently high to avoid > Defective pump;
"sweating" from condensation of compressed > Dirt in filter check valve;
gases, or from moisture in the intake air; > Broken spring in f ilter check valve.
> Efficient intercoolers or aftercoolers
- main-
tain in a clean condition to ensure effective lligh oilpressure.'
cooling of the compressed gas and separation > Piugged oil pressure line;
of condensed liquid. Drain receivers, intercool- > Defective filter mechanism;
ers and traps daily: removal of water and > Spring tension excessive on filter check valve;
condensed liquid prevents liquid carry-over, > Oil sump pressure too high (unloaded), blow-
rusting and excessive accumulation of oil; down valve not closing replace faulty valve.
> Satisfactory valve operation -
- inspect valves
and discharge passages at frequent intervals lncorrect delivery of the lubricator:
and clean when necessary; > Dirty or gummed check valve;
> Periodic inspections
- cylinders, piston as-
semblies, packing, running gear and regulating
> Broken spring or dirt in the check valve at the
cylinder head;
devices should be checked to maintain the > Leak in lines or sight feed;
compressor in top operating condition; > Low level in the pump reservoir;
> Properly selected lubricating oil
- provides
effective lubrication of friction surfaces and
> Plugged vent in the lubricator reservoir.

minimizes the formation of deposits. Storage High oil usage.'

and dispensing equipment should be kept in a > Restriction in the oil return line - repair or
clean condition, f ree of moisture, dirt or other replace;
contaminating materials. > Oil system leaks or replace;
- repair
> Loose or punctured oil separator
Common Compressor Problems
replace.
- tighten or
Machine will not start:
Knocks:
> Overloads out
- reset;
> Blown line fuses > Excessive carbon deposits in the cylinder;
- replace;
> Defective safety switch (hour meter will not > Scored cylinder or liner;
> Faulty lubricator;
operate with starter button depressed)
replace;
- > Foreign material in the cylinder;
> lncorrect head clearance;
> Magnetic coil damaged replace;
-
360 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS

> Loose piston on the piston rod; > Broken spring;

> Burned out or worn connecting rod bearings; > Manual shutoff partially closed.
> Worn out or scored crosshead or crosshead
lnsuff icient air delivery:
liner.
Scored cylinder liner and piston:
> Dirty air filter
- service or replace;
> Leak in discharge system
> Foreign material; > Jammed inlet valve
- repair;
readjust;
> Lack of lubrication; >
-
Faulty regulator bypass valve repair or
-
> lncorrect cooling
- too cold, causing conden-
sate resulting in washing out lubrication;
replace;
> Blowdown valve open repair or replace.
> Excessive heat;
-
averheated low-pressure cylinder:
> Plugged water jackets.
> lnsufficient cooling water;
Broken valves and springs (excessive): > Scored piston or Iiner;
> lnsufficient lubrication; > Broken discharge or inlet valves or valve
> Rust; spri ngs;
> Condensation or water; > Excessive carbon deposits on the valve assem-
> Carbon deposits; blies;
> Foreign material; > Piston rod packing too tight;
> lncorrect assembly. > lnsufficient lubrication;
> Deposits of foreign material on, or in, cooling
Water in cylinders: jackets.
> Leak in the head gasket;
Over heated h ig h -pressu re cy I i nder:
> Cracked cylinder head;
> Condensate caused by too cold cooling water; > lnsufficient cooling water;
> Leak in the intercooler tube nest. > Scored piston or liner;
> Broken high-pressure discharge or inlet valves
Com p resso r ove r heat i ng:
or springs;
> Broken high-pressure check valves or relief
>
>
Low oil level
- fiil sump;
Dirty exchanger interior or exterior - clean; valves;
> lmproper installation; > Piston rod packing too tight;
> Dirty oil filter - clean; > Excessive carbon deposits on valve assemblies;
> lnsufficient lubrication;
> Faulty thermal valve
> Plugged oil separator
- replace valve element;
replace. > Leak in low-pressure inlet valve unloader,
- > Deposits in cooling jackets.
Won't unload proper!y:
H ig h i ntercooler pressure:
> Pressure switch inoperative or set too high
reset pressure or repair pressure switch;
- > Broken high-pressure discharge valves or
> Control jammed or not adjusted properly - spri ngs;
repair, replace or readjust; > Defective gauges;
> Moisture drain valve leak close or repair. > Broken high-pressure head gasket;
- > Air in intercooler not suff iciently cooled.
Seryi ce pressure rising beyond set cut-out
pressure; Low intercooler pressure:
> Faulty pressure switch repair or replace; > Broken low-pressure inlet valves or springs:
> Plugged oil separator
- replace element; > Leak in intercooler;
-
> Moisture drain valve leak close or repair. > Defective or dirty intercooler drain check valve;
- > Defective intercooler inlet valve unloader
lncorrect operation of inlet valve unloader: (partially closed);
> Leak caused by excess weight of inlet piping; > Leak in piston rod packing.
> Foreign material in guides or seats,
> Worn plunger seal:
 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS 361

Low i ntercooler vacuu m:

> Leak in the low-pressure unloader valve,

> Broken high- or low-pressure inlet valves or
spri ngs;
> Leak in the intercooler or connections;
> Defective intercooler drain check valve; )
> Leak in piston rod packing.
The above checks are f or general application
only
- specif ic detaiis are covered in the service
manual supplied with the machine.
Valves to Control Working Components Basic Spool Valves

Valve usage in a pneumatic system is similar with the bore and the spool. The seals are held in
to that of a hydraulic system. position by spacers and the spool has rounded
Pressure is controlled in the compressor by corners to allow easy engagement with the seal.
unloading. Reducing valves reduce the pressure The manually operated, detent-held DC
for special applications; flow control valves valve shown below shows the spool configura-
control the volume of air, and direction control tion, four U-section seals, two spacers and an
valves operate the work units. internal spring to hold the seals and spacers in
Direction control valves on pneumatic sys- position. The spring will not be shown on the
tems can either release exhaust air at the valve or valve symbol as it has nothing to do with shifting
have the exhaust air piped away. the valve.
Because of the low pressures involved in
pneumatics, valve bodies are f requently alumi-
num or some other lightweight alloy.
As a rule, direction control (DC) valves show
the greatest difference in internal construction.
Hydraulic spool valves seal by the very small
clearance between the spool and the finished
bore. ln addition, the spool has very small radius
corners.
Air spool valves seal by the use of dynamic
-
i
- +--
seals such as O-rings or U-sections in contact Manually Operaled Detenl-held DC Valve

Hand Controiled Valves Foot Controlled Valves Valves

\^
o2i'-
2 ports
o
^\
1t
3 ports
:X
4 ports

\XAngle
C6
2 ports
+ bottom
\
o-).'
_
)T
?-o o2.\o
3 ports
| bottom
\ )t-n
o

4 ports
+ bottom
 362 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS
Spring-loaded valves automatically return
the valve stem to a predetermined position when
outside pressure is released.
However, unlike fluid DC valves which are
almost always spring-loaded, air valves are
f requently used without springs and the valve will
stay shifted until acted upon by an external
so u rce.
Rotary or disc valves are used mainly on
hand lever or foot pedai controls. They can be
used as a simple shutoff valve, or as a three- or
four-way valve, depending on the porting'
Valves can be mechanically operated by
hand or foot control, by clevis and mechanical
linkage, or by roller cams. They can be remotely
controlled by pilot pressure, direct solenoids, or
by solenoid and Pilot valves.
Some solenoid control valves have a manual
override which puts the valve in the actuating
position when override is pulled out. This permits
either valve operation when the electricity has
been disconnected, or a means of checking the
solenoid. Before using a manual override, the
machine should be checked for safety.
Due to the extremely fast action of air,
manual control valves or pilot-operated valves
are f requently used to control cylinders that must
be operated at speeds f rom creep to wide open'
Solenoid-controlled valves permit very little
control as the air f low is either wide open or off,
but manual or pilot-operated valves permit a
varying flow of compressed air to the cylinder.
Cold Weather Handling
When temperatures go below f reezing, valves
tend to treeze up due to the cooling action
created by air expanding in a pressure drop
through the ports.
Methods of preventing freezing will depend
on local conditions. Some common ways to
prevent f reezing are:
> lnstalling an inf ra-red lamp or heat source on
the valve;
> lntroducing a small amount of permanent anti-
treeze into the lubricator or using an "anti-
reezer" to put alcohol into the air lines. This will
f solids.
take care of the whole sYstem;
> Heating the air supply
- usually done in a
steam mill by running a steam line next to or
even through the air line; or
> Maintaining the building or work area tempera-
ture above freezing.
n,'
Thawing a valve should be done gradually,
not all at once by the concentrated heat of an
oxyacetylene torch.
Working Components
Compressed Air Use
lndustrial compressed air can be divided into
two groups:
> lnstrument air which must be clean, dry and
free of oil; and
-
> Mill air which should be clean and have a low
-
moisture and oil content.
Compressed air does work as expa nds
under control to a lower Pressure.
Air in industrial work is f requently applied in
a linear motion, obtained through the use of
cylinders.
The general guidelines for hydraulic cylin-
ders and sealing will also apply to air cylinders.
Air cylinders, however, are of lighter construc-
tion, and where possible, contain rust-resistant
materials such as brass cylinder walls.
Rotary motion can be obtained by using a
vane air motor for light service, a piston motorfor
heavy-duty use, and a turbine drive shaft for very
high speeds.
lmpact work is obtained by accelerating a
free floating piston to strike against an anvil,
transferri ng energy into a work tool.
Air Line Fittings
Valves, cylinders and other components of a
compressed air system require clean air and a
supply of lubricant to prolong theiroperating life.
The air receiver acts as a settling tank to remove
some of the moisture, but particles of rust or scale
can get into the air stream f rom the piping system.
For rough service, such as lift cylinders, air is
used directly from the service line, with lubrica-
tion added close to the valve. Special applications
use a combination of f ilter, pressure regulator
and lubricator to supply clean air at a lower
p ressu re.
Filters remove particles and
ln the following diagrams, the air enters the
filter through directional louvers which force the
air into a whirling f low pattern. Liquid particles are
thrown against the inside wall of the bowl by
centrifugal force. The liquids then run down into
the bottom of the bowl.
 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS 363

,l.
A pressure regulator wili reduce service Iine
press u re.
B
maximum The working elements of a pressure regula-
tor consist mainly of a flexible diaphragm which
controls a valve through an interconnecting valve
pin, and an adjusting spring which is loaded by
means of an adj usting screw.

Adjusti ng
k_ spring

Diaph rag m

lnlet port line pressure > Outlet porl reg ulated

1
''i:l pressu re
Valve pin'
Valve

Pressure Regulator
Air Line Fittlngs
- Exterior Dimensions - Parts
The pressure side of the diaphragm is
The baffle maintains a "quiet zone" in the connected to the outlet port of the regulator so
lower part of the bowl to prevent air turbulence that regulated pressure will be exerted against
from picking up the liquid and returning it to the the diaphragm.
air stream. The regulator valve is closed when the
adjusting screw is retra.cted so that no load is
applied to the adjusting spring. As the adjusting
screw is turned in, it applies a load to the
adjusting spring. This load is transmitted to the
valve through the diaphragm and the valve pin,
thus opening the valve.
Louvers --1-f- Filter Element As the regulated pressure increases, the
pressure against the diaphragm increases,
Baff le
forcing the diaphragm to compress the adjustinE
spring until the load exerted by the adjusting
spring is equal to the load exerted by the
regulated pressure. lf there is no flow demand,
this state of equilibrium will occur with the valve
closed. lf there is a flow demand, this state of
Drain Cock equilibrium will occur with the valve only open
enough to compensate for the demand, thus
Air Line Fittings Parts and Funclions
- - maintaining the desired regulated pressure.
An oiler will introduce the f ine f og of oil
needed to lubricate the moving parts.
All air leaving the bowl passes through the Air enters the lubricator as indicated below.
filter element before re-entering the air line. This The oil bowl is pressurized by admitting air
removed solid impurities. through the reversible venturi tube. Air flowing
When the drain cock is opened, the accumu- through the lubricator creates a reduced pres-
lated liquids and solids are blown out of the bowl. sure area as it passes through the venturi section.
364 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS
Thus, oil is forced to flow up the siphon tube to
the chamber above the drip gland. Here the flow
of oil is controlled by a needle valve and permitted
to drip at the desired rate of feed from the drip
gland through the sight feed chamber and into
the air line. As oil enters the air stream, it is
atomized into an airborne oilfog which is carried
to the pneumatic device.
Oil fog
Oiter
Only a few drops of oil a minute are needed
for most air lubncation systems. Various degrees
of oil atomizatlon can be obtained. Long runs
from the lubricator to the operating mechanism
require a very f ine oil fog that will not settle out in
the service line.
Air Circuits
An air circuit is read in the same way as a
hydraulic circuit is read.
> Establish the normal or shown position of the
components: the cylinders, valves and condi-
tioners;
> Locate the air supply sources which can be:
o Main pressure air; or
o Pilot air;
> Follow a "go-no-go" air flow pattern through
the components: if air goes through a valve,
what is the next component it reaches, and what
is the resulting action:
> Estabiish the control and function of each
working component, then relate the compo-
nents to the complete or total action obtained.
The following simple circuits, using pilot
valves for control, illustrate the f unction of the
valves and the need for following the air flow
pattern.
The diagram below shows a double-acting
cylinder operated by a two-position, four-port,
manually operated, spring-return direction
control valve.
The piston is shown in the fully extended
position and the valve must be operated to retract
the piston.
Double-acting Cylinder
Pneumatic Circuits
Pneumatic circuits can be drawn using two
different sets of symbols:
> Standard ASA symbols and outlines with:
o Solid arrowheads replaced by open arrow-
heads; and
r Solid arrowheads shown with a n11
the point that is for an air circuit;
> Air circuit symbols used with instrumentation
and air control means.
Thrs text wiil use the syrnbols f rom Section
One to avoid the conf usion of a large number of
symbols.
Air Supply Symbols
Air symbols are standard, but their actual
representation may vary slightly f rom one draft-
ing off ice to another.

Air circuits do not usually show the compres-
sor or the maximum pressure control, but start ofj
instead with a supply symbol.
Exhaust lines are shown leading to the
atmosphere and may include chokes or mufflers
as extra equipment.
Pilot air supply may be at mill line pressure,
but for precision work, air is usually taken f rom a
source that has a pressure reducing valve to
maintain a constant pressure less than mill air
p ress u re.
a base end of the cylinder", and shift valve A on the
ll
-,
,4
lr
[-
*rl
-l
I -1.
i,t-- ]-E;
t R A
,
DC and Pilot Valves, Wcrking Diagram
Direction control (DC) valves
- three-
position, five-port, spring-centred, pilot-oper-
ated, and the cylinder blocked in neutral positron.
Prlot valves
- two-position, three-port,
vented to atmosphere, with the air supply blocked.
The pilot valves can be some distance f rom the
DC valve and the air supply can be regular millair
or regulated air at a lower pressure setting. pilot
operation is slightly lower than solenoid but the
time delay increases with an increase in distance
between valves.
The air suppiy to ailvalves is blocked, and the
cylinder is locked in p0sition.
COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS 365
To advance the piston, valve A is operated to
allow pilot air to shift the DC valve. To maintain
piston movement, valve A nrust be kept shifted; if
the operator rernoves his hand, the spring in the
pilot valve wiil shift the valve, venting it to the
atmosphere, and the spring action of the DC valve
will shift the spr:ot to the neutral position. With
this style of valve control, the piston can be
"inched" or moved short distances.
Two-hand or Safety eireuits
As shown beiow, air is blocked at both the
supply and exhaust valves, keeping the piston in a
"locked" position.
To advance the piston, the operator must
both shift valve A on the left to move the air to the
right to allow air to ieave the hearj end of the
cyl i nder.
:I -r
i
l'
)
i
,B
A u]B
ir
f
l .t
r- _n
i
.
fli i5
?l
g ,- tj*:
..1
"!5 i-*l-c
Piston Acivance and Relracl
Retract is obtainecj by shif ting both valve B's
at the same time.
A two-handed valve operation is often used
to activate a machine and to protect the opera-
tor's hands while work is in progress.
ln this valve operatierr, the piston is held f ully
retracted and both prlot valves are vented to the
atmosphere. The hand-operated pilot valve is
shifted to start the cycle, allowing pitot air
pressure to overcome the spring force in the DC
valve to the advance envelope. Once shifted, the
pilot valve v,irll stay shifted until pilot air pressure
shifts the valve back to the shr:wn position" When
the piston advance shifts the mechanically
operated pilot valve B, air pressure shifts the pilot
valve A, allowing it to vent to the atmosphere.
Spring action will shift the DC control valve to the
positron shown.
 COMPRESSED AIR AND COMPRESSORS

opposite sides of a shuttle valve to provide pilot

pressure to the DC valve. This could be ex-
tended to three or more positions by the use of
pilot and shuttle valves.
A momentary hold or dwell at the end of a
stroke can be obtained by the use of air compo-
nents.
The circuit below shows the piston f ully
retracted with reservoir 2 vented to the atmos-
phere through vanes 1 and 3.
To start the cycle, valve 4 is shifted, allowing
pilot air pressure to shift valve 5 to advance the
piston. When valve 3 is shifted by piston action,
pilot air will enter variable restriction 1 where it is
metered in to receiver 2. The amount of air f lowing
Pllot Operatlon Both Dlrectlona through 1, plus the amount of air needed to fill the
-
reservoir to pilot pressure, will determine the time
of "hold" before valve 5 is shifted to retract the
The second cycle starts by a momentary piston.
depression of the manually operated pilot valve A
to shift the DC valve. When the piston advance r I

shifts the pilot valve B, pilot air pressure will shift T:r]I

the DC valve to the retract position.

The diagram below shows ways of control-
r4j
'1 r

ling an operation from two different positions: I

I

> The advance stroke uses two pilot valves with

L -r-)--*-
2
valve 2 connected to the exhaust port of valve 1 .
This could be extended to a third valve or the
position of operation could be moved with the Time Delay or Hold
addition of an extra valve or valves piped in the
same fashion. Only one position could be used
at any time.
> The retract stroke uses two pilot valves on

Control ol an Operatlon lrom Two Different Posiilons

 CONVEYOR BELTING 367

17. Conveyor Belting

Conventional Conveyor Example:

Belt width: 30 (in) 750 (mm)
Belting Cover: 1/4 X 1/E (in) 6X3(mm)
Standard cover rubber is subject to problems
Conventional multiple ply belting has two when in contact with oil or grease special cover
components: material must be specified for oily- conditions.
The surface finish of a cover is usually
> The carcass to transmit power and carry smooth, but it can be obtained with a ribbed or
tension; and
> The coyer to protect the carcass f rom blows and
herring bone cleat f in ish on the top cover f or belts
which run on an incline.
abrasion and to keep out moisture.
Top Cover Reduced Ply Belting
Breaker Ply
With reduced ply belting, the term carcass
refers to the fabric or ply members. lt also has a
thick top or face cover and a thin back or bottom
cover. ln contrast to conventional belting,
reduced ply belting has the f ollowing characteris-
tics:
First Friction
r.pr"gnltJJ
-Fabrrc pry Bottom cover > The plies have a wider separator between each
layer;
Standard Conveyor Betting
The carcass consists of plies or layers of
rubber-impregnated fabric. The fabric can be
cotton duck, rayon, or various synthetic fibres.
Synthetic fibres produce a belt that has high
tensile strength, f lexibility, and less stretch than
cotton.
The rubber compound on the fabric is called
a f riction. Thin layers of rubber between the plies
are called skims.
Breaker ply is a special soft ply between the
top cover and the carcass to reduce irnpact
damage to the carcass. The breaker ply is often
an option when ordering a belt.
The cover protects the carcass from impact
damage and prevents moisture from reaching the
fabric. Cove r mate ria I is us ua lly th icker on the top
or load side than on the bottom, and the dimen-
sions are given with the belt specifications. Reduced Piy Belting
 368 CONVEYOR BELT|NG
> The plies come to the edge of the belt;
> Less plies are used, and
> The ply material is usually high tensile synthetic
fibre which is resistant to moisture and mildew.
The cover finrsh can be either smooth, or
textured - for use on inclined slide conveyors.
Cover materials can be of standard materials
or special cover material for oil or fire resistance.
Solid Woven Belting
Solid woven belting can be used for both
idler and slide conveYors.
The carcass is not composed of layers or
plies but is solid woven of mildew-inhibited
synthetic fibres with an interlocking weave. The
covers are made of Poly-Vinyi-Chloride (PVC).
Because it is constructed without plies, there
is no chance of separation of plies or separation
of the cover from the carcass.
Solid woven belts are f ire resistant. Fire-
resistant belts are now specif ied for general use
in grain elevators to reduce the chances of a f ire
starting when a moving belt rubs against a fixed
object.
There is no marked difference in cover
thickness and the load site is identified by
markings on the belt.
Cord Carcass Belting
Cord carcasses of either synthetic fibre or
steel are very strong and have little stretch. Their
disadvantage is that all work, joining and patch-
ing must be done by vulcanizing, as mechanical
fasteners are not recommended.
Mining operations frequently use a cord belt
made f rom parallel strands of high tensile f lexible
wire rope. The belt can be easily cut, using a hand
grinder with a narrow cutting wheel.
Cord Carcass Belting
There is no cross support in the carcass and
the belt may be subject to long tears running the
length of the belt. Tears are usually pulled
together by plate fasteners.
Iil
Thin Belts
Thin tapes and conveyor belts (0.02 to 0.15
inch thick) are used in the f ood, packaging, and
paper handling industries.
Reverse Cover
Fab ri c
Fabric
Driving Cover
or Pulley Side
Thin Belting
Thin belts consist of a solid, high tensile
strength nylon or poiyester core.
Covers are made f rom various colour-coded
materials: urethane, polyamide, plastic, synthetic
rubber, or anti-static rubber.
Pulley side covers are designed with stand-
ard f riction surfaces for standard pulleys, or low
coefficient of friction surfaces for use on slider
installations. Low coefficient of f riction covers
should be used with lagged pulleys.
The reverse side of the load side covers can
range from a smooth finish, where the belt is
desrgned to slip under an accumulated load, to a
textured f inish, where the belt provtdes a positive
movement of load.
Covers can be of the same or different
materials on either side, depending on the f riction
desired.
To identify the_pulley side or the reverse side:
> Use the belt manufacturer's catalogue;
> Trademarks or brand names should be on the
reverse cover; or
> The belt, when received from the supplier,
shouid have the pulley side rolied in.
Hot Press
Skived Joint
Bell Joining
 CONVEYOR BELTING 369

Belt joining should be done with a hot press Splicing

and a skived joint using one or two solutions,
: Lqryln gf splrcg p!{s 1"
depending on rnaterials. Top Cover
Press temperature and press time varies
Remove 2"
according to the maker and the belt materials. For 0)
.t Strip
accuracy, the manufacturer's service manual Belt +Y E
should be consulted. Temperatures will range Travel fi
from 180'F to 200"F (82"C tc) 93.C) or 212"F
(100'C). Belts up to 0.05 inch thick can be joined Top Cover
with a five-minute press.

Joining Gonveyor Belts Pulley Cover First Ply Cut

Vulcanizing Splice Length

-
Vulcanized splices are the strongest and Top Cover
most efficient belt joints, but they also take the 0)
a
most time to prepare and tinish. o)
(6
ln most industrial plants, belt vulcanizing is m
either contracted out or is done by one or two r - k Cover
rnen in the maintenance department (the belt Bias Removed
Top Cover
crew). The millwright should also have a know-
ledge of general splice preparation which can be
Second
obtained by referring to a good conveyor installa-
6ou",., First,. ,, Pty
tion and splicing manual provided by the major Pty Th ird PIy
belt companies. These manuals give detailed Top Cover
information of the procedure and splice materials
required for each style of belt.
Belt Travel
Splices are usually made with the bottom
side corner or bias point leading overthe pulleys,
and the top side corner or bias point trailing. This
is done by laying out the belt as shown in the A l*
Top Cover' \
diagram below, and securely fastening it to a f lat
firm surface.
Tear Thrs Side -.- p1151 Second
_ PIY
Cover PIY
Third uover
Direction
of Belt Bun
Vulcanized Splicing

The length of the splice will depend on: the

material or fabric in the ply; the number of plies; Pulley Side
the splicing or vulcanizing compounds used;and
company policy. The angle of the cut, angle X, is
another variable. Angle X will be 45 degrees with
belts 24 inches wide or less, and 60 degrees with
belts over 24 rnches wide. Again, standard
company policy may call for one angle for all
belts, regardless of width.
A narrow section of the top cover, about 2 Pulley Cover
inches wide, rs removed to ailow the f irst ply to be
exposed to a ply cutter.
 370 CONVEYOR BELTING

Metal Fasteners
Small to medium size belts can be joined by
hook or prong fasteners. Proper size fasteners
can be selected f rom the maker's chart to suit the
belt, and applied according to directions.
Two-plate fasteners are recommended for
most operating conditions with medium- or
heavy-duty belting.
When installing fasteners, the size for the belt
thickness should be used and the manufacturers'
instructions for installing followed carefully. lf
pulley diameters are small, a hinged, two-plate
fastener can be used orthe join can be madea 45-
degree angle, using standard plate fasteners.
Metal fasteners frequently catch on skirting
or scrapers and are noisy as they pound the idlers
and pulleys. They also allow moisture to pene-
trate to the fabric, thus shortening belt life. Their
chief advantage is that they are cheap and easily
applied with a minimum of equipment. A belt with
a mechanical joint can be shortened with a
minimum of downtime. The only belt length lost is
slightly more than the width of the clips.

Plate-and-Button Belt Fastener

For belts under high tension running over

pulleys of 20 inches in diameter and larger, a V-
splice will provide good holding power. The
splice should be made using special templates.
After the belt has been joined and is ready to
be put into operation, it should be given a trial run
to check fortracking along the idlers, or run-off at
the head pulley ortail pulley. Thesafestwaytodo
Metal Fasteners this is with one person at the motor controls ready

Two-plate Fasteners Metal Fasteners on Beltlng Using a Small Pulley

Note: extended loop on pin prevents it from working out and

permits easy removal

[:
 CONVEYOR BELTING 371

carried by troughing rolls or idlers; and

> S/ide conveyors the belt is f lat and slides on a
-
friction surface or straight walls.

Troughed Conveyors
Belt ldlers
For conveying bulk material in volume
at medium to high speeds, idlers provide the best
support. Carrying idlers are usually made from
pressed steel or steel tubing and fitted with anti-
friction bearings.

-ffi
Roller Shaft
Standard Roller with Grease Slot Roller Bearing
C'\'l;l
' \\ \t/lr, tr\
F - l/l /1
V-splicing
N.r \ l sea,
\ .._ ,--
:o shut down the drive while another inspects the ----1' ,

belt.
Belt alignment on the pulleys is usually done
while the belt is running. A case of severe run-off
,,
.:/, \\\\
to one side of the pulley can damage the edge of
the belt. A new belt is often diff icult to track
properly until it has run with a load for a few days.
i I
T,, \\
\\
/
G rease
Fitting
Minor Repairs Roiler
- lnternal
Small nicks and tears in the belt carcass will Belt idlers shape or trough the belt to
enlarge under constant bending on the idlers and increase its carrying capacity. Troughing idlers
pulleys. Quick repairs can be made by using usually consist of a unit of three rollers, the
double-plate belt fasteners. middle roller horizontal and the two slide rollers
Belt conveyors can be divided into two at an angle. The horizontal angle is usually 20
general groups: degrees, but for special loading, angles up to 45
degrees are used.
> Troughed conveyors the belt is shaped and Sfeep angle idlers have the advantage of
-
Minor Repairs with Two-plate Fasteners
372 CONVEYOR BELTING

increasing the load capacity of the belt and

reducing the amount of spillage. However they
will also set up stress in the belt owing to the
sharp bending between the side and bottom
rollers.
Special thin carcass belts or cord belts will
allow sharper bends than a conventional thick
carcass belt.
Transition idters or adiustable idlers thal
can be set at any angle between 20 degrees and
the horizontal are used to shape the belt from its
troughing angle to the flat position in which it
goes over a pulley.
ln addition to srrpporting the load, a
carrying idler also keeps the belt centred on the
conveyor path. Each idler stand should be
placed so that the axis of the centre roller is at
right angles to the centerline of the belt
conveyor. To help the training effect, the idler
may be tilted slightly (not more than two
degrees) forward by using a shim under the rear
leg of the mount. Too much tilt will cause
excessive belt wear.
This point to be 1/8" to 3/16" ahead of gauge end when shim is
in place +
Direction
of Belt
Travel

Shim under Leg

Using Gauge and Shims to Adlust ldler Tilt

Load-carrying idlers should be checked

frequently for signs of wear. The chief cause of
idler trouble is material being jammed against
the idler roll and keeping it from turning. The
belt will eventually wear out the roll, causing
sharp edges.
Side guide idlers and se/l-aligning idlers
are installed on conveyors to direct the belt
back to the centre position should it start to
wander. Rigid, side-guide idlers are free-
turning rolls or spools mounted a few inches
from the belt edge.

Jammed ldler Roller with Sharp Edges Caused by Rubbing on
Belt
Side Guide ldler
Their main use should be to keep the belt
from rubbing against a fixed object. The belt
edge will roll on the idler instead of chafing
against a solid object. However, fixed idlers on
the load side can cause severe edge damage to
the belt if the belt is misaligned and rolls against
Side Guide Roller Actlon
CONVEYOR BELTING 373
Rigid Side Guide tdler
the idler continuously.
Self-aiigning or training idlers set up a
compensating force to steer the belt back in
line.
When the belt runs to one side and hits the
holding roller, the idler stand pivots forward on
that side and back on the opposite side. This
skewing action of the idler sets up force to steer
the belt back into line. Self-aligning idlers
should only be considered for use when
correcting casual belt wander. When the belt
persists in hitting the holding roller, there is
something wrong either with the belt or with the
idler alignment on the conveyor.
The use of a self-aligning idler 20 to 30 feet
from the head pulley will centre the belt on the
head drum.
Return belt idlers are used to support the
weight of the belt on the return side. No
troughing action is needed. On lonE conveyors,
Belt Trav
374 CONVEYOR BELTING

training idlers can be used to prevent the belt

from running to one side.
Unless the idlers are made with "lifetime"
lubricated bearings, the idlers should be lubri-
cated at regular intervals, depending on con-
struction and working conditions. Over-lubri-
cating any bearing should be avoided where oil
or grease can fall onto the conveyor belting.
Carrier idlers are spaced closely enough to Graduated ldler Spacing
keep the belt from sagging between idlers. This
spacing depends mainly on the weight of the feet apart for narrow belts, down to 8 feet for
load and the tension of the belt. wide belts.
Belt life may be increased by replacing
Spaclng ot ldlers Supportlng Carrylng Slde ol Conveyor
5-inch or 6-inch diameter return idlers by 10-inch
Belts to 12-inch diameter idlers, and spacing them 20to
30 feet apart.
ldler Spaclng lor
Wldth ol belt Materlal up Materlal up Materlal over Loading
ln lnches 50 lbs/cu ft 100 lbs/cu lt 100 lbo/ cu ft
Factors to be considered at a loading point
12" to 18" 4'6" to 5'0" 4'0" to 4'6" 3',6" to 4',0"
are:
24" to 30" 4'0" to 4'6" 3'6" to 4'0" 3'0" to 3'6"
36" to 42" 3'9" to 4'3" 3'3" to 3'9" 2'9" to 3'3"
48" to 60" 3'6" to 4'0" 3'0" to 3'6" 2'6" to 3'0" > The direction of flow of material as it is loaded
onto the belt;
> The speed of flow of material relative to the
Tension is at maximum at the head pulley speed of the belt; and
and decreases to minimum at the tail pulley. > The loading impact.
ldler spacing is frequently graduated to reduce
belt sag by varying the space between idlers Loading Direction
from maximum at the head pulley to minimum The loading chute to a belt should be built to
at the tail pulley. move material in the direction of belt travel.
A belt carrying large lumps and operating Loading at an angle will tend to force the belt up
under the conditions shown in the diagram the side of the idler. When the belt is being loaded
above would be subject to severe impact each from another conveyor travelling in the same
time the lump passed over an idler. direction, a simple chute is needed to channel the
Return idlers are spaced from roughly 10 material to the centre of the belt.

Loading
When the transfer is between conveyors at
'ight angles, the direction of flow must be
changed so that the load fed to the belt is
lravelling in the same direction as the belt.
Chutes should be constructed to deposit the
oad with the maximum volume of stock in the
centre portion of the belt.
Right Angle Transler
Speed of Material
Under ideal conditions the material being
,oaded on the belt will be travelling at, or very
near, the speed of the belt. Material fed onto a belt
at a slower speed must be accelerated by the belt.
Cenlre LoadlnE Using
ged Baffle Plate
Load Here
CONVEYOR BELTING 375
When this acceleration is considerable, the
material will slide and scuff or wear the belt. The
loading chutes direct the flow of material in the
same direction as the belt travel and are prefer-
able to a gravity drop.
lf space will not permit the use of a direction-
al change chute, a baffle should be installed to
load the material onto the belt.
The baf f le is usually a hinged plate located to
deflect most of the load in the centre of the belt.
The material falling onto the belt must be
accelerated from zero to belt speed.
Loading lmpact
The loading point on a belt should not be
over solid idler rolls, but in the space between the
idiers. lf the load falls directly overthe idler, there
is no chance of the belt giving way under shock
loading. For special loading conditions, rubber
impact idler rolls can be used to reduce shock
conditions. lmpact idlers should be located in the
loading or impact area.
Rubber Rollers for Severe lmpact Loadlng
a Baff le
(\
\l
\./
\/
376 CONVEYOR BELTING

Densest Stream

Full Load
Partial Load
Belt and Load - Cross Section
Bottom Plate
When the load to be carried has large lumps,
the feed chute can be designed to allow a portion
of small material to fall on the belt bef ore the large
Grate --
chunks hit. Baff les hung in the chute will slow
down the speed of large lumps and lessen their
impact on the belt. Chute design is often modif ied
Skirtin g
through trial and error to obtain the best results.

Fines Loading

lmpact Rollers Old belting should not be used forskirtingas

Load with Large Lumps it quickly wears outconveyor belting atthe points
Full loading on a conveyor belt does not of contact.
mean loading to the very edge of the belt, as the
material will spill when going over the idlers. o o o
o
Skirt Boards and Skirting
Skirt Board
Skirt boards at the loading point are put in to
avoid spillage and to confine the material until it
assumes its f inal shape at belt speed.
Skirt boards are strips oi wood or steel of the 0 0 0 u
required length and height to suit the operating Skirting
conditions. They do not come in contact with the
belt and, in a standard layout, the spacing o o tl o
between the skirt board and the belt increases in
Clamp Plate
the direction of the belt travel.
This allows pieces of material to work free.
The fan-shaped design lets the load spread to its
final position while it is still between the skirt
boards. N
Skirting consists of a strip of rubber bolted to
the outer side of the skirt board and bearing
lightly on the belt. lf it is located over an idler, the
skirting should match the belt contour. Maximum
life f rom skirting can be obtained by cutting
vertical slots in it to permit verticaladjustment as
W
Used
wear occurs.

Unloading
Belts are unloaded at fixed points or, by
rsing a tripper, at any point over a specific
3perating length. A tripper lifts the bett off the
:arrying idlers and takes it around the tripper
culley in the same fashion as a head drum. The
naterial is discharged into a chute which is part
:f the tripper and can be fed to either or both
sides of the conveyor. The tripper moves on rails
straddling the belt, and power is frequently
cbtained from a f riction and geartrain driven off a
:ripper pulley.
Unloading off the head pulley onto a pile or
nto a chute or f unnel is another common method
:f discharge. Unloading at a fixed point on a belt
:an be done by installing a stationary tripper.
This permits side unloading if needed. The
material will continue on the f low path to the head
Jrum if it is not unloaded.
Flat belts carrying light bulk material can be
,inloaded at many {ixed spots by using movable
:iagonal scrapers or plows. The actual scraping
s done by a strip of rubber attached to the
scraper or plow frame.
A scraper-unloader will permit a steady flow
:f f ine material to get by so there must be some
,vay to keep the head puliey clear.
Harmful Conditions
Moisture
Moisture penetrating the belt cover can
3ause the fabric to shrink and possibly mildew.
Shrinkage, even across the belt width, is easy to
Belt Stretch Causing Belt to Run Crooked
CONVEYOR BELTING 377
control. Shrinkage along the worn edge of a belt
will cause the belt to run out of line. The usual
cause of edge wear is from the belt chaf ing on a
f ixed support along the conveyor, or rubbing on
the drive or tail pulley support due to misalign-
ment.
Mildew is a form of fungus or mold which will
grow in damp belt fabric where oxygen is present.
Conveyor belts are treated with mildew
inhibitors, but this does not necessariiy give
complete protection. Rubber compounds in the
belt are not harmed by mildew.
Surface moisture on the belt causes material
to cling or cake on the rubber surfaces. Wet
conditions on the pulley side of the belt will cause
slippage between the belt and the pulley. A wet
belt with no load will often ctimb up one side of
the idler rolls and run outof alignmentatthe head
and tail pulleys. Rubber scrapers, il already
installed, will quickly remove surface moisture.
Friction can be obtained between a wet belt and a
pulley by throwing a small amount of pulverized
lime into the assembly.
Light
Rubber surfaces will crack after prolonged
exposure to light. The cracking is a form of
oxidation due to ozone generated in the atmos-
phere by ultraviolet light. Belting should be
protected from direct sunlight as much as
possible. Arc welding is a source of ultraviolet
light. During welding operations, a cover over the
belt will protect it from ultraviolet rays and also
from globules of molten material.
Fabrlc Hotted by Damp
- Right Lell
Fabric Treated to lnhlblt Mildew
-
378 CONVEYOR BELTING

Heat
When the temperature of the load is over
150'F (65"C), a standard belt deteriorates rapidly.
The cotton fabric itself chars around 300"F
(150"C). Hot loads call for special belting.
Cold
Freezing temperatures are harmless to
rubber, but rubbercompoundsstiffen increasing-
ly as the temperature droPs.
lcing will cause problems with belts. A thin
coating of ice on an inclined belt surface will let
the load slide, sometimes making the belt
useless. Wet belts can freeze to the pulleys and
idlers when the conveyor is stopped, and may be
trozen tightly enough to prevent the conveyor
f rom being started. The rubber cover can be torn
Head Pulley
loose from the fabric if the belt is started.
lcing can be retarded by spraying the faces of Removing Tramp lron wlth an Electromagnet
the pulleys with a permanent radiator anti-freeze or Lilting Magnet
(ethylene glycol). This compound will not cause
corrosion of metal parts or deterioration of the
ru bber. Mognei c Pulley
ln a steam mill, a jetof steam on thetailpulley \
will help to keep the belt from icing. i : I
Wor klno
spoce
Covering the conveyor system to keep out
L

rain or snow will help prevent the f ormation of ice,
provided that the material being carried is not
wet.
Oil and Grease
Oil or grease on a standard conveyor belt will
cause the outside coverio deteriorate rapidly.
This is one objection to the use of air jets for
cleaning running belts, as there is a small amount
of oil in suspension in the air. lf oil or grease
cannot be avoided, belts with oil resistant covers
should be used.
Tramp lron
Tramp iron, or pieces of steel that fall or are
Conveyor belt
Removing Tramp lron with Magnetic Pulley
operation can be simplif ied, and the possibility of
the magnet being left off avoided, if the controls
are wired so that the direct current supply must
be started before the drive.
Magnetic devices are not a hundred percent
effective. Tramp iron can be so positioned in the
f low of material that it is carried through the

thrown into the conveyorsystem, can be removed
by spreading the load over a wide belt and using a
magnet to pick out the metal. Sawmills usually
keep tramp iron out of a hog. The magnet can be
mounted over the belt or a magnetic head pulley
can be installed. ln the latter case, tramp metal is
held against the belt and is dropped from the
underside as the belt leaves the magnetic f ield.
The pulley is made of magnetic steel and has
coils wound inside it. Direct current is fed
through the slip rings to energize the coils. The
magnetic field. This is common during surges ol
very heavy loading.
Manganese steel will not be picked up.
Metal detectors are a common installation as
they will sense any metallic object, not just steel
and iron, Their application varies from plant to
plant. Some detectors will shut down the convey-
or, and give a sound, or light warning that the
conveyor is down. The conveyor will remain
down until an operator checks out the tramp
material and does a manual start-up of the drive.
 CONVEYOR BELTING 379

Cleaning
Both the top and bottom covers of the belt
need to have some means of cleaning off deposits
that stick to them. The simplest cleaner is a board
or plate with a strip of rubber attached, bearing
lightly on the return belt close to a pulley. This
type of cleaner wears out quickly and will need to
be replaced f requently.
Counterweight, or spring-loaded scrapers
with rubber blades provide better cleaning
action.

Build-up on Bend Pulley

Counterweight Scraper Cou nterweigh I

A steel wire stretched across a f lat part of the

belt will remove caked material sticking to the
belt. This type of cleaner is not suitable for betts
with mechanical fasteners.
+ Belt Travel Rubber Skirting

Vertically
Adjustable
-
Plow-shaped Scraper on Return Strand ol Conveyor

Wire Set 1/32" From Belt Belt lnstallation

Vertically Adiustable
Wire Scraper
ln a plant where compressed air is available,
a series of fine air jets will clean small chips and
sawdust off a belt.
Pulleys also need to be checked and cleaned
at frequent intervals. Rough coatings left on the
pulley surface will injure the belt surface and also
cause the belt to move to one side or another.
Where there is a possibility of lumps falling
lnto the return, a shear or plow installed close to
the tail pulley will prevent the tumps from being
trapped between the belt and the pulley.
Storage
> Keep the new belt in the factory crate or
wrapping until you are ready to installit. lf it has
to be stored, keep it in a cooldry location away
from direct sunlight, with the roll suspended
from a bar through its centre, or resting upright
on a dry wooden floor.
> lf the packaged beit is to be rolled, roll it in the
same direction as the belt is coiled. Rolling the
opposite way may loosen the wraps of belting
and let it telescope during uncrating. Do not
lean a roll of belting against a wall or lay the roll
on its side. This can damage the belt edges or
even deform the belt.

_ ,a!
380 CONVEYOR BELTING
Belt Storage
A roll of belt should be hoisted by slings
around a pipe or bar through the core of the roll.
Use a spacer between the sling legs to keep the
belt edges from being cut.
Mounting
Conveyor belting is usually rolled at the
factory with the carrying side out.
The belt should be aligned with the center-
line of the conveyor and the roll mounted on a
steel pipe or shaft set on f irm supports. lf the belt
is to be led onto troughing idlers, it should be
unwound so the top coverfaces up. lf the belt is to
be led onto return idlers, it should be unwound
with the top cover facing the idlers. Before the
belt is pulled in, all idlers, pulleys, bearings, and
other equipment should be checked to make sure
they are in good condition.
No matter how the belt is pulled in, some
means of snubbing the roll is needed to keep the
belt f rom overrunning. A pulling plate will make it
easier to lead the belt over the idlers'
lron Pieces
Bolted to Belt
Pulling Plate on on
Bottom Enables Belt
End to Clear ldlers
Cable
Steel Pulling Plale Bolted Across Belt End
When an old belt is being replaced, it can be
cut and the lead end of the new belt attached to
one end. As the old belt is removed, the new belt is
drawn into position. The ends are brought to the
top of the conveyor where it is convenient to
make a join. Four or five idlers can be removed
and a platform built on the conveyor f ramework
or a light plank platf orm can be built on top of the
idlers. A belt clamp should be placed near each
end of the belting and a chain block used to pull
up the slack.
The belt clamp must be square on the belt,
with the ends projecting the same amount past
the belt.
The recommended way of tightening the belt
is to secure one clamp to the conveyor f rame and
pull all the slack from the other end' This will
guarantee that the belt will be located on the
platform for the final splice or join. A common
method, when there is not much slack, is to pull
on both ends and let the belt f ind its own location.
Final positioning is done by using screw rods
between the clamps in place of the chain blocks.
lf the clamps are on even and square, the belt
ends can easily be brought parallel.
Take-up, screw, or gravity pulleys, should be
slackened or heid up while the belt is put under
tension with the clamps and screw rods. The
amount of slackening done on the take-up
pulleys will depend on mill procedure. Some
plants back off the take-up as much as posstble,
while others leave a small amount of belt in
reserve in case the splice has to be worked on
 CONVEYOR BELTING 381

oefore the belt is stretched by continuous > Unwind slowly: be careful that the belt doesn't
ru n n ing. catch and that no kinks occur.
Low Temperature > Exert sufficient tension to tighten until the sag
Most belts tend to stiffen when the tempera- is taken out between the return idlers with belt
falls below 32"F (0"C). Any sharp bends put in
tu re
take-ups in the correct position.
the belt below freezing temperature may crack Train the Belt Properly
the belt material.
> Check the return belt.
Belts designed for low temperatures should
> Check the tail pulley.
be used during continuous below-freezing > Check for deflection.
operation and maintenance.
> Take the necessary measures to ensure a
Belt lnspection and Operation trained belt.
Check Chart Loading Chutes and Discharge Devices
Storage and Handling
> Check for alignment.
> Store belts in an upright position. > Ensure that the belt does not rub against
> Store belts in a cool, dark place.
equipment.
> ln underground storage, coat the belt edges
with rubber cement. (Excludes moisture from Skirt Boards
plies if edges are worn or the cover edge > Check for alignment.
c racked. ) > Belts must not contact metal or wooden skirt
> Don't use steel bars to pry or move uncrated boards. lf contact with belt is necessary, use
rolls. rubber skirts. Do not use old belting for skirts.
> Be sure to roll crated belts in the direction
indicated; i.e., the same way the roll is wound. Operation
> Don't drop belts or crates. > Use controlled starting rather than across-the-
> Don't f lex belting to bend sharper than the line starting. Avoid abrupt stops.
minimum pulley diameter. > Loading must have:
lnstallation o A uniform rate of speed;
> Inspect component parts thoroughly before
r Symmetrical load distribution;
r Acceleration of material in the belt movement
installation for:
direction;
o Structure;
r Pulleys; o A minimum angle between the stream of
material and the beit;
o ldlers;
r A minimurn drop of material;
o Loading devices; and
o Fines loaded f irst when possible;
e Other alignment equipment.
o Skirt boards. Dual skirting is recomrnended
> Ensure alignment of head and tail pulleys,
where possible; and
idlers, and structure. e Load at the horizontal section of the belt.
> Lay the beit out properly.
> Mount the belt squarely on the rod passed Control Discharging of Materiai
through the centre of the core. > Control the trajectory of discharge.
> Puli the belt into position by block and tackle, > Use trippers and plows.
winch, or similar equipment.
> Unwind the beit by power equipment: from the Maintenance
top of the roll if the belt is ied onto troughing Periodic maintenance inspections of the
rollers, or from the bottom if led onto return entire conveyor system for:
id iers. > Alignment,
> As the belt is unrolled onto pulleys and idlers, rt > Sharp edges;
must be kept taut to prevent excessive unrolling > Edge wear;
or telescoping. Sharp twists, bends and exces- > Proper lubrication;
sively hard pulling should be avoided to prevent > Ciean belt surfaces;
high strain and tension on the belt. > Condition of belt scrapers and belt brushes.
 CONVEYOR BELTING

Trouble Cause To Correct

Belt Trouble-shooting Check Chart
Trouble Cause To Correct Entire belt Belt is lf the belt is new,
runs off at all strai ned allow sufficient
Training Problems points of the or elongated time for it to
line (cont'd): excessively break in. lf the
Belt runs off Material lnstall a scraper on one side; belt does not
tail pulley: build-up on diagonally break in proper-
the tail pulley; across the ly, or it is not a
pulley side of new belt, cut out
the belt on the the strained
return run just section square-
ahead of the tail ly and splice in
pu lley. new section.

Material Use proper Self-aligning, Adjustorcorrect

build-up on cleaning troughing, or id lers.
the tail snub devices and in- return idlers
pulley; stall a scraper inoperative or
against the snub placed inef-
pulley. lmprove f ectively;
housekeepi ng.
Material build- lnstall proper
Tail pulley, Realign. lnstall up on pulleys cleaning
tail snub limit switches and idlers; devices and
pulley or for greater improve main-
return idlers safety. tenance.
are out of line;
One section Belt is im- Re-splice.
Frozen return Free idlers. Lub- of the belt properly
idlers; ricate. lmprove runs off at spliced; out of
maintenance. all points on sq uare;
the line;
lmproper Feed should be
loading, in direction of Bowed belt; Avoid storing
spillage; belt traveland at belt rolls im-
belt sPeed; properly. Refer
provide proper to proper stor-
skirt boards. age conditions.
Avoid telescop-
Self-aligning Adjustorcorrect ing belt rolls. lf
return idlers self -alig n ing the belt is new, it
inoperative or return idlers. will probably
ineffectively straighten out
placed; when properly
broken in. lf belt
Entire belt ldlers may be Align the idlers. doesn't
runs off at all out of square straighten, it
points of the with the must be re-
line: centerline of placed.
the belt:
 CONVEYOR BELTING

Trouble Cause To Correct Trouble Cause To Correct

One section One edge is Repair the belt at a specific may not be stands have
cf the belt worn and edge or cut out idler or group level; or a slotted holes in
'uns off at moisture the badly worn of idlers: roller may not the bases for
all points on penetration and out-of- be turning adjustment.
:he line is causing square section. freely because
cont'd ): belt shrinkage Splice in a new of lack of
on one side; section. lubrication or a
bad bearing;
Entire belt lmproper Feed should be
runs off along loading; in the direction Belt runs The belt is Use self-align-
carrying run: material is fed of belt travel, at erratically: too stiff or ing idlers. Tilt
onto belt off- belt speed, and thick to train troughing idlers
centre; centred on the or is not forward not
belt. broken in more than two
properly; degrees. Run
Material build- Clean accumu- the belt slower,
up between lation. lmprove so that it carries
the decking maintenance. a heavier cross-
and idler; lnstall inverted section of the
V-decki ng. load. lf, aftersuf-
ficient time has
Belt runs off Material Control flow by been allowed
at loading spurts onto use of feeders for the break-in
point: the belt f rom and properly period, the situa-
direct feeding desi g ned tion has not
without flow ch utes. been corrected,
contro l; the belt must be
material is fed replaced by a
onto belt off- more trough-
centre; able belt. Use
fabric incorpor-
Belt runs off Head shaft Realign the con- ating nylon fill.
at head may not be veyor structure
pulley: square with or head shaft. Belt raises up Oil contami- Using a tire-
the centerline off the top-run nation of belt grooving tool,
of the con- idlers in the cover; score shallow
veyor; centre to a grooves longi-
convex tudinally two or
Worn pulley Replace worn position: three inches
lagging; lagging. apart in the belt
top cover over
ldlers ahead Realign idlers. the portion af-
of head pulley fected. When
are out of replacing the
alig nment; belt, specify an
oil-resisting
Belt runs to ldler or idlers Correct the conveyor belt.
one side may be out of defect and set Turn the belt
th roughout square with so that the belt upside down
entire length the belt, or runs true. ldler and run until the
belt straightens.
 CONVEYOR BELTING

Trouble Cause To Correct Trouble Cause To Correct

Belt runs out The tripper Reduce the trip- Belt slips on too light; or increase the
at tripper: track gauge is per track gauge. startin g screw take-up
too large for Realign the (cont'd): tension.
the wheels, tripper pulleys.
pulling the Worn pulley Replace pulley
tripper out of lagg ing; lagging.
square with the
belt. Belt wears Frost or Enelose the belt
against the excessive line.
tripper frame; moisture con-
densing on
Belt Siippage and Stretch drive pulleys;

Beit slips: lnsufficient lncrease the Pulleys too Use larger

traction be- wrap using a small; diameter
tween the belt snub pulley. Use pu lleys.
and pulley; iagged pulleys.
ln wet condi- Overlubrica- Don't over-
tions, use tion ot idlers lu br icate.
grooved lag- seeps onto
ging. lnstall belt surface;
proper cleaning
devices on the Starting Control starting
belt. lnstall a acceleration; speed.
centrif ugal
switch {or Excessive belt Drive is Recalculate the
saf ety. stretch: under- maximum belt
belted; tension and
Pulleys too lncrease the select the cor-
srnall: pulley diameter. rect belt.

Frozen return Free idlers. Counter- Recalculate the

ortroughing Lubricate. weights are counterweight
idlers; lmprove too heavy; required or
maintenance. reduce take-up
tension to the
Material Clean accumu- point of slip and
build-up lation. lmprove then tighten
between maintenance. slightly.
decking Use inverted
and idlers; V-decking. Different rim Correct. Refer
speeds on to engineering
icient
lnsuff lncrease the tandem department.
side
slack counterweight pulleys;
tension; or increase
screw take-up Permeation Use the belt
tension. of carcass desig ned f or
by chemicals, specific condi-
Belt slips on Counter- lncrease the oil, or acids, tions.
startin g: are
weights counterweight or deterioration
by heat,
 CONVEYOR BEI-TING

Trouble Cause To Correcl Trouble Cause To Correct

Excessive Belt line is Recalculate Belt breaks at Material Use skirt boards
belt stretch overextended; maximum belt or behind fast- falling properly.
(cont'd): tension. Use a eners. Fasten- between belt Remove ac-
rubber belt with ers tear loose and pulleys, cumulation.
greater tensile (cont'd): lmprove main-
strength. Use a tenance.
two-f light
system with a Pulleys too Use larger dia-
transfer point. small; meter pulleys.
Fastener and Vulcanized Splice Trouble Wrong type Use proper fast-
or size of eners. Retighten
Belt breaks at, Build-up of lnstall cleanlng fasteners or after running
or behind fast- material on devices. f asteners the belt for a
eners. Fasten- pulleys; lmprove main- not tight short while. Set
ers tear loose: tenance. enough; up regular in-
spection
Excessive Use a proper sched u le.
impact on loading chute.
f asteners Use vulcanized lnterference Adjust belt
under loading sp lices. from belt scraper.
cond itions; scra pers;

Counter- Recalcuiate the Poor fastener- Belt carcass Select proper

weight is too counterweight hold ing too light; beit for maxi-
heavy; required to ability: mum fastener-
reduce take-up holding ability.
tension to the
point of slip and Use of cord When service is
then tighten belt; lost, replace
slightly. with fabric belt
of homogeneous
Worn pulley Replace the construction.
lagg ing; pulley lagging.
Excessive Use vulcanized
Excessive Seal fasteners. heat; splices and a
moisture; belt designed
for hot material.
Different rim Correct. On
speeds on high tension in- Vulcanized Counter- Recalculate the
tandem stallation, use splice separa- weight is too counterweight
pu lleys; dual-motor tion: heavy; required, or
d rive. reduce take-up
tension to the
Excessive Check and point of slip and
tensio n; correct tension. then tighten
Use vulcanized slig htly.
splices.
Worn pulley Replace
lagg ing; lagg ing.
 CONVEYOR BELTING

Trouble Cause To Correct Trouble Cause To Correct

Vulcanized Different rim Correct. Excessive top Breaker strip When service is
splice separa- speeds on cover wear missing or lost, replace
tion (cont'd): tandem (includ ing i nadeq uate; with belt having
pulleys; rips, gouges, proper breaker
ruptures, and stri p.
Chemical or Use belt tears) (cont'd):
oil in load; designed for the Chute is Use a better
specific condi- clogging; designed chute.
tion.
Tramp iron is Use magnetic
Belt line Recalculate causi ng pulleys or other
overextended; tension. Use damage; magnetic
belt with greater devices to
tensile strength. remove tramp
iron.
Pulleys too Use pulleys of a
small; larger diameter. Too high Adjust chutes or
relative feeders, or
Splice is im- Use proper velocity increase the belt
properly splice methods of material speed, Consider
made; as shown in a fed onto the use of
manufacturer's belt; impact idlers or
splicing manual. accelerating
feeder belt.
Cover Troubles
Belt gives lnstall cushion-
Excessive top Material lnstall cleaning under impact ing idlers to
cover wear build-up on device. Remove at loading hold belt
(including pulleys and accumulation. point, against skirts.
rips, gouges, return idlers; lmprove main- allowing Close up idler
ruptures, and tenance. material to spacing to
tears): be trapped reduce sag.
Excessive im- lnstall proper under skirt
pact of loading chute boards;
material on and baff les. ln-
belt; stall impact Excessive Adjust skirt
idlers. Use space board seals to
proper belt to between minimize
handle impact. belt and skirt clearance.
Load fines first. boards;

Acid mine Use belt Troughing lnsert more

water, oil or desig ned f or idlers spaced troughing idlers
chemical in specific condi- too far apart and space at
load; tion. to support closer intervals.
the belt
Exposure to Enclose belt properly;
heat, ozone, line.
or sun;

if,:
 CONVEYOR BELTING 387

Trouble Cause To Correct Trouble Cause To Correct

Wear is con- Reduce belt Excessive metal fasteners,

fined to the speed to permit bottom cover when used, with
belt centre fuller cross sec- wear (cont'd): vulcanized
only; tion loading. splices to
prevent abrasive
Side loading; Load in the di- fines from
rection of belt entering cover.
travel.
Troughing Do not tip more
Excessive Excessive Don't over- idlers tilted than two
bottom cover greasing of lubricate. more than degrees.
wear: id lers; two degrees;

Material Remove
Pulley Repair or
lagging worn replace.
bu ild-u p accumulation.
on pulleys lnstall cleaning
or loose bolts
protruding;
and idlers; device. lmprove
maintenance. Frozen idlers Free idlers or
or pulleys; pulleys. Lubri-
Material Remove cate. lmprove
between accumulation. maintenance.
decking and lnstall in-
id lers; verted V-deck- Skuff marks Protruding Replace worn
ing. Improve and indenta- bolt heads in lagging.
maintenance tions on pulley the pulley after
and house- side of belt in lagging is worn
keepi ng. blurred path: away;

ldlers are lnsert additional Excessive Belt spliced Cut out belt
spaced too troughing idlers edge wear: improperly; spliceand splice
far apart to and space at in new section
support the closer intervals. according to
belt properly; correct
procedu re.
Slippage on lncrease ten-
drive pulley; sion through
Belt See remedies
misalignment; under Training
take-up. Lag
Problems.
drive pulley. ln
wet conditions, Broken edges: lmproper Refer to proper
use grooved storage or storage condi-
pulley lagging. handling; tions.

Spilled lnstall decking Belt running See remedies

material is between the top off on carry- under Training
ground and return runs. ing or return Problems.
between the lnstall plows or run, forcing
belt and scrapers in front edges to curl
pulley; of the tail pulley up against the
on the return conveyor
run. Replace frame;

)
388 CONVEYOR BELTING

Trouble Cause To Correcl Trouble Cause To Correct

Broken edges Excessive Reduce belt Breaker strip Use the belt with
(cont'd): tensio n; tens ion. inadequate or proper breaker
missing; stri p.
Self-aligning Adjustidlers.
id lers Pulleys too Use larger
malf unction- small; diameter
ing or ineffec- pu lleys.
tively placed;
Abrasive Make spot
Final idler Adjust idler materials re pairs.
before head positions. working into
pulley is cover cuts;
located too
high or too Long itud inal Material lnstall cleaning
close to head grooving or build-up on device. Remove
pulley; cracki ng pu lleys; accumulation.
of the lmprove main-
Too small Change the top cover: tenance.
radius in the conveyor
curve going design if Excessive Use the proper
from an in- possible. material loading chute.
clined section impact lnstall impact
of the conveyor on belt; id le rs.
to a horizontal
section; Skirt boards Adjust skirt
im properly boards.
Cover swells Excessive Don't over- installed;
in spots or brication;
lu lu bricate.
streaks: D ragg ing Remove
against an obstacle.
Softening of Chemical or Use the belt obstacle; lmprove
bottom cover: oil in load; designed for the maintenance.
specific condi-
tion. Long itud inal Pulley lagging Replace
cracking or worn and lagging.
Belt hardens Excessive Use a belt grooving of bolts
or cracks: heat; designed for hot bottom cover: p rotrud ing;
loads.
Frozen or Free idlers.
Cover Exposure to Enclose belt broken idler Lubricate. lm-
becomes heat, ozone, line. rollers; prove mainten-
cracked or OT SUN; ance and house-
brittle: keepi ng.
Replace broken
Separation of Chemical or Use the belt idler rollers.
top cover: oil in load; designed for the
specif ic Carcass Troubles
cond ition.
Fabricdeteri- lmproper Refer to proper
and
oration storage or storage condi-
carcass handling; tions.
 CONVEYOR BELTING 389

Trouble Cause To Correct Trouble Cause To Correct

cracks, rup- Abrasive Use the belt with

tu res, gouges, Excessive im- Use the proper material proper cover
rips as indi- pact of loading chute working into thicknesses and
cated by soft material on and baffles. belt between replace metal
spots in the the belt; plies; fasteners with
belt: vulcanized
Material lmprove loading splice. Make
falling conditions. prompt cover
between belt repairs to
and pulleys; prevent en-
trance of foreiEn
Corrosive Use belt material.
chemicals in designed for
the load; the specific Conveyor Belt Design
cond ition.
Drives
Covers too Use belt with
The drive source f or belt conveyors is usually
th in; covers of proper
th ickness.
an electric motor and a reduction unit connected
to the driving pulley by a roller chain drive.
Excessive Reduce take-up The simplest belt conveyor drive is a single
tension to point
pulley giving about 180 degrees wrap. To mini-
tensio n;
of slip and then mize slippage and to reduce belt tension by
tighten slightly. increasing the arc of contact, a snub pulley can
be installed behind the drive pulley. This can
Breaker strip When service is increase belt wrap to as much as 200 degrees.
is fractured, lost, replace
Discharge
absent or with a belt
i nadeq uate; having proper
breaker strip.
Drive Pulley Tail Take-up Pulley
Belt of insuf- When service is
Horizonial Conveyor
ficient body lost, replace
for size and with a heavier
weight of belt (more plies,
material stronger
hand led; fabrics).

Plv Pulleys are Use larger

separati on: too small for diameter pulleys
belt: to prevent ply
separation due
to sharp f lexing Snubbed Pulley Drive
over small Head Terminals
diameter
pu lleys.
The ability of the pulley to drive a belt
Chemical, oil, Use belt increases as the arc of contact increases. Dual
or acid mine desig ned f or pulley drives in which a second drive pulley
water in load: specif ic engages a reverse bend in the belt will give belt
conditions. wraps up to 440 degrees.

)
r
CONVEYOR BELTING

Take-up Pulley

Take-up
Screw

Stationary Block
Movable Carriage
Screw Take-up
Dual Pulley Drlve

Curves I

Unlike chain conveyors which require a

straight-line design, or one with a slight camber,
)

i
I
belt conveyors will work eff iciently on curved I

lines. A change in line direction can be made with l

l

either concave or convex bends.

Take-ups
I

i<-- T (Travel)
-I l

l
l

Screw Take-ups l

Screw take-ups do not correct f or belt l

elongation and contraction during operation, but l

are used to compensate for long-term changes in I

belt length. They are simple and cheap to install I

and operate. When placed at the foot of the I

I

conveyor, they do not require extra bends in the Detail ol Take-up Screw and Pulley l
I

belt. i

Adjustment is made by turning the screw

I

The basic layout of a screw take-up is shown I

I
above. The variations are mainly concerned with head or nut at either end of the take-up. I

types of bearings (f riction or anti-friction) and the The diagram on the next Page shows a I
I

screw position (exposed or internal). common tall drum design with a loading chute. 1

I
1

I
I
Convex Bends i
I

I
I
I
I
I

i
I

I
I
l
I

I
I
I
I

l
 CONVEYOR BELTING

the sheave and should be checked occasionally.

Screw Take-up in a Common Tail Drum Design

Gravity Take-ups
Gravity take-ups are automatic and keep an
even tension on the belt. The amount of tension
can be adjusted by varying the weight of the
counterweight.

Snubbed Pulley Drlve wlth Vertical Graylty Take-up

-.-----=-/.---\-/
!vr-- Y '

t-l- -
I

T*_ I
ll
Ir
l____-l
Florizonlal Gravity Take-up with Counterwelght
Under Floor
Automallc or Gravlty Take-up

ln an automatic or gravity take-up, tension is Pulleys

applied to the belt through the take-up pulley. Pulleys for conveyor belting have a minimum
The take-up carriage is suspended f rom the take- diameter for various plies and weights of belts. A
up pulley, and is f ree to move up and down on the
vertical rods. The tension is adjusted by varying Mlnlmum Pulley Dlameters ln lnches per ply
the weights held by the take-up carriage.
The counterweight holder is suspended from Tall,
the take-up pulley and is free to move up and Head Take-up
Welght Putleys and HIgh Low
down on the vertical rods. ol Tandem and Tenslon Tenslon
In a drive design with the gravity idler close to Duck Drlve Trlpper- Snub Snub
the drive, the idler can be placed at almost any (ln oz) Pulleys Pulleys Pulleys pulleys
spot on the belt return to suit local conditions.
The diagram shows a gravity take up on the 286 5 4 r+
JZt 6 5 4
tail drum of the conveyor. The drum rests on a 36 7+ 6+ 5+ 4+
horizontal, movable frame which is attached to 428 7 6 5
the counterweight. The deslgn can be adapted to 488 7 o
have the counterweight above the f loor level. The 609 B 6

wear point in thls design is on the cable going over

72 10 B 6
 392 CONVEYOR BELTING

top grade belt will give better service than a Pulley Design
second grade belt when running over minimum
diameter PulleYs.
The table is for fabric belts and can be taken
as general guide. Special belts such as cord'
a fit on the shaft are welded to the end covers'
rnolded nylon, and steel wire, should have pulleys
to suit the belt maker's specif ications'
Whenever a belt is making more than a
90-degree arc of contact on a pulley which is on
the hi!h tension side o{ the belt, the pulley should
be considered a head pulley when estimating
size.
Pulley Terms
> Head pulley the largest diameter pulley in the
-
conveyor, used to reduce flexing in the ten-
sioned belt:
> Snub pulley to increase the arc of contact on
-
the head PulleY (drive PulleY);
> Bend puttey - to change direction of travel;
> Take-up pulley - to tension the belt;
> Tail pulley lo turn the belt from the return
-
strand to the loaded strand.
Tail Pulley
Pulley
Bend rke-up PulleY
Drum or closed-end pulleys are all-steel
drums of either large diameter pipe or rolled steel
plate with the end covers welded on' The hubs to
Drum pulleys are strong, willnot break under
impact loading, and are relatively light' Open
puit"y. are usually cast, with a small centre hub'
They often take a larger diameter shaft than a
drum pulley. The face on the conveyor pulleys
can be either flat or slightly crowned'
Lagging
Rubber lagging on a drive pulley increases
the coeff icient ol f riction between the belt and the
pulley, and permits lower take-up tension'
btanOarO lagging consists of a two-ply duck with
a heavy rubber facing'
Vulcanized lagging is done by a belt firm'
Either a new pulley which is already lagged is
bought, or a spare pulley is sent out to be lagged'
Bolted lagging consists of a rubber sheet
extending the f ull width of the pulley and {astened
on with f lat-headed elevator bolts. With a dru m or
closed-end pulley, special flat-headed self-
tapping screws are used. The butt joints recom-
mended are a form of dovetail joint or a diagonal
joint.

Pulley Terms

Rubber Cover Bolt Head DePressed

Fabric Reinforcemenl

Butt Joinl in Sheet Lagging

The general routine for lagging application ts

as follows:
> Bolt down one end of the pre-cut lagging;
> Wrap the lagging tightly around the pulley and
Drum Pulleys
bolt down as it is wraPPed;

irl
I
 CONVEYOR BELTING 393

> Holes should be roughly 8 inches apart on the Length-WL+L

circumference and 6 inches apart across the 2.5
pu lley;
> Lap the free end over the boited-down end and W - pulley face in inches
mark for cutting; L - pulley circumference in inches
> Cut the lagging about 1/8 ol an inch short, then
bolt it down. Bolt heads may be f lush with, but
preferably beiow, the belt surface.
Crowned pulleys require two or more widths
of lagging to allow for the shape of the crowned
f ace.

Textured Lagging on a pulley

Method of Fastening Standard Lagging to the Rim

Second Notch
Cross Section ol Pulley Lagging at Bolt Hole Pulley Edge
2 1/2"
1 1/4" l

--_l4
-t
Second Layer First Layer

Notching Strlp Lagging to be Wound on a pulley

The lagging is pre-cut to suit the pulley. lt

Lagged Pulley
Strip laggin g is 21/2 inches wide and can be
used on any type of conveyor pulley. The length
needed to wrap a pulley can be approximated by
the formula.
may be attached with bolts or adhesive. lf
adhesive is used, the pulley should be cleaned
with solvent before being coated with adhesive.
The lagging should be wrapped under tension,
and the ends attached with f lat-head bolts or
rivets.

Sleel Frame Plale Sole Plate Altached to Wood Frame

Hardened Setscrew
 394 CONVEYOR BELTING

Alignrnent and Tracking by letting the belt make one or two revolutions.
ldler frames will be moved according to the
Misalignment or run-off problems will arise position of the bolts in the slotted holes in the
on a pulley when the belt changes direction. All base. Correction is obtained by moving the high
major pulleys should have some means of makinE side in the direction of belt travel, or by moving
a slight adjustment. the low side against the direction of belt travel.
Bearings on a steel framework can be Another way of correcting is to put fullsize shims
adapted to allow minor adjustment by welding a under the high side to move the belt over.
3/4 to 1 inch bar, tapped tor a 5/8 or 3/4 inch
setscrew, behind the bearing, using a hardened
setscrew to move the bearing. lf the drive is
correctly designed, there should be enough play
in the bearing base bolt holes to allow su{f icient
i adjustment. Otherwise, the bolt holes tn the steel
I

I
base may have to be slotted to give sufficient
i travel.
i On the wooden f rame conveyor, an extended
I
steel so/e p/ate with setscrews will allow minor
I
I movement. The sole plate is held down by the
i
I
bearing hold-down bolts, and is kept f rom moving
by the gib which fits tightly rnto a groove cut into Adlustmeni ol ldler Frames to Limil Belt Wander
I
I
I
the timber.
I
t When running, the average wander of a belt Return belt run-off can be corrected by
roughly the same procedure as for carrying
I

I should be in the centre area of the pulley. lf the

I
I
belt stays off to one side of the pu lley f or its whole idlers. A crooked belt will run off on the return, as
length, the pulley will have to be adjusted. The well as on the load side. Check for idlers that are
side to which the belt is running should
I
be stuck or out of position and {or any material that is
tightened, or the opposite side slackened to bring pushing the belt to one side. Small adjustments
the belt back to centre. Move Down ro and checks should be made starting with the
I
I lncrease Tension second or third idler towards the head end from
the point of run-off
I
I .

I
I
I Elevator Belting
I

I
t Joining Elevator Belts
> Vulcanizing
- Vulcanized splices are consider-
I I

I
Move Up to
ed the best but, owing to elevator construction,
I
I
l-essen Tension
I they are often difficult to make. A totally
I
Adjustment ol Pulley lo Limit Belt Wander
t enclosed elevator will need to have a special
I Aligning troughing idlers is often a matter of access area where the side can be removed to
trial and error. Before touching the idlers, the obtain room for the take-up clamps and vulcan-
I
t
condition of the belt and the way it is loaded izer.
should be checked. The belt system should also > Mechanical f asteners:
L-
I
be checked for idlers not turning or Jor material c A straight 90-degree buttjoint using plate or
I
wedged against the belt, forcing it to one side. lf hinged Jasteners in the same way as for a
I
t the idlers are out of alignment, they should be horizontal belt; or
t: brought back to position while the belt is running. joint as above with a
o A straight 90-degree butt
)
t-
This should be done in the direction of belt travel, splice pad bolted to the outside face for
Ir
I starting with the second or third carrying idler, in greater strength.
;
the direction of the tail pulley from the point > Botted ioints
- The following diagram shows one
possible bolt arrangement. Bolt dimensions will
i
where the belt climbs out o{ line, indicating that
I the idler is causing trouble. Small adjustments vary according to the thickness of the belt and
;
t should be made one at a time, and then checked the weight of the load and buckets. Half-inch
i

I
I

i
I

u-i
 CONVEYOR BELTING 395

bolts are the largest size recommended for use Belt Elevaior Prlncipal Parts
on belts of 10-ply or less. -
The length of the splice is usually equal to
the belt width, but some belt manufacturers
recommend that the strap extend for at least
two buckets on each side of the joint. The
buckets are bolted through both thicknesses of
the belting to give extra holding power on the
splice.
Bolted joints come in two styles: butt and
/ap joints.
o Butt joints are made by bolting a strap or a
piece of belting of the same ply and width to
the outside face, usinE standard elevator
bolts. The butt strap gives extra strength to a Wooden
mechanical joint. or Steel
Casi ng

@@ @@
@ @
@@ @@
@ @
@@ @@
@ @
@@ @@ Return
Strand
@ @
@@ @@ Elevator
Belt
Top View

Side View
Butt Joini in 12-ply Elevalor Belt

o Lap joints are made by lapping the ends over

each other for a distance equal to the wldth of
the belt, and fastening with elevator bolts.
Some manufacturers recommend that the belt
be lapped under at least two buckets and the
buckets be bolted through the two thick- Loading
nesses. As in the butt joint, this gives the full Chute
number of bolts, plus the bolts needed to hold or Leg
the buckets. With this joint, the end of the bett
should be running off the pulley,
Boot
Bucket Mounting
Boot
A steel square can be used to mark off the line Pu lley
of bolt holes square with the edge of the belt.
Buckets should not come to the edge of the belt.
Bolt holes are marked using the bucket or
template and holes are punched out with a belt
pu nch.
396 CONVEYOR BELTING
Belt
Bucket
EleYator Beli Washers and Pads
The bucket is bolted to the belt, using
standard elevator bolts and washers installed
between the bucket and the belt. Any protruding
bolt ends should be cut off after the bucket is
securely fastened.
The use of a washer creates a space between
the belt and the bucket, and prevents any fine
material from being trapped between the two.
Rubber washers are usually bought, but can also
be made from old belting'
The more a bucket protrudes, the greater the
tendency for it to be torn off the belt.
lnstalling a New Belt
lf the old belt is still in position, the new belt
can be pulled in after cutting the old belt near the
boot and attaching the new belt to the upper end.
The elevator drive is usually too fast to safely pull
in a new belt, so the drive is frequently discon-
nected and the belt pulled in by hand. lf the new
belt is without buckets, care must be taken that
the weight of the buckets on the opposite side
does not pull the belt out of control as the new
belt approaches the head drum.
Bucket weight also creates problems when
buckets are being put on a new belt. Depending
on the total weight of the buckets on a strand, and
the ability to control belt movement, it is often
easier to bolt on the buckets in small groups
spaced to carry a similar weight on the up and
down strands of the belt.
Maintenance
The belt must be kept properly aligned on the
pulley to prevent the buckets f rom catching on
the elevator housing. Material packed in one side
of the boot will cause the belt to run off to the
opposite side. Uneven loading with the weight all
on one side will keep it from slipping A loose
return will f lap around and is liable to scrape the
buckets on the housing.
Buckets should be inspected at regular
intervals for loose or missing bolts or washers; in
the case of twisted buckets these checks will
prevent serious trouble later on.
Some means should be maintained to pre-
vent material from falling between the belt and
the boot pulley. A metal, inverted V-shaped
def lector over the boot pulley will reduce the
amount of material being traPPed.
Feeding
There are two common tYPes of feed:
> Scoop feed material is delivered to the boot
-
and the buckets scooP it uP; and
> Fly f eed material is fed directly into the
buckets
-
some distance above the boot'
Shutdown and Starl-uP
Feed conveyors should be shut down f irst,
and the elevator should be cleaned out before it is
shut down.
When starting up, the elevator should be
started before the feed conveyor.
lf the elevator is shut down and the boot f illed
up, it is often difficult to get the belt to move
because the resistance set up by the packed
material will cause the belt to slip on the pulley'
Slide Conveyors
The belt slides on a solid friction surface
rather than being supported and shaped by a
series of rolls.
Compared to a troughed conveyor, a slide
conveyor:
> Moves at a slower sPeed;
> Can carry a wider range of shapes and sizes;
and
> Can allow side off-loading or selective off-
load ing.
Slide Conveyor Design
General styles:
> Flat bed with no sides - the slide material can
be metal, Plastic or hardwood;
> Formed bed and trough
- usually f or head end
unloading. Materials moved can range from
large to f ine solids, plus semi-f luids such as
pulp stock.
Slide conveyors are usually flat or in a
straight line f rom the tail drum to the head drum,

Flat Bed, No Sides Formed Bed and Trough
Slide Conveyor Designs
or built with a slight camber to ensure that the belt
contacts the slide material. The pulley face is
slightly above the bed to prevent any shearing
action between the belt and bed. This height may
be important if the belt is using mechanical clips.
Load
Retu rn
Flat
A troughed slide conveyor built with a sag in
the middle and carrying frnes will present
maintenance problems as fines will work under
the belt. Eventually, the belt will be running on a
high bed of fines.
z Fines
Sagging Belt Allows Accumulation of Fines Beneath
lf this occurs, check the conveyor run and
bring it flat or put in a siight camber.
Troughed slide conveyors have another
common problem when fines are moved. The
material is moved by friction between the fines
CONVEYOR BELTING
and the belt but any contact between the fines
and walls will create a braking effect. Under
overload conditions it is possible to have the top
layer of the load not moving due to wail f riction.
This also occurs with troughed drag chain
conveyors.
Braking Eflect ol Contact Between Materlal and Walls
ol a Troughed Conveyor
Changing the direction of conveyor travel
can be done in two ways:
> The use of closely spaced flat rolls
- depend-
ing on the stability of the material being moved;
or
> Dumping from one conveyor to another.
Changing Direction ol Belt Travel
Dumping lrom One Bell to Another
General Maintenance Checks
> Belt - general condition: cuts, tears, ply
separation, joint separation, clip condition,
wear on bottom ply;
> Bed
- sharp edges, thickness of liner material,
tightness of liner material;
> Pulleys alignment.
-
Misalignment
The following diagram shows the belt in a
proper track, while the second diagrarn shows the
belt running to one side, or a misaligned pulley.
Before bearing 1 or 2 is moved, the belt
shouid be watched for a few f ull turns. lf the belt
stays misaligned, the problem is most likely the
I
 CONVEYOR BELTING

Belt Tracking Correctly

Belt Running to One Side

Mlsallgnment

pulley position but can also be an external force

moving the belt to one side. A check should be
made for junk or build-uP.
lf the belt wanders, the problem is most likely
caused by the belt condition or joints, but may be
caused bY loading.
To track the belt, bearing 1 can be moved as
shown; this will decrease tension on the belt. lf
the pulley is the drive end, the belt or chain
alignment will also have to be checked. After
moving the pulley, a few minutes' wait will
determine if the belt has tracked properly.
Belt Cholce
There is a far wider choice of belts used for
slide conveyors than for troughed idler conveyors.
Most of them present a relatively hard smooth
surface to the bed to reduce friction.
The top finish of the belt can be smooth or
have various textured finishes, marking or non-
marking, a static conductor or non-conductor.
The food industries require belting that can be
steam cleaned or cleaned by other means to
control bacteria or similar growths'
 CHAIN CONVEYORS 399

18. Chain Conveyors

A chain conveyor is used to: o a o

> Transfer material from one location to another; o o o
o o
and to
> Transfer mixed sizes of material and separate
ooo o
o
the fine material from the coarse. ooo
ooo
o
o o
A conveyor used to separate sizes will have a Separator and Cross Conveyor
series of holes in the bottom plates to permit f ines
to fall through.
The diagram shows a long link chain, but any
type of refuse-moving chain can be used for
separating sizes.
The small material can be led by a chute into
a cross conveyor or it can fall onto the conveyor
return and be carried to a cross conveyor.
A conveyor usually carries waste on the top
strand, but the return strand can also be used for Long Link Chaln Conveyor
moving f ines. A long S-drive can carry material on
top, as well as on either or both return sections. head drum, with the exception of the area
The top strand carries all sizes of waste immediately over the drive.
material. Separation can be anywhere from a Fines can be carried on the return from the
point immediately past the in-feed chute to the head drum to be dumped either into a cross
400 CHAIN CCNVEYORS
conveyor or into the bottom return. The bottom
return can carry f ines to a cross conveyor, dumP-
ing its load before it reaches the tail drum.
Chain Conveyor Design
A chain conveyor is used to move fairly f ine
material such as hog fuel or sawdust, larger
material such as wood blocks, or a mixture of
both. ln this type of conveyor, the material is all
around the chain, instead of being on one surface
as on a belt conveyor. For eff icient performance,
the chain must be in contact with the conveyor
bottom to move the load.
A straight-line design from tail drum to head
drum is satisfactory for general use, but a slight
camber to the conveyor will give better results.
Chaln Conveyor Design
A slight camber will hold the chain against
the conveyor bottom as it is moved ahead. A
conveyor should not be built with sag in it, as the
chain will tend to climb the load.
The chain conveyor, in its simplest form,
consists of the charn and necessary drums, a
trough to conf ine the material, a drive to move the
Parallel Strand Conveyor
chain and a return section or sections. lts design
falls roughly into three main classes:
> Parallei strand, head end drives;
> Gravity drop drives; or
> S-drives.
Parallel Strand GonveYors
A parallel strand conveyor has the top and
bottom strands of chain roughly parallel, with the
drive sprocket at the head end. The chain of the
return side is kept fairly tight to keep it f rom
wrapping on the head sprocket. The type of chain
used will determine the choice of head sprocket,
tail drum and conveyor construction.
Gravity Drop Drives
Gravity drop drives have the conveyor on a
slope, with the driving sprocket some distance
above the f loor or the run of the return chain. The
weight of the chain in suspension will help keep
the links f rom jumping off the sprocket and will
also help keep the chain from wrapping on the
sprocket.
The diagram below shows a basic design
with the drive sprocket partway down the return
side. The drive sprocket should be located so
there is a drop of between 4 and"10 feet. lt is
usually located to suit the existing structure of the
mill. Occasionally, conveyors will have the drive
sprocket at the head end, but the drop of the
chain makes it difficult to lnstall an efficient
discharge chute.
Sp rocket
Gravity Drop
Chain lengt[t must be kept adjusted. The
chain must not be so slack that it easily wraps on
the sprocket, and yet must not be so tight that it
leaves the sprccket on an angle.

Chain Length
S-drives
S-drives are used on long, heavily loaded
chains as this drive provides the maximum
number of sprocket teeth engaging the chain. S-
drives can be used with almost any type of chain,
but will be considered here with long link chain.
The incline on the conveyor shown below
can be up to 35 degrees f rom the horizontal with
standard f iights, and up to 55 degrees with high-
faced flights.
The drive can be located at almost any
position on the return, and is usually located to
Conveyor May be Operated Either
Horlzontally or at any Angle
Up to 55"
F;;-fi*
]a!
CHAIN CONVEYORS 401
suit the existing mill structure. When conveyor
return runs are at floor level, the drive is usually
positioned so that the chain leaving the take-up
drum is just above the return level. Elevated
conveyors going into a bunker usually have the
drive inside the bunker or on a platform just
outside the wall
Ta ke-u p
S-drive
Chain Conveyor
Construction
Basic conveyor design consists of a steei
trough with vertical or sloped sides to contain the
material and a shallow trough on the return side
to contain the chain.
Bottom design will vary according to the
style of chain and attachments used.
Wear strips added to the bottom of the
conveyor and return will increase the service life
S-drive
Travel
402 CHAIN CONVEYORS

of the conveyor structure and should be replaced
as they wear out.
> Adjustable idlers with take-up bearings: single
or multiple widths. When using take-up bear-
ings, rnake sure that the amount of adjustment
on each bearing is equal. Misalignment on a
chain conveyor does not show as readily as on a
belt conveyor; or

Drag Chain Mill Chain with Scrapers

Adjustable Idler with Take-up Bearings

> An adjustable idler drum riding on a guided

carriage. This is most common with long link
chain conveyors where the chain is to be kept
reasonably tight, but there must be a means of
readily obtaining slack if the chain comes off
the drive sprocket.

Wear Strips Divider Bar

Conveyor Constructlon

Wear strip material can be abrasion-resistant

metals such as manganese steel or, in some
plants, ordinary mild steel.
Nylon and other plastic materials are used in
some plants where the noise level must be kept
low. Nylon works well but should be kept at a
uniform degree of dampness and not be allowed
to dry out.
Multiple strands of chain should have a
divider bar between each chain to prevent them
f rom fouling each other. The chains will not
stretch evenly and will be travelling at different
speeds when approaching the head drum. The
tail drum must be smooth to allow each chain to
travel at its own speed.
Slack Control
Chain slack can be controlled by:
> Removing links: one pitch at a time; or two
pitches at a time (take out three pitches and
replace one);
> An adjustable tail drum with take-up bearings,
used with single or multiple width chain
conveyors; Take-up Carriage
 CHAIN CONVEYORS 403

Drum Detail
The drums are usually large in order to
reduce the amount of bending or wear in the joint,
and also to avoid possible bending of the side
plates if the chain is suddenly ovei'loaded. The
recommended minimum size for the drum dia-
meter is four or five times the chain pitch, but
some manufacturers will suggest that it be as
large as possible.
The head and tail drum are installed slightly
above the level of the conveyor bottom to prevent
the chain from "grabbing" when it comes off the i+-A-n
tail drum, and to prevent excessive wear on the Detachable Chain
bottom lip of the conveyor when approaching the
head drum. The effective distance is usually This type of chain does not normally require
found by trial and error. tools for breaking or joining. Assembly and
-- disassembly of the chain is done by obtaining
f:r--f -' slack and f lexing the links, then sliding a link
------------ sideways.
Each link is a one-piece construction, cast
from malleable iron.
The pitch range is from 0.9 inch to 4.063
Drum Position Above Conveyor Botiom inches and includes the standard 78 chain size.

Chain Length
When a take-up is used, the chain can stretch
or wear several links in length before it is
necessary to shorten the chain. The amount
which should be taken out will vary, but it is better
to leave some slack in the chain and take it up on
the take-up drum. lf a chain is tight with the take-
up slackened all the way back, it will be diff icult to
get it back on the sprocket if it comes off the teeth.
Safety
Safety work on a conveyor is not confined
merely to guarding the drive. Any conveyor Assembling Detachable Chain
running parallel to, or over, a walkway should
have the sides boarded up to prevent material
from falling out. Walks going over a conveyor Pintle and H-class Mill
should be high enough to keep material from
striking them. Conveyor returns on floor levels Ghain
should be guarded to prevent workers from
walking into them. The links of pintle chain are one-piece
castings of malleable iron, joined by pins. This
Detachable Chain type of chain is suitable for low speeds. The
drives can be one-way or reversing. Slack in the
Detachable chain is designed for low speeds chain is permitted. The pinile chain is of light
and light loads on one-way conveyors or trans- construction in the 400 and 700 classes.
fers with a steady pull on the load side and some H-ciass mitl chain is df heavier construction
tension on the return side to keep the slack from and has a wearing shoe on one side of the chain.
buckl i ng. The shoe runs on the bottom side and is in
404 CHAIN CONVEYORS

contact with the skid, channel, or runway. This

chain is used as a conveyor chain, or as a low-
speed drive chain.

t:ls
olsl>
rl\
f-H-i

olFlo)
.>l*12
Alolb
Lt
I .\--l, I

-I
- I - I a\
Ll^lv
ol.Yl-
ltlt ItH
:r!1
LLl:iIo BF
lBltL
[EI
@
!F"
It is used mainly on transfer decks, and with
H-class Mill Chain
lug attachments, to feed lumber to the tri m or
slasher saws. As a transfer chain, it will not stand
blows from the side.
The pitch of an H-class millchain variesfrom
1.654 inch to 4.000 inches.

Transfer Chain
-
Camel-back or RooftoP
Links are one-piece castings of malleable
iron joined together by pins. Transfer chatn
comes in only two pitches in the H-class.
H-78 2.609" H-l31 - 4.000"
H-130
- 4.000" H-138 4.000"
- -

t-A-* A-

(: I)
H-class Mill Chain Transler Chain
 CHAIN CONVEYORS 405

Transfer chain is the only chain in common
use that will bend one way only. lt must be
handled with care to avoid severe f inger injurres.
It is designed to take loads which come f rom
the side and strike the chain link on the sloping
top. Actual application will call for three or more
parallel strands of transfer chain, with a steel
plate on an inciine to prevent the lumber from
hitting the vertical side of the chain.
This chain is used mainly in conveying chips,
sawdust or hog fuel, but it is also used as a flat
conveyor to bring slabs and edgings to a cut-off
saw or a chipper.
Due to the short distance between the barrels
of the links, the load is carried almostas aflat unit,
not bulked up as in a long link-and-bucket
conveyor. Conveying can be done by one or more
strands.

Drag or Refuse Chain

Links are one-piece castings, or forged and
welded parts joined together by a pin. The pitch
of this chain is quite large: 5,6 or 8 inches.

ir
C)

Fi Cast Chain with Scraper Attachmenls

*ioi
cl
o Cast chain is available with attachments
O
o which improve its carrying or scraping abilities.
.!l
o.l Welded steel allows the user to install
- -A attachments to suit local conditions.
Drag or Reluse Chain H-group nurnbering is used.

Typical Transfer Chaln

&
406 CHAIN CONVEYORS

- - - ----) CI a)
Drag Chaln Flat Load
-

Load Peaked
C] a)
Llnk Chaln
-
Combination Ghain Two Styles ol Side-plate Punching

Combination chain consists of a cast block

link and two steel side bars joined by a steel pin.
Combination chains are used for rough- and
heavy-duty transfer chains such as those on log
decks or on trough conveyors moving logs.
Fabricated Chain
Fabricated chains, other than the regular
C-class combination chains, are made from
machi ne-finished parts.
Fabricated chains are stronger and more
accurate in pitch than the ordinary pintle or
H-class mill chain, or the C-class combination
chai ns.
For installation purposes, fabricated chains
are treated in the same fashion as a cast chain.
H-class ref use chain can be obtained in an all-
welded construction.
H-class mill all steel parts; the barrel has a
-
hardened steel roller on the bushing.
C-class combination - all steel parts; the
block is fabricated from steel; each barrel has a
hardened steel roller on the bushing.

l*--- Pitch - * - - Pitch -;- Pitch ,+

Comblnation Chain
Plnlle Class Mill Chain
- All Steel
Small pitch chains are frequently used with
flights as small ref use conveyor chains.
Combination chain, like roller chain, can be
shortened only two pitches at a time unless an
offset link is used.
Because there is a diff erence in the side plate
punching and rivets of combination chains, only
one style of chain should be used, to avoid
conf usion. (,
C-class chain has a pitch range of 1.631 inch
to 6.050 inches. C-class Chain - All Steel
]r
ll.

CHAIN CONVEYORS 407

The use of a steel chain enables many An angle iron can be welded to a steel
attachments to be welded directly to the chain in H-class rnill chain or a steel C-class combination
the mill to suit local conditions. chain to make scraper chains for small waste
conveyors.

H-class and C-class

Chain Maintenance
Basic mill equipment includes a dolly bar tor
bucking, a chain puller or come-along, and an
oxyacetylene torch.
A dolly bar usually consists of a heavy piece
of oid shafting with a hole stighily larger than the
Standard Cast Dog Link Square prolile rivet head drilled in one end. The hole does not
-
need to be the depth of the rivet, but is easily
made deep enough for H-74, -7g, and -g2 rivets.
The size and weight of the dolly bar can vary to
suit the millwright but it is customary to have two
or three sizes for different chains.
Chain Tighteners
Chain can be tightened using the foilowing
! equipment:
> A single chain puller for short, light chains;
Welding A Rounded Protile Dog Link
>A double chain putter for long, tight chains that
The stairdard cast dog link has a square will require very little slack on the return.
profile. Using a steel chain, a mill-made attach-
ment with a rounded profile can be welded on.
This is often a help on trim tables where lumber
has to be pushed endways.
---)'t_-i,-__
', ,'
\-
a)-;
o
I l-=
IU
lnl
\Y/
C-class Combination Chain
F Gain l
Single Chain Puller

Double Chain Puller

H-class Mill Chain Chaln Tighlening
408 CHAIN CONVEYORS

The double chain puller has a holding chain

rishtchain a = :l,lI*{-tU
A that can be hooked into the chain afterthetake- c)c)c1*
up, allowing the handle to be released. Srack chain c)
For long, heavy chains, a chain block or
i 2
corne-along will be needed to pull the chain
together and hold it while making a join' -r : - -r - :]o-J
check ror srack
Routine Check
Chains should be checked periodically for
slack on the drive and worn links. Slack chain New Chain
catching on the teeth of a drive sprocket is a
common cause of chain breaks.
n______----.----- Old Chain
(,
Good Chain k- Stretch
I

o 0r-------r
Worn Chain
Check Slretch Due to Wear

With ordinary chain, an oxyacetylene torch

Routlne Checks can be used f or cutting off rivets. lt is f aster than a
hacksaw and will also assist in heading the rivets'
For manganese chain, or a chain with hard-
ened pins, a torch or grinder is necessary to cut
off the rivet heads. A hacksaw will not cut such
material.

Worn Through Long Link Chain

Check Wear on All Parts Long link chain is used mainly on log hauls
and major waste conveyors. The chain can be
either forged or casl.
Forged Chain
Forged chain is made f rom a good grade of
round steel and is available in any length, on
order. The chain size varies from 1/2 inch
diameter by 3112 inch pitch to 2 inch diameter by
10 inch pitch.
Fo rged c hain can be c ut o n eithe r the vertical
or horizontal link. The joining link can be a cold-
shut lap or an ordinary link that has been opened
up. ln all cases, a torch will be needed to heat the
joining link belore bending it.

Open Fit, Links SIoPPY The cold-shut lap will hold the chain withoul
Tight Fit - New Chain
Old Chain welding.
Check Fit at Links -

Chain with Attachments

As a chain wears, the distance between the
attachment centres increases. This must be taken
into consideration if the chain to be replaced is
one of a series where the attachment centres
must be kept the same. Forged Chain
 CHAIN CONVEYORS

For waste conveyor chains, the f lights can be
cast, but they are usually made from forged flat
iron welded directly to the chain at regular
intervals: three, four, or f ive links apart.
Heat and
Knock Down
prolong the life of the chain. Care must be taken
not to add too much material;
> lf the chain comes off the sprocket and twists a
link or links, they must be replaced or straight-
ened out. A great deal of conveyor downtime
can be caused by a chain coming off a sprocket
because of a faulty link.

New
Chain Maintenance
-J Worn
))

Welded

Roller Top Chain

Cold-shut Link Roller top chain is a long link chain formed
of cast links, fitted with 6-inch long rollers and
joined together with oval links. The rollers are
parallel to the direction of travel and form an
almost continuous series.
Lap Link
Chain Links

Roller Top Chain

The chain is usually composed of three or

more parallel strands travelling in a trough at a
slow speed with only the rollers exposed.

*D
One-piece Molding

-- 3/4" x 1 t/4" lron Bars

Roller Chain wlth Trough

\:/-
,n
Y
The unit is composed of a cast pedestal
link, a roller, and a pin joined by a chain link.
The pitch is 4 inches. The cast link is uneven
Flights on Wasle Conveyor Chains in dimension and all links should face the same
way in a completed chain.

Maintenance I

> Make a routine check to maintain adequate

tension on the chain to prevent it f rom catching
on the teeth:
> Occasionally, a badly worn link, usually one
next to a bucket, can be built up by welding to Roller Chain Long and Shorl End
-
410 CHAIN CONVEYORS
Note: Roller top chain has both a long and a
short end; all attachments should run the same
way.
Trouble-Shooting
> Keep the chain f rom getting too slack as it may
turn over after leaving the drive sprocket Slack
is taken out two links at a time.
> The chain may jam between the cast connector
and roll. To correct, slacken the chain, heat, and
bend back the connector tiP.
Bent Connector TiP Straightened
> Chain wear on wood will bring the roll up level
with the molding, and the lumber will get hung
up. The wear strips or molding should be
replaced.
Chaln Wear on Wood
Long Llnk Chain SProckets
\'-
!t---- -\
\_l
Sprockets
Sprockets Long Link
-
Long link chain sprockets for general con-
veyor work are usually 5- or7-tooth cast sprockets
with cast integral or renewable teeth.
Extended rim sprockets are built to prevent
any twisting action of the f light while it goes
around the sprocket. They also hold up the chain
when it comes off the sprocket teeth.
/-\\.i
(o)x
\---,'//r\
w
N- - \\./
Log Haul Sprockets
Log haul sprockets for large pitch chain (8
inches) are larger versions of a conveyor chain
sprocket, with modif ication to suit the chains'
ln general construction, a log haul sprocket
is a three-piece construction: a side piece, a tooth
ring or held teeth, and another side ring.
Extended Rlm SProckets

Log Haul Sprocket Constructlon
- available by special order.
Maintenance
Routine maintenance consists of checking
the holding bolts and the condition of the teeth.
Sprocket teeth can be built up by careful
welding, making sure that the amount added to
each tooth is even.
When putting in a new sprocket, it is good
policy to make a metal template of the tooth
outline and keep the template to check on tooth
bu ild-up.
---- Template
Metal Template ot Toolh
After welding up a tooth, some grinding with
a portable grinder may be needed to properly
form the tooth, depending on the riding abitity of
the chain.
Sprockets Nct Long Link
-
Sprockets for cast chains,
such as H-class
mill chains or combination chains can be of cast
iron, cast steel, or manganese steel. The tooth
prof ile and pitch are set by the casting and are not
machine cut later. As a rule, the wearing faces are
toughened or hardened by heat treatment.
Most sprockets are not interchangeable
among groups of chains having the same pitch,
due to the difference in widths of the sprocket
faces.
&
CHAIN CONVEYORS 411
H-130 4" pitch 'I " width
H-1 31 4" pitch 1 5/8" width
t1-7 4 2.609" pitch 1" width
H-78 2.609" pitch 1 1/8" width
A sprocket'for H-74 chain could be used with
H-78 chain, but a sprocket for H-78 would be a
tight fit or even too wide for H-74 chain.
As the chain size, pitch, or width increases,
the number of teeth available in a sprocket of the
given size decreases.
H-74 and -78 sprockets are readily available
with a range of 8 to 50 teeth; other sizes are
tl-104 ref use chain sprockets range f rom 6 to
13 teeth. H-480 are only avaitable with 5 teeth.
These are typical figures; sprockets from
various foundries can vary slightly as to size
range.
Sprockets for general use are of one-piece
construction to be slid onto the shaft. For special
drives, or when a one-piece sprocket is worn out
and has to be replaced, a split sprocket can be
used. Putting a split sprocket on a long lay shaft
eliminates lifting out the lay shaft and moving
other sprockets.
Manganese steel sprockets usually consist of
manganese steel tooth rings on a steel hub.
Manganese Steel
Manganese steel is a tough nonmagnetic
alloy of steel containing 12 to 14 percent mang-
anese and 1.2 percent carbon.
The original casting is reheated to approxi-
mately 1850'F (1010"C) and then rapidtyquenched.
The resulting steel has high strength, ductility
and resistance to wear. lt is used in severe
applications that combine abrasion and heavy
impact. lmpact or pounding increases its surface
hardness, without affecting its toughness.
Manganese steel should not be spot reheated
as it will become brittle at temperatures over
500"F (260"C). lf any heating is done over 500"F,
the casting should be reheated at temperatures to
1850"F, then quenched.
Manganese steel is used mainly for conveyor
chains, flights, and wearing strips. lts nonmag-
netic properties make it a serious hazard in waste
systems as a magnet cannot pick it up.
Welding can be done on manganese steel
using nickel manganese rods (3 percent Ni., 14
percent Mn.) or stainless steel rods, being caref ul
to prevent serious overheating.
412 CHAIN CONVEYORS

slack, joining the chain willcallfortwo connector

Manganese Chain links to replace B and D and a cast link for C'
ln addition, links C and E could be easily
Manganese conveyor chain is cast in lengths replaced by a horizontal connector link while
of 10 feet. The cross section of a link is nearly links B, D, and F would require special handling
square and has an 18 to 20 percent larger area
than forged chain. Flights
Flights come in three general styles:
> The f light is cast in one piece and is f itted on the
chain by the use of a special split link and
keeper;
Common Llnk Chaln Manganese Sleel Chain
> The f light is made in two pieces which are
bolted together through a cast or one-piece
link, shown below with a forged chain, or
> The flight is made in two pieces and welded
together.
Section ComParlson

Chain sizes run f rom 1 by 6 inch pitch to 2 by Square Section Bevel for Welding
Long Link Chain to Chain Link
10 inch pitch.
Maintenance
Chain must be cut or assembled to suit the
position of the connecting link if using a vertical-
or horizontal-onlY connector.
ln the diagram below, if links B, D, or F are
broken, they can be replaced by a verticaljoining
link.
lf link C is broken, the chain can be joined by
cutting out and throwing away links B and D' lf
there L enough slack in the chain so that it can be
tightened the distance of two links, a connecting
tink can be put in between A and E lf there is no Fllghts

Chain Maintenance

{Tro
-('\\\xit_= \-HZ \\4:--:Z'
CHAIN CONVEYORS
414 MATERIAL IN MOTION

19. Material in Motion

l

ln dirty areas, the belt is kept above the table

Transler Tables
Transfer tables are used to move materials
which are carried on multiple strands of chain or
belting.
Belt Tables
The width, thickness and spacing of belts will
depend on the dimensions and weight of the
material being moved. A 4-inch belt would be
considered wide, while a 1-inch tape would be
narrow.
level and rides on a friction surface which can be
of hardwood, metal, or plastic.
ln clean areas, with smooth, f lat-f aced
objects, the belt can slide on the table.
The belt drive can be located:
> Any place on the return, using an S-drive with a
take-up idler for each belt; or
> On the head drum using an S-take-up for slack
control on each belt. This arrangement will
keep the drive components in the open for easy
checking and servicing.
Either of the idlers shown can be used.

S-drive with Take-up ldle
Drive on Head Drum S-Take-up
Posltlon ol Belt Drlves
Chain Tables
Chain transfer tables can be used with:
> Plain chain for horizontal use and random
positioning of the material on the table;
> Dogs or attachments on the chain to move the
material up an incline in a random fashion; or
> Dogs or attachments on the chain to move the
material, either horizontally or on an incline, but
with a definite space between each dog.
The chains used will either:
> Slide on a friction sur{ace in a channel iron or
similar trough, using mainly H- or C-class
chains; or
> Roll on a steel spacer which contacts the rolls
only; the side plates of the chain will act as
guide bars. Any of the fabricated chains with a
roller or conventional power roller chain can be
used. The advantages of conventional roller
chain are the variety of pitches in small dimen-
sions, and the accuracy of length.
The transfer tables have either timed dogs or
I ugs.

Sllde Chains
Roll Chalns
The transfer tables shown below use a roller-
like chain with dogs or lugs to move lumber. At
the saw line, the lumber must be square to the saw
to ensure a proper end cut.
Transler Tables wlth Tlmed Dogs or Lugs
Transler Tables Random Spaclng
- three possible designs:
For easy routine maintenance, the space
between all dogs should be uniform, but often
table design, chain pitch, and the desired space
between the dogs result in one odd space.
A
MATERIAL IN MOTION 415
Unlform Spacing Between Oogs Results In One Odd Space
For easy identification, a weld or paint mark
should be placed on all dogs which start or end
the odd section. This will allow a quick identif ica-
tion of the odd section if the chain breaks and
must be replaced.
Head End Details (Assumlng a Head End Drlve)
The chains on the table will stretch and wear
in varying amounts, depending on the loading on
each chain.
The positioning or timing of the dogs is
usually set to one of two positions:
> Head end alignment, which calls for the load to
be dumped parallel to the shaft. lf all the
sprockets are installed with the key seat in the
same position relative to a tooth, the chains will
be aligned when they come over the head end;
or
> Aligned to a critical line before the chain
reaches the head sprockets. This assembly
uses a D-class hub which allows the position of
the chain to be changed by a smallamount. The
slot in the hub should allow for an effective
adjustment of one pitch.
D-clags Hub
Tail End Oplions
The bottom, or tail end of the table can have
> Each chain rides a sprocket which is carried on
a lay shaft with bearings spaced to suit. lf the
shaft is designed to turn in the bearings, only
one sprocket is keyed to the shaft: the others
416 MATERIAL IN MOTION

are f ree to turn to allow each chain to travel at its
own speed. Two or more lixed sprockets will
cause chain trouble;
> Each chain rides on a sprocket which is carried
by a stub shaft and two bearings. This allows
easy replacement of the tail sprocket; or
> The trough end is bent in acircie of more than
180 degrees and the chain slides on the trough
bottom. This design is cheap and effective.
> Replace a worn-out chain with a partly worn
chain and replace the partly worn chain with a
new one; or
> Juggle the chains around so that the new chain
is in the least critical area.
Because of lack of movement ahead on the
D-hubs, it may be necessary to use chain C as the
f irst chain, back off chain A and advance chain B.
ln the diagram, the chains A, B, and C are not
aligned or square to the reference line. The usual

'-4: <: correction routine is to: put a straightedge at the

reference line and caref ully move the chains until
the dog on A contacts the straightedge; adjust the

4f
- E-----_\\
*tr9
,,X ^ )\
D-hubs on B and C; and move the chain ahead
until the dogs are touching the straightedge.

_-7

Tall End Deslgn Optlons

Chaln Wear Aflects Veloclly

Replacing a Chain Chains on the same table will travel at

Replacing a worn chain on a transfer table different rates of speed (velocity) depending on
can be a problem which varies f rom plant to plant. the amount of wear.
Possible solutions are to: Example: Two chains with an equal number
of pitches are joined by a bar from dog to dog;
> Replace the old chain with a new one, and time chain A is in good shape and chain B is badly
it as required; worn. The bar leaves the tail down at an angle, yet
goes over the head drum parallel to the shaft;
Reference Line chain B is travelling faster than chain A.
Assume that the chain has a 2-inch pitch and
there are 100 pitches on the table's top run;chain
A is new and chain B has wear of 1/64 inch per
pitch.
lengthofA-100X2-204"
length of B -'100 X 2 1/64 - 201 9/16"
B must travel faster to catch up to A on the
head end. This is the reason why only one
sprocket is keyed to the lay shaft on the bottom or
tail end of a transfer table or even a two-chain
conveyor.
Lilt Tables
The simple lift table is hinged on one end and
sits in the roil case with the chain level below the
Align Here level of the roll case. lts action is controlled by
steam, air, or hydraulic cylinder which raises or
Allgnment ol Chains lowers the skids.
 MATERIAL IN MOTION 417

Figure a is a simplif ied diagram of a table wiih

A
I all skids in the down position below the rolls or
the dead skid.
Figure b shows all skids in the up position.
The skids are on independent controls and can be
worked singly or in any combination.
Fig ure a
Slmple Lilt Table
t--- - L ,/
( nrr SkiOs Down Betow the Dead Skid
Rolt Cur"
Figure b 'Dead Skid

All Skids Up
Skids
Lilt Table Used to Transfer a Complete Load

Selective transferring from a table is done
with a drop table.
Wilh multi-strand tables, lifting is done by
bell cranks between each chain and the pivot
shaft. The pivot shaft is operated by a pressure
cylinder, either directly attached to a lever arm or
connected to the lever arm by a connecting bar.
The attachment below gives a gain in lifting
force, with a loss in distance of the lift movement.

Selective Transler Using Drop Table

Where the material is left on the roll case

when the table drops, the projecting edge of the UI
roll will stop other material on the chain. a
A jump roll case inserted in the table is also ln -'//
used as a selective sorter.
ln this application the table is rigid and the
..\J- -
\-\ =__\
-
t
o
rolls lie below the chain line to allow material f low
C
and rise above the chain to divert material away.
o
tl
Trough

L--. i \o
Selective
--
Transler Using Jump Roll
Case
i

Attachrfient lor lncreased Liftlng Force

A complete lift and transfer table has three lift

units and is used both to move material f rom roll
case to roll case and to store material for short
intervals. With a reversing chain this transfer
table allows some sorting on each roll case and il FbG
New Worn
also provides a means of conveying f rom one roll
case to another. Wear Decreases Lllt Actlon
418 MATERIAL IN MOTION

Due to the number of moving parts in the
linkage, wear will eventually make the lift action
of the table unsatisfactory due to loss of travel.
Turn Tables
Roller conveyors use tapered rolls to obtain a
change of direction.
Turn tables, generally 90 degrees, can be
The diagram shows a standard roll made
from 8-inch extra heavy (EH) pipe, with a steel
end plate and steel hub welded together in the
plant welding shop. Bearing mountlng requires a
plate on top of the channel iron to provide
sufficient width. The roll will be chain driven.
23/ 16"
40"
I

made by using standard H-class mill chain or _d_

I

similar chain, or by using long link chain where

the vertical links ride in a tracking groove.
The packaging and food industries use
special flexible one-pitch chains with varying
top-carrying surfaces to lead material around the
t
Roll Case
l
=I

curves or bends. The radius of the guide trough

must suit the chain specifications. The steel f rame is made from channel iron or
Turning is obtained by the use of successive- l-beam; the choice of form and size will depend
ly larger sprockets on the drive shaft to increase on the severity of loading.
the speed of the longer chains.

Roll Cases
Roll cases are used to move either long
materials parallel in length, or any f irm object that
will lie on two or more rolls and will nottip when in
motion.
The basic design of a roll case consists of a
number of rolls driven as a unit and mounted on a Steel Frame lor Roll Cases
rigid frame.
Rolls for long roll cases can be composed of: A preliminary plan for a four roll case is
cast steel, fabricated from heavyorstandard pipe shown with a f rame made of 6-inch channel iron
for moving lighter weight material; or fabricated and supported by 6-inch channel iron legs.
from steel tubing for package transfers.

Turn Tables

Mill Chain

-l,,,lill Chri,
o--.-.---
3"'"

Long Link Chain in Tracking Groove H-class Mill Chain

 \

MATERIAL IN MOTION 419

Plan lor a Four-Roll Case

The drive is: by roller chain and sprocket, by

angle gears, or by belting in light drives. Roller
chain drive can consist of one long length of
chain driving over the top or bottom of the
sprocket on each roll, or individual chain from
sprocket to sprocket. lndividualchain will require
two sprocket discs on each roll. lt has the
advantage of having roughly a 180-degree wrap
on each sprocket and is suitable for reversing. Roller Chain
A chain break on a long single chain drive will
shut down the whole rollcase and will frequently
result in a "wrap-up" around the driving sprocket.
The chain must then be rethreaded over several
sprockets.
A chain break on an individual chain will
allow the rolls between the break and the drive
sprocket to keep turning. Only a short length of
chain has to be threaded over two sprockets.

Gulde Roll Cases Mounled Squarely

Single Long Chain The gear-driven heavy-duty roll case shown

below uses two different styles of rolls:
> Shaped guide rolls at the top to move dumped
material to the centre of the rolls; and
+ Short Chain Connecting Two Sprockets
> Plain rolls to move material after it is in position.

Roller Chaln Drlve

Bearings can be anti-friction bearings in

pillow blocks or journal bearings with babbitt or
bronze friction surfaces.
Gear drives use a lay shaft passing through a
series of angle boxes to drive the individual rolls.
The gears are usually straight-cut bevel gears.
The bearings are an integral part of theangle box
and the bearing material can be babbitt or bronze.
The standard roll position is at right angles to
the lay shaft or roll case frame. Gear-drlven Heavy-duty Roll Cases

)
 420 MATERIAL IN MOTION
To reduce the time required to change a gear
on the lay shaft, some designs use a coupling
between every two gear boxes.
Guide Roll Cases
ln a guide roll case, material is brought up to
the straightedge by the chains on the jump skids.
When the skids drop, the rolls will move the
material in the direction indicated, at the same
time keeping it against the straightedge.
Rolls
Gulde Roll Cases
Guide roll cases have the rolls mounted off
square to hold material against a straightedge
while it is moving ahead. Drive can be by a lay
shaft and gears in a special angle box.
Roller Chain Drive
A drive using roller chain or a link V-belt will
allow quick and easy repairs. This drive also has
the advantage of having stock components which
may be common to other machines in the plant.
For lightweight drives, the drive means can
be small pitch roller chain, V-belts, or narrow flat
belts. Some plants use O-rings made from
urethane as a drive means. O-ring belt material
can be boughi in rolls, and made endless on the
job by a simple fusion tool.
Bottle Roll Cases
ln bottle roll cases, the standard cylindrical
roll is modified to have one end tapered. The roll
case is placed in the transfer table with the roll
above the chain level of the table but with the
tapered end below the chain level.
Top of Chain
1 234
ft- ft- ft-
chain Travel
Bot$e Roll cases
As the material is moved ahead by the
attachment on the transfer chain, it is forced up
the taper of the rolland off the chain. The weight
of the material on the rolls is sufficient to
overcome the side friction of the link, and the
material is rolled endways untii it hits the
straig htedEe.
Points 1,2,3, and 4 show the positions of the
same piece of material as it is moved by the chain
and by the rolls.
Movement ol Material to Contact Straightedge
 MATERIAL IN MOTION 421

Off-centre or Eccentric Roll Cases strike the material on contact and does not
establish driving contact.
ln off-centre or eccentric roll cases, the rolls Trial and error adjustments are often needed
have the shaft mounted off-centre. to obtain satisfactory operation.

Gravity Roller Conveyors

Gravity roller conveyors are used for moving
Shalt Mounted Ol!-centre objects with a flat f irm surface in contact with the

The roll case f rame is of standard construc-

tion and is designed to be positioned in a transfer
table. Material is moved at right angles to the
table at regular intervals as the rolls rise above the
chain line, and is moved in the direction of the
table chain travel as the rolls fall below the chain
line. Gravity Roller Conveyors
The driving action of the rolls is shown
below. Roll '1 is in the extreme down position and Roller sizes range from 1 3/8 inch to 7 5/8
does not contact the stock; roll 2 is on the rise and inch, with load rates f rom 60 to 16,000 pounds per
is contacting the stock. At this point, there is roll.
siippage between the material and the roil until Load rating per roll is less on a gravity line
the material is accelerated in the direction of the than on a level line:
roll travel. Rolls 3,4 and 5 show the roll rising to > Medium-duty roll: 1200 pounds per load;
maximum height, then declining. At the point > Heavy-duty roll: 3600 pounds per load.
shown by roll 6, the roll is losing contact with the
material, but the material will continue in the Basic parts consist of a roller with a roller
same direction until f riction on the chain stops it, bearing in each end and a hexagon axle which is a
and it will then move in the direction of the chain slide f it through the bearing inner race. The axle
t ravel.
is held in place in the frame by a cotter key at
either end or by a cotter key at one end and an
,^. --7'= -f----t--f f-z---\-f-
(") (") -:- (") (.)(or';-" upset at the other.
(",)
\--l \-./
12Jc56i
Y Y .-r[,
Drlving Actlon ol the Rolls

Successf ul operation depends on: the rpm of

the rolls, the amount of eccentricity, and the
posrtion of the roll in relation to the top of the
chain. The best type of chain to use is an H-130 or
H-131, the common camei-back or rooftop Gravlty Roller Parts
design.
An increase in the amount of eccentricity will
give greater pumping action to the roll but does
not mean increased eff iciency. The roll tends to

...--
Gravlty Roller Parts
- Outer
lncreased Ecceniricity Provides lncreased Pumping Action
422 MATERIAL IN MOTION
Bearings are replaceable; either the bearings
or the outer shell can be salvaged from a roll'
Mounting can be done on a formed frame of
angle iron or channel iron, with the rolls above or
below the top level of the side frame. Mounting
below the level of the side f rame will allow the side
to act as a material guide.
Rolls are often bought and mounted in
special frames to suit plant designs.
Turns of any number of degrees can be made
by using tapered rollers. (as shown on page 423)
Roll end diameters are constant, regardless
of the length of the rolls.
The rolls are mounted with the top or contact
surface on the horizontal Plane.
t-il
lJ--+
] /f\
=
Rolle Mounted Horlzontally Above or Below Frame
Pneumatic Conveyors
A pneumatic conveyor is simply a high-
velocity airstream which is used to move material
from one location to another.
Pipeline conveyors are roughly grouped
according to the operating pressure.
A /ow-press ure system uses a fan or impeller
to blow air through the pipeline. A common
working system uses both the suction and
discharge of the fan to move material' Stock is
picked up by one or several suction lines and
Mountlng Styles
-l------- 7- -1p
JJ
Vf--+ il t!-
- )|_:
-l r-
.r----_l fl -Tr--lrt-L+ilEtr
I Angles ,n
-)_
brought to the fan where it is ejected on the
pressure side. The discharge can be to the open
but it is usually blown through a cyclone where
the solid material is separated f rom the air stream
and deposited in a bin or on a conveyor.
ln the diagram, all material must go through
the fan and as a result, the fan blades are subject
to rapid wear.
Suction
Pneumallc Conveyor
An alternate design is to mount the fan past
the cyclone, which allows the solids to settle out
and only dust to contact the f an blades. The
blades have a high rim speed and a well-balanced
fan is therefore imPortant.
The material moved is light and bulky.
Maintenance consists mainly of patching holes in
pipe and blower casings. Blades on the impeller
will become worn and should be replaced by a
complete set. Replacing only one or two blades
will throw the impeller out of balance and set up
vibration.
Ll::z- -: Ta,t
Jt- Ansres out
-:l (- -z: -lL l-f
Channel
-LL
J.)]Jrr--|]-lL Three Rail
 MATERIAL IN MOTION 423

The fan used is a "non-positive" fan; if the

cyclone or the line from the fan to the cyclone
plugs up, the fan will keep spinning but will push
no air through the system.
Medium- and high-pressure systems use a
positive displacement blower or compressor to
Fan Assembly supply air at pressure up to 15 psi for medium-
-
Jack Shafl and over 15 psi for high-pressure systems. The
Mounting figure of '15 psi is an arbitrary one as some
man ufacturers wi I I classify 6 psi as hi g h-pressu re.

Medium- and high-pressure conveyors de-

pend on material in the air mixture which has
properties resembling a liquid. This aerated
material is termed "fluidized" and will generally
Fans
allow the solids to remain in suspension in the air
stream. Solids moved by f luidized material can be
wood shavings, chips or hog fuel in the wood
industry, and material coarser than pulverized
form in other industries.
The conveyor is used as a delivery system
only. Unlike a low-pressure system, material does

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

rh
Ailrr$UW
\*/ t1 rr, r r

Cyclone

Feeders

Tapered Roller
Variable

Roller Length
Min.
- 8" Max. - 26"

o
:.l
7)
(,i
o
N

N
I

21/2' Diam, Steel Tubing -

Axle Welded to Housing

Axle Length - Roller Length + 1 1/2"

-& )
424 MATERIAL IN MOTION
not go through the fan, but is introduced into a
moving air stream by means of a feeder. The
feeder introduces a fixed amount of solids into
the air stream and also acts as an air seal to
maintain pressure in the line.
Rolary Vane Feeders
A rotary vane feeder is used in most installa-
tions with non-abrasive materials and pressure
up to about 10 Psi.
Primary
Helicoid (Screw Feeder)
Flotary Air Lock
Rotary Vane Feeder
Blowers
The blower used is a positive displacement
machine and is protected by a pressure-sensing
device installed in the line between the blower
and the feeder.
Posltlve Dlsplacemenl Lobe Blower
lf the line plugs, pressure will build up rapidly
and the pressure-sensing device will trip the
switch to the motor.
Screw Feeders for Pulverized Solids
A pump for pulverized solids is used at
pressures of 15 to 45 psi with air supplied by a
positive displacement compressor.
Material enters the hopper A f rom the source
of supply and is conveyed towards the mixing
chamber by the screw. The decreasing pitch of
the screw compacts the material. The seal S is the
distance between the end of the screw and the
check valve disc C and is adjustable to vary the
density of the material to prevent air under
pressure from blowing back into the hopper.
Materialentering the mixing chamber is fluidized
by air jets at B and then blown through the
conveyor line.
The check valve prevents air from blowing
back through the pump if the screw is stopped or
if no material is being supplied to the screw'
Rotary Vane Feeder Actlon
This type of pump or air conveyor system is
used with fine drY materials.
Air Slide Conveyors
Air slide conveyors are used to move finely
divided solids such as cement. Compressed air is
used to aerate or f luidize the material. ln this
condition the material will f low by gravity down a
slight slope.
ln construction, the conveyor is a two-
compartment airtight box with air admitted
through a porous ceramic or fabric separator.
Air openings from the solids chamber will
decrease the f low and allow the aerated material
to settle.
Chamber
Air Sllde Conveyor
 MATERIAL IN MOTION 425

Blow Tank Feeders

For lines requiring pressures of 50 psi or
rnore to move material, blow tanks are used to
charge the system. Air Cylinder and
Material is fed into an airtight pressure Counterweight
container until a metering device or level indica- Material lnlet
tor stops the f low and seals the inlet. The
container is then put under pressure with com-
pressed air entering by an aerating ring. At a set
Cone Valve
pressure, the outlet valve opens and the fluidized
material f lows into the discharge line until a
minimum tank pressure is reached. At that time,
the outlet is blocked and the cycle is repeated.
The flow from one tank is intermittent, and two
tanks are often used on opposite cycles to Material Outlet
maintain a closer approach to continuous flow.

Screw Conveyors
Aerating Ring
Screw conveyors are composed of a helix or
screw form welded to a length of pipe. Each end
of the pipe has an internal bushing to hold the
shaft for internal hangers or drive and end shafts.
When two sections are coupled together, an
internal hanger bearing is used to keep the
conveyor rigid,
The screws come in a wide variety of styles,
pitches and materials as well as with right- or left-
hand th reads. Blow Tank Feeder
The screw works in a f ormed trough f or dust-
free conveying but does not touch the sides or material to a conveyor usually consists of left-
bottom of the trough. and right-hand threads which move material
Open screws used for moving stockpiled between the screws.

Screw Conveyor

Conveyor Coupling End Shaft

 MATERIAL IN MOTION

The speed of the screw shaft is quite slow,

usually from 100 to 450 rpm, depending on the
screw size and load.
Screw conveyors require a thrust beari ng to
carry the load created by the screw action, plus a
radial bearing or bearings to support the screw
section in the nru'oq11""''
Th rust

-----'-"-->-

Screw Conveyor Actlon

Radial bearings can be fully shielded and

sealed anti-friction bearings or various types of
friction bearings, depending on the external
lubrication. Common friction bearings in grain
handling use a prelubricated, porous hardwood
bushing, as this material is lubricated for its
normal service life and is not affected by grain
dust.
V
20. Preventative Maintenance
Major maintenance in a plant can be divided
into two broad groups:
> Breakdown maintenance
- the machine is run
until it breaks down, then repaired. The main-
tenance crew works f rom one emergency to
another; or
> Preventative maintenance
orderly repairs are
-
made to the machine bef ore it breaks down. This
does not totally eliminate breakdown mainten-
ance, but does reduce the frequency and
duration of the breakdowns.
Preventative maintenance should reduce
losses in production time, reduce the parts
inventory, and reduce the f requency of minor
maintenance calls.
It should also reduce the size of the working
maintenance staff , but may require additional
clerical or back-up staff.
The details of a preventative program will be
established by company policy as to the machines
selected, the style of records, and the frequency of
inspection. The company should enforce the
program and follow up the list of records and
observations with organized correction of the
indicated problems. There will still be incidents of
breakdown, but a good preventative maintenance
routine can eliminate many plant problems.
Records
Records and recording routine can vary f rom
an involved multiple card system with a large
clerical staff to a simple log book kept by each
maintenance shift.
Maintenance records usually cover the more
important items of machinery whose failure will
cause a great production time loss. The items to
be checked, frequency and types of checks, and
the allowable wear limits will need to be establish-
PREVENTATIVE MAI NTENANCE 427
ed before setting up a card or file.
ln some plants, normal service life is also
indicated on the card and may be reached before
the physical wear limits are reached.
For example, the hoist line on a major crane
may have a service life of four months, be allowed
a reduction in wire diameter to a set diameter, or
must be replaced when a wire per strand is
broken. lt is possible that the service life will be
reached before the wire shows any severe
physical damage, but the iine must be replaced.
Record sheets, files and card systems can be
bought as stock items f rom commercial suppliers
or can be designed to suit company needs.
The master record sheet should include most
of the following machine information:
> The title of the machine or its components;
> The location of the machine;
> A sketch of the components;
> The wear limits;
> The check date and who did the check;
> Observations;
> The date and details ol minor maintenance
work (call-outs);
> The date and details of major maintenance
work;
> The next check date; and
> Any other related information.
On-the-job readings should be recorded on
secondary work sheets and the results transferr-
ed to the master record to maintain a continuous
history of the machine,
lf vibration monitoring is part of the preventa-
tive maintenance program, a separate sheet
should be kept for it due to the amount of detail
required.
No matter how detailed the records are, they
are useless unless the maintenance supervisors
evaluate them and set a def inite date for repairs.
428 PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE

Too often there are emergency breakdowns, > Talk: check with the operator to see if he has
or production demands which override mainten- noticed any problems. Most operators take an
ance demands and preventative maintenance interest in the machine and will be aware of any
jobs are shelved until the next scheduled down- weaknesses or potential trouble spots.
time, or until it is too late. When the machine is down the sensory
checks are usually by sight only:
Checking the Machine > Belts are checked for condition;
> Sheaves are checked for condition;
Checking a machine can be done either > Bearings are checked for wear by trying to
when the machine is running or when it is down.
move the shaft endways to check for end f loat
> With the machine running: or by prying with a bar to check radial clearance.
o Sensory checks sight, hearing, smell, touch
and talk; and
- Vibration Monitoring
Vibration monitoring uses a small hand-held
o Mechanical checks
- vibration monitoring;
> With the machine down: machine to obtain the vibration reading of a
bearing or bearings. The readings are then
o Sensory checks
- sight,
o Mechanical checks
touch, and talk; and
non-destructive testing. transferred to a master sheet f or comparison
- against previous readings and the set standard.
Sensory Checks All machines vibrate when in motion: vibra-
Sensory checks are easy to do, they can be tion must be accepted as part of machine opera-
done f rom a distance and require no special tools. tion. The amount of vibration can be classed as
The diagram below represents an electric acceptable or unacceptable.
motor connected to a heavy-duty blower by a Some large companies, whose operation
multiple V-belt drive. depends on a substantial number of rotating
machines, have in recent years adopted preventa-
rl tive maintenance programs based on measuring
rl vibration at regular intervals, keeping a record of
lt
the results, and comparing the readings to those
tr'totor
rl established as normal and acceptable when the
tr machine was either new, or known to be in good
ll
operating condition.
When the millwright is employed in such a
company, training is usually provided in the use of
the particular vibration measurinE equipment
Sensory Checks on an Electrlc Motor, V-belt and Blower used. A basic understanding of unbalance, the
major cause of vibration problems, is essential for
When the motor is running, the sensory all millwrights. ln the absence of any measuring
checks can be done by: equipment, this knowledge may enable them to
> Sight; make an accurate assessment of the cause of a
o Belts f lopping, pulsating, or turned over; particular vibration, and have it corrected before
o Missing bearings nuts; failure occurs.
o Lubricant leaking past the seals; Causes ol Unbalance (Vibration)
> Hearing:
Non-symmetry
o Belt squeal;
o Abnormal noises from the motor or blower, Non-symmetry is the most common cause of
> Touch: unbalance since parts such as castings or
o Touch bearings B and D for heat; forgings cannot be made absolutely uniform.
o Touch bearings A and C, if it can be done For example, the cast V-belt pulley may have
safely; recesses to reduce weight and save material.
oTouch the motor housing for heat; There is an exaggerated difference between the
.Touch the blower housing for vibration; dimensions X and Y which would, even if only
> Smell:hot insulation or hot bearings; slightly different, cause the pulley to revolve

around its own centre of gravity, which would not
coincide with the hole centre, resulting in
unbaiance and vibration. lf uncorrected, this
could cause bearing damage, and possibly shaft
breakage due to fatigue.
G ravlty
Non-symmetry
Non-Honrogeneous Material
Non-homogeneous materiai in the machine
will cause unbalance but it is usualiy conf ined to
cast components, and consists of faults such as
blowholes, voids and variations in porosity of the
material.
Distortion
Distortion mainly occurs in fabricated rotat_
ing parts such as impellers and is caused by
residual stresses from welding becoming relieved
at operating speed. This may occur even if the
component has been stress-relieved after welding
and subsequentiy balanced.
Uneven Wear or Build-up
Uneven wear or build-up often occurs in
impellers, and fans operating under difficult or
dirty conditions.
Bent Shafts
Bent shafts can be caused by lack of care
when components are pressed onto or removed
from a shaft, but they can also be caused by
stresses created in the manufacturing process,
such as grinding, heat treatment, or straighten_
ing.
Eccentricity
Eccentricity may be caused by a combination
of tolerances and clearances, or by a machinlng
error. For example, if the tolerance for concentric_
ity of an outside diameter and the bore of a part is
0.442", and the clearance between the bore and
PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE 42g
shaft is 0.002", the eccentricity may vary trom zero
to 0.004", dependinE upon the position of the
keyway, since the setscrew on the key, or the taper
in a tapered key, will take up the bore clearance
towards itself.
Fabricated parts suclr as rolls with shafting
welded into each end to form bearing surfaces-,
also suffer from eccentricity.
Balancing 0perations
Unbalance is described under two classif ica_
tions: static and dynamic.
Static Balancing
Static balancing consists of measuring the
amount of unbalance by mounting the compon_
ent on a patr of level "knife edges', and observing
gravity bringing the heavy side to the bottom.
Weight is then added at the light side or removed
at the heavy side untilthe part will not rest in any
particular position.
This method of correcting unbalance is oniy
satisfactory when using components such as
very narrow inrpellers or flywheels.
Static Balanclng
Dynamic Balancing
Dynamic balancing consists of revolving the
component in a machine which. by means of
floating bearing pedestals, allows the part to
revolve around its true centre of gravity.
lf this centre of gravrty does not coincide with
the centre of rotation of the part established by its
bearing surfaces, then movement of the machine,s
f loating bearings will occur. This rnovement
wiil be
in proportion to, and in accordance with, the
amount and position of the unbalance, which may
be a combination of any of the situations shown in
the following diagrams.
/
430 PREVENTATIVEMAINTENANCE
Dynamlc Balanclng
The displacement of the floating bearings will
be measured mechanically or electronically,
depending on the type of machine. Some mach-
ines will directly read out the amounts and
positions of unbalance, while others require
calculations to arrive at the necessary corrections
and their positions in degrees around the circum-
ference.
The amount of unbalance is measured in
ounces/inches, e.g. 12 oz/in could be 3 ounces of
unbalance, 4 inches from the centre of the part, or
1 ounce, 12 inches f rom the centre, or any
combination where the amount of unbalance
multiplied by its distance from the centre equals
12.
Correction is made by the more convenient of
two methods:
> Adding weight corresponding to the amount of
unbalance at a point diametrically opposite to
the heavy side; or
> Reducing weight at the heavy side drilling
holes is one method.
- 1/2 Amplitude
ln the absence of any instruments to measure
unbalance, improvement in the vibration level of
any given piece of equipment can be achieved by
trial and error. Almost any type of bearing has
clearance, and the part causing the vibration will
take up this clearance at its heavy side. Even if this
clearance is only 0.002", a pencil or a piece of chalk
or any marker will, if steadily held, produce a mark
at the heavy or eccentric part of the diameter
involved. This is done at both ends of the part
adjacent to its bearing surfaces. Trial weights can
then be added temporarily in varying amounts
diametrically opposite to the mark.
Where centrifugal force helps to hold the
added weights in place, plasticine, balancing clay,
or putty can be used; otherwise bolts, nuts and/or
washers can be added to the through, or tapped,
holes. Clip weights made from a flat bar bent in a
U-shape can be used, but only where centrifugal
force will help to keep them in place.
Note: For safety, no one should be in line with
the temporary weights in case the weights come
loose.
For components of any length, both ends
should initially be marked. Correction attempted
on one end will also affect the other end.
lf an initial improvement or deterioration in
vibration is achieved by the addition of the
temporary weights, the procedure of marking the
eccentric or heavy sides should be repeated. The
weights are changed in amount and position in
accordance with previous trial positions until a
satisfactory reduction in vibration level occurs.
lf eccentricity is the sole cause of vibration,
then no change in the position of the original
marks can be achieved and the only guide as to the
position and number of weights to be added is a
reduction in the level of vibration to an acceptable
standard. This is a trial-and-error procedure, but if
correctly applied, in the absence of any vibration
measuring equipment, it can considerably extend
the working life of the machine.
Unbalance or Vibration Terms
The following terms are often used to de-
scribe vibration or unbalance, and should be
clearly understood.
Amplitude the extent of vibration in a part
-
as measured in thousandths of an inch (mils). lt is
the peak-to-peak distance an unbalanced rotat-
ing body moves from its neutral position.
v
]
I
--,r
1/2 Amplitude i
Measurlng Vlbratlon ln Unbalanced Part
Frequency
- the number of completecycles
per second (cps) or cycles per minute (cpm) of
vibration. The cpm description is preferred
because of its relationship to rpm.
Natural Frequency the f requency at which
-

an object vibrates, due to its length, diameter, and
construction. A good example of naturalfrequen-
cy is a tuning fork which, because of lts construc-
tion, can only vibrate at a srngle f requency.
Resonance
- an exaggerated vibration
amplitude caused by a disturbing unbalance
force which corresponds in frequency with the
natural f requency of a given machine part.
Critical Speed a type of resonance which
-
occurs when a shaft or other rotating component
is revolving at a speed which has reached or is
close to reaching its naturalfrequency, causing it
to vibrate or whip excessively. Machines are
generally designed to run well above or below
this speed.
Harrnonic a frequency which is a multiple
or dividend of-the original source of vibration
commonly 2, 4, or 6 times in the case of an even
harmonic, or 3, 5, or 7 times in the case of an odd
harmonic.
Vibratlon-Measuring Equipment
Reeds
Reeds are one of the simplest and least
expensive vibration-measuring devices and work
on the tuned reed principle. A steel reed is coileo,
inside a circular case and can be fed out of the
case by an adjusting screw. As the f ree length of
the reed projecting from the case increases, its
natural frequency decreases, the dial on the
instrument simultaneously rotates and gives a
direct reading of frequency from 450 to 50,000
cpm.
When in use, the instrument is placed against
Vlbration Condlllons
\
PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE 431
the vibrating part (usually as close to each
bearing as possible), the reed is slowly fed out
untii it starts to tremble and is then adjusted very
slowly untilit reaches maximum amplitude. When
correctly adjusted, it will develop a vibration
amplitude many times that of the source of
vibration. lt is limited in that it can only measure
frequency of vibration or give comparative
readings of vibration amplitude.
Light Beam Vibration lndicators
Light beam indicators use a plunger or
projecting pin which picks up vibrations. When
this moves, a small mirror oscillates by means of a
sensitive lever system, and light f rom a small
incandescent lamp is projected f rom the mirror to
a ground glass scale. The light beam produced
travels back and f orth across a scale, producing a
ribbon of light varying in width according to the
amplitude of the vibration source. The scale is
graduated in either 0.00.1 inch or 0.01 mm.
This is a self-contained unit using either
batteries or a I10-volt current and is available in
various models to cover a wide range of ampli-
tudes. lt can also be used to control a stroboscope
and thus locate the position of unbalance.
Battery or Power-operated Vibration Melers
Battery or power vibration meters are self_
contained units which are capable of measuring
amplitudes f rom 0.000002" to 0.1,,. Frequency
ranges f rom 50 to 500,000 cpm, both functions
being indicated on large f ront panel meters. The
instrument can also measure other f untions such
as acceleration and phase which refers to the
Peak
Neutral
Peak
/
432 PREVENTATIVE MAI NTENANCE

position of a vibrating component at a given point waves per time unit or a higher f requency; and
in time with reference to a mark or other fixed > Different peak velocities in inches per second;
point. A common example of this would be the line A covers a greater distance than line B in
relationship of the timing mark to the degree the same period of time, so it must be moving
position indicated when timing an automobile faster through the neutral axis.
engine with a stroboscope or "timing light". This
function enables balancing to be achieved in
place without trial and error, and with little
calculation. This type of instrument can also be
used in conjunction with a stroboscope.
The preceeding diagram illustrates common
vibratton condittons.
A a spring at rest after being extended by a
- fixed weight. The line shown is called the
neutral line or neutral axis.
B the same spring extended by an external
- f orce F, plus the f ixed weight. When the
downward motion stops, the motion has
reached its peak.
C - the action of the spring after the external
force F is suddenly removed. The spring
force snaps the weight W through the Am plitude
neutral line to the top position, peak or limit
of upward travel. At that point, the weight W
will start pulling the spring towards the
neutral axis, where it will centre the weight
W in the original location. Vibration can
therefore be compared to a spring being
loaded and unloaded in a regular sequence.
D the wave pattern of vibration drawn from
- neutral to peak, through peak, and back to
neutral.
Frequency - number of vibrations, waves or
cycles per period o{ time - usually expressed in
cycles per seconds or Hertz (Hz);
Amplitude - distance from peak to peak, Meaeurlng Frequency, Amplltude, and Veloclty

usually expressed in mils or thousandths of an Meter Use

inch; and
Peak velocily - speed through the neutral
line, usually expressed as inches per second.
ln the diagram, the vertical line represents
amplitude and the horizontal line representstime.
Lines A and B show vibrations of the same
f requency. Line B shows a vibration with a greater
amplitude and a greater peak velocity than line A.
lf B goes farther than A in the same period of tirne,
it must be travelling faster or must accelerate
faster to get from Peak to neutral.
ln the diagram, lines A and B show:
> The same amPlitude in rnils,
> Different f requencies (Flz) ltne A has more
-
Until the correct procedure has become
routine, the instruction book should be referred
to for:
> Connecting components:
> Battery checks;
> Range settings; and
> Dial readings.
As a general rule, range adjustrnent is made
to obtain readings with the needle in the midrange
of the dial.
.\t settings A and C shown in the next
diagram, the needle runs off the dial at either end.
At setting B the total needle travel is shown.

1o
W"
Use ol a Meter
The probe should be held at g0 degrees to the
reading point with a steady uniform pressure and
readings taken with the dial centred in front, not
off to one side.
Readings should be recorded as they are
made; not recorded after a series of readings have
been taken.
Saf ety:
> Do not reach past moving parts to obtain
readi ngs;
> Keep track of the cable slack;
> Do not get in a position where you can be
distracted and come in contact with moving
equipment.
Bearing Preparation
Consecutive readings should be taken from
the same spot on the bearing:a small paint spot, a
centre punch mark, or a smallcountersink can be
used as constant reference points. A small paint
spot with a section in the centre scraped down to
the base metal can also be used.
For best results, three bearing readings are
taken: vertical, horizontal and axial, as three
different readings can be obtained on the same
beari ng.
Machine design, guarding or other compon-
ents, may permit readings in one or two directions
for reference only.
Most rotating equipment has a natural vibra-
tion frequency higher than the rotating speed, but
some large, heavyweight, rotating machines have
a natural frequency below the operating speed. A
good example would be an impact hog in a wood
operation: during some part of the start-up cycle
the hog vibrates or shakes severely, but snrooths
PREVENTATIVEMAINTENANCE 433
out as it increases in speed. The same vibration
also occurs as the machine shuts down.
Nondestructive Testing
Nondestructive testing is a means of testing a
part for cracks or f iaws without changing its
physical shape. Destructive testlng involves a
change in the physicai shape of the object being
tested.
Example: A highly stressed fastener is
suspected of havi ng a root crack at ihe fi rst th read
from the shank.
Destructive testing would mean setting the
fastener in a vice and torquing it until a total
failure takes place, then inspecting the broken
ends. The difference in the grain structure and
colour of metal would show the depth of the
crack. The crack area is usually dark and has a
fine grain structure.
il
W tl
Dilterence ln Colour and Graln Structure Showlng
Depth ol Crack
Nondestructive testing would require using a
means of testing which would not physically
damage the fastener. (lf there is a spare fastener
available and the original fastener shows signs of
failure, its threads should be damaged with a
hammer and the old fastener thrown in the scrap
box. This prevents the damaged fastener from
accidentally being used as a spare.)
For accurate results, nondestructive testing
is usually contracted out to a testing company
because of the following factors:
> The cost of testing equipment that will seldom
be used;
> The lack of properly trained men, or the cost of
properly training men to run the test equipment;
and
> Major components are tested to meet insurance
standards and the report must be signed by a
qualified inspector.
ln-plant nondestructive testing done by the
regular maintenance crew usually consists of two
checks:
434 PREVENTATIVE MAI NTENANCE
> Visual checks; and
> Dye penetrant spot-checks to follow up visual
checks.
Visual Checks
Visual inspection is a quick, portable and
inexpensive means of checking surface defects,
but it does not give any indication of depth.
Accuracy will depend on the experience of the
i nspector.
Equipment consists of a flashlight, a mirror
on an extension with balljoints and a magnifying
g I ass.
\ /:.":":::'""
Vlsual Checks
When using a flashlight, the beam should be
pointed back towards the operator at an angle of
not more than 45 degrees f rom the surface. The
suspected area should be examined from above
the line of reflected light.
Visual inspection will establish the fact that a
crack exists. Some means of nondestructive
testing should then be used to determine the
extent of the crack or fault.
Dye Penetrants
Dye penetrants can be classif ied by the light
source used for viewing:
> White light for use in daylight or in areas with
-
good lighting; and
> Black light
- fluorescent dyes used with a
black light source to obtain bright dye lines.
This is very effective in a dark area where the
dye is brilliant but there are few background
details.
The penetrants can be water-washable, post-
em ulsif ier or solvent-removable. Solvent-remov-
able penetrant is usually used for small spot-
check jobs.
Local Spot-checks
Local spot-checks can be made on any
exposed nonporous metal and some nonmetallic
su bstances.
The area around the suspected substance
must be free of paint, rust or other types of
coatings. Rust or paint must be chipped off
carefully, so that metal near the crack is not
displaced to f ill the crack at the surface.
When using a three-part spot-check kit of
cleaner, penetrant, and developer, the instruc-
tions on each container must be followed caref ul-
ly to obtain the best results.
Variations in the following routine can affect
the accuracy of the reading.
Dye Penetrant Application
> Clean the crack and the area around the crack
with an approved solvent,
> Apply a coat of penetrant;
Dye Penetrants
> Wait 5 to 7 minutes to allow the penetrant to
ully f ill the crack;
f
> Wipe off any excess dye on the surface being
tested left on the surface will give a
- any dyeUse
false reading. an absorbent towel to
remove excess dye, then a towel dampened
with approved solvent as a f inal step
- do not
use spray on the solvent;
> Apply a thin, even coat of developer to the
cleaned area;
> Wait 10 to 20 minutes to give the developer time
to pull the dye from the crack.
> When the dye lines have set, the crack and test
results will be evident;call the supervisory staff
for evaluation;
> Clean off the developer before putting the part
into service. lf the part is ferrous and will go into
storage, oil the exposed surfaces then cover
with rust-resistant compounds.
 T

PREVENTATIVE MAI NTENANCE

Developer > Disadvanfages.'

o Depends on the direction of the sound beam

I
\ir
ir to the fault;
o Requires a skilled operator to set up equip-
ment and evaluate the testing.
lrl,l X-ray
> Advantages:
o Permanent test record;
Pulllng Dye trom the Crack wlth Developer o Will check both internal and external faults;
o Will check parts hidden by the cover or other
lf permanent records are required, they can components;
be obtained by photographing the test results at o Very little preparation is required;
close range. > Disadvantages.'
Spot-checking should be classed as a skilled o Expensive;
manual art. The routine steps above are variables . Requires a secondary developing process;
which will change the results: impropercleaning o Depends on the direction of the X-ray to the
will keep out penetrant; a quick spray or brush job fau lt;
will not deposit enough dye for full penetration; . Requires a skilled operator to set up equip-
not waiting sufficient time before wiping off ment and evaluate the tests; and
excess dye will keep the dye from penetrating o Has a health hazard factor.
f ully.

Other methods of nondestructive testing

require the use of special equipment, a power
source, and a trained operator.
Magnetic Particles
> Advantages:
o Will indicate surface and shallow subsurface
defects;
o Portable (on wheels);
> Disadvantages:
. Used only on ferrous metals;
e Parts should be in the clear for testing
(separate from other equipment);
o lnspection is partly directional, requiring
special positioning of probes, leads or coils;
o No permanent record unless photographed or
dry powder is pressed onto scotch tape (or
cellotape);
o Parts must be demagnetized and all powder
removed from the surface; and
r Requ i res a trai ned operatorto control mach i ne
settings and the position of leads or coils.
Ultrasonics
> Advantages:
o Will show surface and subsurface defects;
o Gives immediate results;
c With special equipment, readings can be
transferred to graph paper;
r Not restricted to ferrous metals;
o Little preparation of the part;
436 STEAM TURBINES

21. Steam Turbines

A single-stage steam turbine used as a power exerted in changing the speed or direction of a
source or prime moverfor mill machinerydevelops body in motion depends on the extent to which
a high hp from a relatively small unit. the speed or direction is changed.)
The turbine runs smoothly due to the dynamic Plant turbines are usually impulse turbines,
balance of the rotating parts and contains its own using stationary nozzles in the casing and one or
built-in overload protection and speed change two rings of the blades mounted on the revolving
capacity. wheel.
A turbine used over a speed range is less bulky Nozzle Fixed to Rim
than a synchronous electric motor or variable
speed adapter with the same hP.
lndustrial turbines will show a catalogue
speed range of 2500 to 6000 rPm.
Some turbines are supplied with NEMA output
shaft dimensions for foot mounting, or NEMA
flange and shaft dimensions for flange mounting.
Discharge steam f rom the turbine can be used
in the plant for process heating orfor low-pressure
steam operations. For example, a turbine using an
inlet pressure of 600 psig and a maximum dis-
charge pressure of 150 psi can recycle waste
steam for Plant use. Reactlon Turblne

Turbine TheorY Blade Fixed on Wheel

Turbines can be classed as either reaction or steam

impulse turbines.
> Reaction turbines - the nozzle is f ixed on the
rim of the wheel and supplied with steam Fixed
Nozzle in
through a hollow shaft and a hole through the Casi ng
wheel. Steam expands and is discharged
through the nozzle and the reaction f orce spins
the wheel in the opposite direction to the jet
(Newton's Law
- for every action there is an
equal and opPosite reaction.)
> lmputse turbines
- the nozzle is fixed in the
housing and directs high velocity steam against
the blades on the wheel. The f orce and velocity
of the jet are changed by the blade, giving
motion to the wheel. (Newton's Law - force lmpulse Turbine
 \

STEAM TURBINES 437

Turbine Components
Hand Valve
Casing
The stationary housing, casing, or cylinder, Steam Chest
surrounds the rotor and contains the steam entry
valves, nozzles, stationary blades and seals.
Small turbines are bolted to the foundation,
or base plate, and thermal changes are absorbed
in the machine,
Large multiple stage turbines are bolted to
the base at one anchor point and the casing is L s,ru, suppty
allowed to move axially or radially, with the
weight of the machine carried by sliding feet, or
"paws", guides and keyways. All slide areas Hand Valves
should be kept free of rust. Nozzles
The casing can be split, either parallelto the
shaft or at 90 degrees to the shaft. ln both cases, Expansion nozzles are use<j to direct the high
the flange surfaces are machined flat to make a velocity steam jet towards the vanes. Nozzle rings
good joint. or blocks are fastened to the high-pressure side
Fasteners between the top and bottom halves of the housing and the machined surfaces treated
of the casing are either high tensile bolts or studs. with approved paste, plastic string packing or
Torque loading on fasteners of the same diameter other seals to ensure proper sealing.
should be uniform. On large turbines, the boits or Nozzle wear occurs through erosion caused
cap screws rnay have holes drilled through the by steam velocity or possibly by fines in the jet
centre to allow the bolt to be heated by f lame or stream. Worn nozzles should be replaced by new
electrical source. When using "hot" fasteners, the nozzles or reconditioned spares.
service manual guide should be consulted as to
the correct temperature range and torque values. Fixed Buckets and Bucket
Gaskets are not used between the casing Holders
halves but special seaiing pastes or plastic string
packing can be used. The sealing paste must be
carefully removed from the joint surfaces when
the turbine is taken apart. The appropriate pastes
or plastic string packings are specified in the
service manual.
Screw threads shouid be treated with an anti-
seize or anti-galling compound to allow easy Rotating Dis6
remcval. and Buckets or
Vanes
Hand Valves
Hand valves are used to control the volume of
steann from the steam chest to the expansion
nozzles. Each hand vaive can control the steam Nozzle Block
supply to more than one nozzle. Recommended
hand valve use is usually specified in the operat- Steam Supply
ing manual: too few open valves wili reduce the
load capacity of the turbine; too many open
valves may rnean excessive steam consumption.
Hand valve operation is the responsibility of
the engineer or operator, not the maintenance
crew, lmproper use can lead to a mechanical Nozzle Ring
problem with the turbine. Flxed Bucketg and Buckel Holders
 438 STEAM TURBINES

the shaft and

setscrews; or they are pressed onto
Fixed buckets are used to direct the
steam The
The to slip or need
liable adiustment
ring of the wheel
from the first to the second "i"
;i;"";"otshould be adjusted to maintain a specif ic
located opposite
[r"X"* holder is a short section around the between it and the housing'
in" norrle, and does not extend all carries the "*irl "t"utance
Radial clearance is set by the machined dimen-
The bucket holder which
"u.ing.u"ne or buckets is fastened to the nozzle sions of the sleeve. Recommended clearances
"rir"i will be given in the service manual'
' "
ring. During any overhaul, the sleeves should
be
bucket
A".rrrte axial location of the fixedspacers' checked for wear and adjusted or replaced when
by machined parts or
- is obtainedshouid
holder
be treated with an anti- necessary.
All fasteners
galling'
seize compound to prevent thread I '.- or'r, Clearance
. Bearing Housing
Rotating AssemblY (Other than
Governor and SPeed Controls)
the
The rotating assembly usually consists of
seals or flingers Where
shaft, wheel, and steeve
iri.tlon thrust bearings are used' thrust collars on
the shaft are part of the rotating unit'
Bearing Oil Throwers Sleeve bleeve seat (clearances Exaqgerated )

Sleeve Seals

Wheels
The style of wheel will depend on the
steam
flow Pattern:
{low is
> Radial wheels - used where the steam
to the
,t"r"O the rim of the wheel at 90 degrees
the rotation
shaft and is in the same direction as
of the wheel.
> Axia! wheels used where the steam flow is
- or
through the spaces between the vanesflow
buckets and onto the wheel' and the is

roughlY Parallel to the shaft'

a power
The most common turbine used as
or with two rows of
The shaft is made f rom carbon steel for source is an axial flow turbine
various alloy steels and is usually sized vanes on the wheel
connections to the driven machine'
"orp'l"g V-belt drive Radial Wheels
6;;;r;g connections such as ashaft.to
,t*ffV rJquire a larger diameter with- With radial wheels, a steam f low at the
90
wheel by
--- ihe overhung loading on the
stand
shaft' degrees to the shaft is directed at the
ngs on the on the wheel
tn the area under the carbon seal ri nozzle. The shape ol the buckets
returns the
gland ,on", the shaft can have a co-ating of and the housing or reversing chamber
avaiiable
of the
inrornu or stainless steel as a wearing surface' .t.u, to the wneet to utilize most
energy.
Sleeve Seals Nozzle position is important as the nozzle
Sleeve seals are used in the bearing
housing
m ust be at a specif ied ang le and
distance lrorn the
given in the service
to: wheel. These dimensionl are
to manual.
> Keep solids or iluids out of the bearing; and
The wheet must be rePlaced when:
Keep oil in the bearing' > The turbine will not carry the load at the
correct
tap
The sleeves are either slip iitted or lightly
position by line and back Pressures;
fitted onto the shaft and are held in

I
T
ri \

STEAM TURBINES

> Major damage takes place; or wheel must be stress-relieved;

> Wear or erosion reaches the limits shown in the
service manual.
When replacing a wheel on the shaft, the
wheel position must be adjusted to maintain a
definite overlap in relation to the reversing
chamber.
> Vibration due to a change in weight distribution
the wheel must be dynamically balanced.
-
Axial Flow
The wheel carrying the vanes can be either: a
one-piece casting of ductile iron, alloy steels or
high tensile bronze; or two separate discs held in
relative position on the shaft by a spacer or a shaft
sleeve.

First Row
Second Row or

Radlal Wheel

I Snatt Shoutder
Spacer Sleeve
Separate Dlscs

Steam Supply

Axlal Wheel

Wheel position can be established either: by

taking caref ul measurements from the old wheel
to the fixed, existing parts and recording the
measurements; or by referring to the service Slngle Hub lnstalled on Shart
manual. Hub lnstallation (Solid Wheet)
Repair work done to the wheel by welding or
brazing can lead to two main problems: The hub is instalied on the shaft with a light
interierence fit. The actual amount of interfer-
> Heat stress set up by uneven heating the ence will varyaccording to the shaft diameterand
-
-/f

STEAM TURBINES

hub base, but usually ranges from 0.0000" to

0.00075". A severe press is not recommended. Second Flow
lf the nut and wheel are removed, the nut and --'--) First Bow
shaft shoulder should be checked for square or l?- , - Fixed
parallel faces. A warped nut will cause the wheel
zr;':.=-.-)
to vihrrate and a bump or high spot on the contact
face of the shoulder will change the axial position
of the wheel.
The assembly should be coated with an anti- ._ -t-t$-S
seize compound before the parts are assembled. Exhaust Side

Blades
When discussing maintenance or repairs, the
term btade refers to an individual unit. The more
general terms, bucket or vane are also used, Second Row Blade
depending on the source of reference or cata-
logue.
The vanes on the wheel are used to convert
the energy of the high velocity steam jet into
mechanical energy, and to turn the wheel and
related rotating parts.
Steam f rom the nozzle strikes the first row of
vanes, imparting energy and motion. The direc-
tion of flow is then changed by the curved shape \
Nozzle
of the fixed bucket, and is directed towards the
second row of vanes to provide more energy to
First Rotating Blade
the wheel. Fixed Blade
Two-stage Blade Assembly

Blade
lnstallation
Gap

Gap
in
Wheel

Blade lnstallation

Flxed Blades (Buckets or Vanea)
Blade Construction
Blades are made f rom rolled or drawn
chrome steels or other steels with high tensile
strength and resistance to corrosion.
The blades can be cast into the wheel or
secured to the wheel by a dovetail or similar
locking means.

Riveted Tang
Typical Vane
Spacing between the blades is obtained by a
packing piece or spacer, but some heavy-duty
turbines have the spacer and blade machined
from one piece of material.
A gap or space must be left in the grooved
section of the wheel to allow installation of the
blades and spacers. This gap must be caref ully
f illed after the last blade is installed and the f iller
piece is locked in position.
Each blade has a tang or tenon on the end
which fits into a corresponding slot in the shroud
ring. After assembly, the tang is usually riveted
over the shroud section. Several short strips or
lengths of shrouding are used to shroud each
wheel. The short sections allow f or expansion but
also separate the blades into blocks for installa-
tion or removal.
The shrouding has three purposes:
> To act as a seal, or a means of directing steam
flow;
> To maintain blade tip spacing; and
> To support the tips of the blades.
Checks forshroud wear consist of inspection
for cracks, gaps, or loose shroud at the rivet
heads.
Forces acting on a blade are:
> Centrif ugal force caused by the speed of
rotation; and
- ances will vary but can be in the range of 0.0005"
> Bending f orce put on the blade by the steam
- force is variable: highest
jet. The bending
opposite the nozzle or fixed buckets and less
away from the nozzle or fixed buckets.
Blade Maintenance (Also Applies to Shroud
Sections)
> The inlet edge of the blade becomes rough due
\
STEAM TURBINES 441
to steam action
- clean with a f ine f ile or emery
cloth, and finish with an oilstone;
> Cracks
- check by visual inspection, or
magnetic particle testing if the blade is ferrous.
With some turbines, the wheel must be sent
to the manufacturer or to a manufacturer's agent
for any blade repairs.
Note: After any change of blades or shroud
sections, the rotor should be dynamically bal-
anced to eliminate possible unwanted vibration.
Glands or Sealing
Glands are used to prevent or reduce the leak-
age of high-pressure steam along the shaft. ln
some low-pressure cylinders, the gland prevents
air from leaking into the turbine.
Types of Glands
> So/id pack some small turbines use metallic
foils in the- gland or stuffing box to act as
a
sealing means. The gland is packed in the sarne
way as a centrifugal pump, but without a seal
ring.
> Carbon rings
- consist of three segments with
f lat parallel ends to ensure maximum contact.
The segments are held together by a garter
spring fitted into a groove. The ring is prevented
f rom turning by a stop bar which is fastened to
the bottom half of the casing. The segments
should have mate marks on each joint to ensure
correct assembly. Mate marks are frequently
made by using a small drill to make shallow
holes. Regardless of what is used, a standard
mate mark sequence should be used. There
should also be a standard method of installing
the rings, e.g. all notched segments under the
stop bar.
The carbon rings should not touch the shaft
when installed cold. The recommended clear-
to 0.002" when cold. Expansion will reduce this
clearance as carbon has a lower thermal expan-
sion coefficient than steel.
ln operation, the higher pressure on one side
of the ring will cause it to rub against one side of
the groove. When checking rings, the contact
side of the ring and the groove should also be
i nspected.
 442 STEAM TURBINES
Stop Bar
Garter Spring
Contact
High-pressure Side
Carbon Rlngs
Wear lirnits f or the carbon rings may be given
in the service manual for the machine. As a
general rule, the set should be replaced when
leakage becomes excessive.
Ring Removal
> When removing the top half of the casing or
gland containrng the rings, carefully lift the
section vertically until it clears the rings, then
swing it sideways;
> Handle rings carefully
- they may break;
> Lay out in order or sequence with the garter
spring attached so that each ring willgo back in
the original groove, and wear patterns will
match;
> Do not stretch the garter spring
- ii must exert
some force to contain the segments; and
> Put the segments back in correct sequence to
suit the mate marks. lf the mate marks are faint
when the ring is f irst removed, caref ully deepen
the marks in the same position.
Run-ln
A new set of carbon rings requires a "run-in"
routine which is usually outlined in the service
t
manual. The turbine is slowly brought up to
speed, allowing the rings to seat as a result of
thermal expansion. lf the rings contact the shaft,
it may be necessary to remove the rings, scrape
off or machine off the high spots, and repeat the
run-in routine.
Leaks
> Leaks past carbon rings are caused by:
> Wear due to shaft contact the recommended
cure a
is new set of rings.
-An emergency cure
can be obtained by mounting each segment in a
jig and grinding a smallamount off each end.
Each 0.001" removed f rom the end of a segment
will reduce the circumference by 0.006" and the
diameter by almost 0.002". Grinding also
destroys the round shape of the ring;
> Foreign material between the side of the ring
and the groove wall
- usually dirt or scale, but
can also be excessive quantities of sealing
compounds used at the casing joint;
> Errors in assembly
- mixing or damaging
segments, or dirty working conditions; or
> Back pressure
- the gland drain line is not
open enough to allow all water to drain off.
Labyrinth Seals
Labyrinth seals are used for high-pressure
and high-temperature conditions. The seal works
on the principle that a small amount of steam
escapes by the first ring, causing a drop in
pressure but an increase in velocity. Behind the
ring, the steam forms eddies or turbulent flow
patterns, thus reducing velocity. Each ring
reduced pressure and velocity.
Metal strips or inserts are locked in the
casing and almost touch the shaft sleeve. Regard-
less of design, the strips are tapered to a very thin
edge to prevent sleeve damage in case of
rubbing.
Labyrlnth Seals

Water Sealed Glands
Water sealed glands are used on some low-
pressure cylinders.
Flinger Ring
Water-sealed Glands
A flinger or impeller fastened to the shaft
throws water outwards to the casing to create a
fluid ring which seals between the impeller and
the casing.
The water gland must use sealing devices on
either side of the impeller to prevent water from
leaking out along the shaft.
The water supply is usually condensate fed
f rom a gravity tank. At start-up and shutdown, the
water supply should be under pressure when the
rotor is at a low rpm.
Speed Control
Speed control of a turbine is obtained by:
> A governor to maintain constant shaft rpm;
> A hand speed changer or remote control speed
changer to allow variations of wanted rpm; and
> An overspeed safety trip to shut off steam
supply in case the governor fails or the turbine
"runs away".
Governors
Centrifugal or Mechanical Constant
Speed Governor
The simplest form of constant speed gover-
nor is a mechanical, or "flyball" governor which
uses the centrif ugal force of revolving weights to
obtain valve movement.
The diagram shows the f unction of the main
parts in a flyball governor.
STEAM TURBINES 443
The centrifugal force of the weights (4) is
opposed by the compression spring (5). With an
increase in speed, the weights swing outwards,
moving the slide (6), which moves the lever (3)to
shift the governor valve (1). With a drop in speed,
the weights move closer to the shaft, allowing the
lever to move and open the governor valve. The
spring (2) is used to load the linkage and once
installed at proper length and position is normally
not adjusted.
Valve
Sp ring
Compression Spring
Basic Parts of a Mechanlcal Governor
Governor Adjustments
> Close the governor valve manually and make a
reference mark on the stem where it enters the
packi ng;
> Tighten the setscrew and turn the handwheel
until the reference mark indicates the proper
valve travel as recommended on the nameplate;
> Screw the jam nut against the governor lever
and lock it in place with the setscrew;
> With the valve open, adjust the position of the
lower spring seat so that the valve spring is
compressed to approximately 2 inches in
length, or the length recornmended in the
service manual;
> Adjust the governor spring adjusting nut to
obtain the maximum required speed (i.e., it a
plus or minus 10 percent range above and
below rated speed is required, set the main
governor to obtain a load speed '10 percent
above rated speed with the ball holder in the
position described above);
> The speed can then be lowered to the minimum
required by screwing in the handwheel. The
lockwheel is tightened'against the governor
lever to maintain the required speed.
Note: After adjustments to the main governor
have been made by means of the adjusting nut,
444 STEAM TURBINES
the nut should be given a slight turn in the
opposite direction"so that the governor spring
yoke will be centred in the slot in the shaft. lf the
yoke is allowed to rub, governing will be adver-
sely affected.
lmportant: The hand speed changer should
not be used to completely close the governor
valve. To avoid this, the handwheel should be
located so that the governor valve is 1/32" to 1/16"
open with the handwheel and lockwheel locked
together against the governor lever.
Governor Troubles
Most governor troubles can be avoided by
keeping the mechanism clean, properly lubri-
cated and in good adjustment.
An adjustment in the operating speed f rom 5
percent above the rated speed to 20 percent
below the rated speed can be obtained by the
manualspeed changer. Moving the manual speed
changer varies the compression force of the
spri ng.
Mechanlcal Governor wlth Flywelght
Some mechanical governors use flyweights
or f lyballs mounted on bands of spring steel. This
eliminates pivoted weights and lever linkage
shifting the control valve.
The governor position can be:
> ln line with the main shaft - either directly
attached to the shaft or joined by a f lexible
coupling. Governor parts rotate at the same
rpm as the shaft; or
> At 90 degrees to the main shaft
- with the
governor mechanism driven by a pair of bevel
gears or a worm and wheel assembly. The gears
also act as a reducer and the governor parts
rotate at a lower rpm than the main shaft.
Governor Maintenance
The governor mechanism is adjusted at the
factory to suit the customer's specifications and
normally needs little maintenance other than
routine lubrication with the correct grade of oil,
When the turbine is down for scheduled
inspection, the governor should be opened and
checked for:
> The condition of knife edges or pivot points;
> Free movement between f ixed and sliding parts;
> Wear on the ball or anti-friction bearings;
> Dirt, sludge, or foreign solid material in the
housing or oil reservoir. Dirty oil is usually an
indication that the governor should be taken
apart, checked, and thoroughly cleaned.
When the governor assembly is taken apart,
the recommended sequence for removal of parts
should be followed.
Careful measurements should be taken for
accurate location of adjusting nuts and for the
length of correctly installed springs. The measure-
ments are made as follows:
> Measure from fixed parts;
> Count the number of threads exposed;
> Put scribe marks at the point of contact or
engagement (in a non-wear area).
Bevel gear drive
- bef ore taking the gear train
apart, the gears should be checked for position on
the shaft, unless the shoulder and the shim are
located in a fixed position.
Backlash should be checked, usually by
locking the drive gear on the rotor shaft and using
a dial indicator to obtain a reading on the driven or
governor gear. Readings should be taken at four
points, 90 degrees apart, and the readings record-
ed. The temperature of the turbine wlll make a
difference in the amount of backlash. The manual
will recommend the cold or hot operating tempera-
ture clearances.
Bevel gears are usually a matched set and
have punch marks on the gears to show the correct
mesh position: one gear should have two teeth
rnarked, while the other gear will have one tooth
marked. The single marked tooth will be between
the two marked teeth on the other gear for correct
mesh.
Hydraulic Control Governors
Hydraulically operated governors are used
for more accurate control of speed and a more

positive movement of the throttle or steam
governor valve.
The diagram shows the basic parts of a A direct-acting hydraulic governor with
hydraulic control governor and theirf unction in a
governor control system. (Pressure control
valves and an accumulator are not shown.)
To Steam Control Valve
Revolving
Flyweights
Oil Sump
Hydraulic and Flywelght Control Governor
The oil pump (2) can be either an external or
internal gear style mounted on or driven by the
main shaft and submerged in the oil sump (1).
At normal running speed the compression
spring (3) baiances the centrifugal force created
by the revolving flyweights and the valve (5)
blocks off the return port from the differential
piston (6). The piston is open to pump pressure
on the small area at all times.
When the turbine speeds up due to a drop in
load, the increased centrifugal force of the
f lyweights shifts the valve (5), opening the return
port f rom the piston, allowing the piston to move,
thereby changing the setting of the throttle or
steam control valve.
With any drop in turbine speed due to an
increase in load, the flyweight centrifugal force
decreases. Th is allows the spring to sh ift the valve
to open the piston's return port to system
pressure. The pressure will be the same on each
side of the piston, but due to the difference in
effective areas, movement will be determined by
the greater force exerted by the larger area.
The compression spring and flyweight
assembly in some turbines is replaced by fly-
weights attached to a strip of f lexible spring steel.
\
\:
STEAM TURBINES 445
Direct-acting Hydraulic Governors
no
mechanical control assistance is designed on the
principle that the pressure delivered by the
hydraulic pump varies as the square of the pump
speed.
Pressure Control To Steam Throttle
Valves
Gear Pump
Dlrect-actlng Hydraullc Governor
Not shown in the diagram are the necessary
orif ice valves and the maximum pressure or relief
valves. The governor is designed to reduce steam
supply as the piston advances.
The gear pump is driven by the turbine shaft
and picks up oil from the reservoir. At normal
operating speed, the f orce created by f luid
pressure against the piston is balanced by force
exerted by the compression spring.
Any increase in turbine shaft speed will
increase a pump speed which will increase
pressure. The increased force on the piston will
compress the spring and shift the valve linkageto
reduce steam flow.
Any decrease in turbine shaft speed will
reduce fluid pressure, aliowing the force of the
compression spring to open the governing valve.
Pneumatic Governors
Remote control of turbine speed can be
obtained by an external pneumatic signal activat-
ing a "pressure topwork" which is eonnected
directly to the governor steam valve.
The pressure topwork consists of:
> A housing which holds the diaphragm;
> A diaphragm;
> A compression spring;
> A connection to the governorvalve linkage;and
> A threaded connection f or the pneurnatic
sensing line.
F/rv

446 STEAM TURBINES

Th read ed Connection for plunger moves out to strike the trip linkage and
Pneumatic Sensing Line
block off the steam f low to the turbine through the
safety trip valve.
The basic parts and theory of operation of
two styles of mechanical overspeed trip mechan-
isms are shown below.
D iaph rag m Lock Nut
Figure a
Adjusting

Sp rin g

Connectron to Governor
Valve Linkage

r-_-.1--
Pneumallc Governor rrip Linkase- --l_A I

A constant speed mechanism, which is also Overspeed Trlp

built into the turbine controls, operates at a shaft
speed slightly higher than regularf ull load speed. Figure b
This extra governor acts as: Adjusting Screw
Lock Nut
> An emergency means to prevent the turbine
from overspeeding in case of pressure line
failure; and
> A standard governor if the topwork is taken out Spring
of service.

Trips or Automatic Shutoffs

Overspeed Trip
The overspeed trip or emergency governoris
Normal Position
a mechanical safety device entirely separate or
independent from the constant speed control
governor. lts purpose is to sh ut down the turbine
when the rotating speed is from 10 to 15 percent
above the maximum operating speed.
The overspeed control mechanism is usually
set at the lactory to suit the speed specif ied by the
purchaser, but it can be adjusted in the plant to
suit changes in plant requirements. The over-
speed trip rpm is shown on the nameplate
attached to the machine.
The rotating part of the trip consists of a
spring-loaded plunger or weight, mounted on the
turbine shaft. At a set speed, centrifugal force Activated position
overcomes spring force and the weight or Overspeed Trlp

ln f igure a, the plunger carries a weight
which is loaded by a spring. Spring tension is
adjusted by adjusting the nut and the lock nut.
When the speed limit is reached, centrif ugal
force on weight moves the plunger out to contact
the trip linkage.
ln f igure b, spring tension is controlled by
washers of a definite thickness between the
spring and the adjusting nut.
The weight swings on a pivot pin and
loaded by a spring. Spring tension is controlled
by an adjusting screw and a lock nut.
When the speed limit is reached, centrifugal
force moves the weight out to strike the linkage
which controls the mechanical linkage to operate
the trip valve.
In both illustrations, the space or gap G is
given as a def inite distance in the service manual.
Any change in the overspeed limit is done by
adjusting the spring tension, not by changing the
dimensions of the gap G.
Manual Trlp
The trip mechanism can also be manually
operated and reset.
The manual overspeed trip should be tested
and reset on a regular daily or weekly basis, to
ensure that the linkage and valve are operating
correctly. This is done by operating the hand trip
and observing the speed change of the machine.
Overspeed trip valves to shut off the steam
supply come in several styles, the most common
ones being spring-loaded butterfly valves or
spring-loaded spool valves.
Trip Problems
> Valve stem sticks d ue to scale or f oreig
material;
> Vaive stem sticks due to tight packing after
routine maintenance;
> Mechanical damage to valve parts;
> Linkage problems:
. Tight pivot points;
o Bent linkage;
e Latches not seating properly;
> Clearance too large between the shaft plunger
and the trip linkage; or
> Excessive vibration which activates the over-
speed trip.
lf the overspeed unit is to be taken apart, the
position of the adjusting screw and the length of
the spring should be caref ully marked or measur-
\ '\.
\
\:\\
STEAM TURBINES 447
ed to ensure proper spring compression when the
parts are reassembled,
Low Oil Pressure Trips
Low oil pressure trips are used on machines
with forced oil or pressure oil lubrication. When
oil pressure drops below a minimum pressure
setting, the steam trip valve is actuated.
Solenoid and High-back Pressure
is
Trips
Solenoid trips and high-back pressure trips
are optional features. Solenoid trips can be shut
down f rom a remote station.
Bearlngs
Bearings are used to carry either radial or
axial loads, or both, and can be either white metal
(babbitt) bearings or anti-friction bearings.
Main beari ngs are separate f rom the cylinder
or pressure housing to allow servicing without
disturbing the pressure seals and to allow better
heat control.
Anti-f riction Bearings
Anti-friction main bearings are used on
small, low temperature turbines, provided the
bearing temperature is not too high. Heat is
usually controlled by:
> Finned bearing housings to dissipate heat;
> Water-cooled jackets around the housing;
> Water-cooled inserts in the oil reservoir; and
> Full flow oil circulating systems instead of a
reservoir in the housing.
n
One bearing must be fixed, usually at the
governor end to locate the rotor, whrle the other
bearing must float. The use of a fixed ballbearing
will elirninate the need for a separate thrust
control bearing.
When replacing an anti-friction bearing
which is sealed on one side, the seal must be
facing in the correct direction.
Turbines often come with friction style main
bearings and anti-friction bearings in the gover-
nor end.
Friction Bearings
Friction bearings must take radial, or a
combination of radial and axial, loads. They are
horizontally split and designed so that the bottom
)
I
r
I
i
448 STEAM TURBINES
half or shell can be removed without disturbing
the shaft, rotating elements, or other components.
Frietion material is usually a premium grade
babbitt, tinned or cast to a backing plate for
strength and rigidity.
Bearing mountings can be rigid or sel{-
alig ning.
Figure a Figure b
Bea ri ng
Housi ng
Rig id Self -alig
Bearlng Mountlngs
Figure a: frigid no provision
misalignment.
- f
Figure b: Setf-aligning - to allow for minor
misalignment.
ln erther style, the bearing must be caref ully
fitted to the shaft to obtain both maximum surface
contact area and an efficient oil wedge when the
shaft is rotating. Correct chamfering and grooving
are necessary for proper oiidistribution and entry.
New "part number" bearings are usually
machine shop finished for correct chamfer,
contact surface and running clearance. All dimen-
sions are held to very accurate iimits to eliminate
the need for any fitting or adjustments.
After installing a new bearing or bearings, the
turbine should be run brief ly, then shut down and
the bearings removed to allow a check o{ the
contact surfaces. During a trial run, the housing
and lubricant should be checked for any marked
increase in temperature.
Bearlng Wear
Bearing wear with the shaft in position is
usually checked by the f use wire (lead wirei or
piastic crush method. Thts routine is explained in
the chapter on f riction bearings.
With both bearing halves removed or with the
shaft removed, bearinE wear can be checked by
clamping the halves together and taking several
readings of the bore with an inside micrometer.
The readings are then plotted to show the high
and low areas.
Bearing removal routine varies according to
the machine:
> Remove the bearing cap by lifting it straight up
to clear any f linger rings or throwers;
> Remove the top half of the bearing, taking care
not to damage the oil ring (if used);
> Carefully take the weight off the shaft. Do nof
lift the shaft as other components such as
carbon rinEs can be damaged; and
> Remove any holding screws or keepers and roll
out the bottom half of the bearing shell.
Replacement or treatment of worn bearings
will depend on the make of the machine. On small
machines, the bearing is replaced when wear
reaches a set amount; no fitting is allowed. On
large machines with shimmed hrearings, the liner
can be scraped and fitted to a mandrel of the
n ing correct diameter and running clearance adjusted
by a shim pack. When scraping a bearing, the
service manual should be referred to for the
or rninor dimensions of the mandrel
- as some manuals
call f or a mandrel oversized by 0.001 inch to 0.002
inch"
Bearing Installation
> Make sure that shaft and bearing surfaces are
f ree of any solid f oreign material;
> Put a film of lubricant on the shaft and bearing
before they come in contact with each other;
r Roll the bottom bearing haif into position and
install holding screws or keepers;
> Allow the weight of the shaft to rest on the
bea ri ng,
> lnstall the top half of the bearing and oil ring;
> install the bearing cap and tiEhten;
> lf the turbine is not connected to the driven
machine, turn the turbine shaft by hand to see if
the bearing is binding on the shaft.
With the shaft and new bearings in position,
clearance can be checked rryith a dial indicator
mounted on the housing and a plunger bearing
on the shaft. Shaft movei'nent should be so small
that movement will not damage other compo-
nents or seals.
Gombination Radial/Axial Bearings
Small turbines frequently use a combination
radial and thrust control bearing consisting of a
brass or bronze shell with a tinned babbitt facing
on the inside and on both end shoulders.
General bearing design consists of a tight or
interference f it collar against the shaft shoulder
and an outside collar f itting against the opposite
end of the bearing. The outside collar may be
fixed in position, or adjusted to control end float
caused by bearing wear.
 \\\-
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.\

STEAM TURBINES 449

Radlal and Axial Combination Bearlng

Thrusl Bearlng
Clearances
Bearing clearances and allowable wear will Bearing Wear
be given in the service manual for the machine > Oil problems:
and are usually indicated as cold measurements. c Temperature is too high due to inadequate
The following is an example of a main friction cooling oil viscosity is too low, and oil
style bearing: -
deteriorates rapidly, forming acids and de-
posits;
New (Cold) Replace (Cotd) r Water in oil due to gland leakage, seal failure,
Drametral clearance (DC) 0.005 - 0.009" oil cooler leaks;
0.013"
Axial clearance (AC) 0.010 - 0.015" 0.020" " Out-of-round ring oilers not pulling oil -
replace the ring;
Bearings fitted with oil flingers or seals > Misalignment
should have the f linger rings f itted with specif ic casi ng;
- often due to piping strain on
axial and radial clearances in relation to the > Shaft is rough;
housinE. These clearances are usually given in > Coupling problems;
the service manual. o Misalignment;
Bea ring
o Coupling not allowing suff icient end float of
either or both driver and driven machines;
, Bearing > Vibration caused by unbalanced conditions;
> Rough, or not true, thrust collars caused by
wear, rust or impact damage;
> Governo r bearings worn, d ue to excessive
spring loading;
> Thrust bearings of small turbines can be
damaged by "hammer-and-bang" installation
Fllnger Clearances of a coupling. Heat the coupling to expand the
bore for easy assernbly.
Bearing Lubrication
Thrust Control
With the exception of turbines with vertically
On large turbines, thrust control is obtained mounted rotors usi ng g rease-l ubricated anti-f ric-
by using a "Michell" thrust bearing (sometimes tion bearings, oil is the usuai means of lubrication.
referred to as a Kingsbury-Michell bearing). Oil should have a high viscosity index and
This bearing basically consists of a collar contain additives to control the presence of water,
turned on the rotor shaft with a ring, and a set of air, and heat.
babbitt-faced pads on either side of the collar.
The pads are pivoted and chamfered on the Types ol Lubrication
leading edge to help form an oil wedge. > Splash usually in the governor end;
Some turbines have an adj usting mechanism -
> Ring oilers or oil flingers on the main bearing;
on the thrust rings to locate the rotor in the -
> Air/ail mist on the main bearings an option
h ousi ng. on some srnaller machines; -

I
450 STEAM TURBINES
> Forced feed
- preferably with a large holding
oil reservoir equipped with a filter and heat
exchanger. Some turbines call for an oil
capacity of nine or ten times the lubricating
pump delivery per minute.
A pressure system should have:
o An ad justable control of volume to each
beari ng;
o A means of warning of an oil pressure drop.
Some turbines have a trip-out mechanism on
the steam supply if the oil pressure falls below
a set level.
With proper lubrication, the oil wedge is
considered to have a thickness of about 0.00025"
per inch of shaft diameter.
Jacking Pumps
With large turbines, a jacking pump
needed to bring high-pressure oilto the bearings
underneath the shaft. The purpose of the pump is
to lift the rotor shaft off the bearing surface bef ore
any motion takes place. lf the oil and clearance
are not provided, the metal-to-metal contact
between the shaft and bearing will damage the
bearing at start-uP.
The jacking pump system willalso be needed
when the turbine rotor is slowly turned or rolled
during warm-up or cooling down periods.
The jacking pump is a positive displacement
hydraulic pump using lube oil from the main
reservoir. The start/stop operation of the motor
may be integrated with the turbine to start
pumping action when the shaft rpm falls below a
set limit.
Jacklng Pump
Vlbration
Excessive vibration can be caused by:
> Rotor out of balance due to damaged blades or
shrouds, or foreign material (scale) collecting
on the wheel;
> Misalignment with the driven machine,
> Worn coupling;
> Coupling not allowing suff icient end float;
> A high-speed coupling assembled with the
correct fasteners replaced by random length
fasteners and different weight nuts;
> Bent shaft check the service manual for
-
allowable run-out,
> Worn bearings;
> Tight carbon rings (starting up with new rings);
> Load put on casing by faulty pipe design; or
> Turbine and the driven machine mounted on a
is base that is too light to give proper support.
Turbine Overhaul
A turbine in good running condition may have
a scheduled shutdown only once every year, or
longer.
The following factors are needed for a good
overhaul with a minimum of delays, errors and
conf usion:
> A service record of the machine with details of
work done on previous shutdowns;
> A daily log history of the turbine to show possible
mechanical faults;
> The manufacturer's service manual with:
e Detailed sketches of parts and assembly;
o Recommended clearances, new/worn, hot/
cold;
e Recommended step-by-step routine for dis-
assembly and reassemblY;
> Special tools and hoisting equipment for the job
when the machine is scheduled to be down,
> A list of standard spare parts on hand or in the
stores;
> When allelse fails
(RlB).
- Read the lnstruction Book
{
 .\
\
MACHINE FOUNDATION 451

22. Machine Foundation

Concrete foundations for machinery should form and firmly secured in place. Care should be
rest on a firm footing such as rock, hard clay, taken that the anchor bolts protrude enough
well-compacted sand or gravel. lf the soil is less above the concrete base to allow for grout,
than firm, a largerfoundation basearea is needed thickness of the foot or lug, a cutwasher, and two
to carry the weight. When the soil is wet or soft, n uts.
piling may be necessary to provide vertical
support.
Form and concrete work is usually done by
other trades. Millwrights start from the anchor
bolts to install the machinery.

Anchor Bolts
Rigid hold-down bolts or anchor bolts for
steel work or machines are usually anchored in
concrete with the buried end deformed, bolted or
welded to a plate washer or length of angle iron.

Plpe or Tube Anchor Bolls

Not less than 4d
25d or more

Anchor Bolls and Methods ol Anchorlng

Pipe or tube anchor bolts are preferred to

fixed anchor bolts as they allow the bolt to be
moved slightly in the case of an error in hole
layout, either in the machine base or in the
template holding the anchor bolts in the form.
Anchor bolts are positioned in the form by
using a strong rigid wooden template.
The bolt hole locations are laid out from a
working drawing or are directiy marked on the
template f rom the holes in the machine base. The
template is placed in the exact position on the Helght ol Anchor Bolts above Concrele Base

)
452 MACHINE FOUNDATION

Where hold-down bolts are subject to severe

vibration and are liable to break at the thread
section, they are f requently installed through a
sleeve extending to a pocket in the foundation, to
form a boxed anchor bolt. This design is mainly
used on large, major items of mill machinery.
The pipe is not attached to the bolt, but
provides a clearance hole which allows the bolt to
be replaced.
This should allow easy bolt replacement, but
there can be d iff iculties such as rusting or the bolt The wedges or shims must bear equal weight
breaking off in the hole. to prevent distortion of the frame when the bolts
are tightened. Level on a machine ls checked in
two directions: lengthways, and sideways, using
b'l a fast level on any major machined horizontal
surface. For some equipment, a shaft level on a
Ao
ooB shaft will give an easy means of checking level in
ol one direction.
ut o
After level has been established, all bolts are
aq
o
tightened and the machine is again checked for
height and level.
s

,.:""'.y'oooodn
6. o- a o
.t o

Boxed Anchor Boll

Foundations
The foundation of a machine which is subject
to critical alignment is poured with the concrete
level at a minus elevation of 3/4 inch to 1 or 1 1/2
inch. After the concrete has cured, the machine is
lowered into position on the bolts, then brought
up to the desired height and level by metal shims
or slow tapered wedges placed close to each base
bolt.
Checklng Machine lor Level
Some cast iron f rames have holes drilled into
the base close to the anchor bolt holes and
tapped to carry jacking screws. Steel f rames
often have drilled clearance holes for jacking
bolts. The use of jacking bolts or screws is an
easy and accurate way to level a base.

Clearance Hole

Use ol Shlms and Wedges Jacklng Screws


As the grout is poured, the jacking screws
and bolts are usually protected so they can be
removed after the grout has set, to make sure the
foundation is resting on the grout. lf the jacks are
left in and the grout shrinks, the base wilt be
supported by the screws only.
Grout
Grout acts as a rigid f iller between the
levelled machine base and the concrete and is
subject to compression and vibration.
Grout falls into three main groups:
> Plant-mixed from cement, sand, oraggregates;
> Commercial cement-based grouts with addi-
tives to prevent shrinkage, available in small
premixed quantities. Follow the instructlons for
mixing;
> Epoxy fillers
- used for bonding ability,
chemical resistance and speed of setting. When
using an epoxy grout, follow instructions as to:
o Mixing the proportions of epoxy and catalyst
or setting agent;
o The allowable thickness of each layer;
o Correct time to cure;
o A release coating needed under the metal
base; and
. Any safety problems.
Grout, used to f ill the space between the
foundation and the machine, can be made from
Portland cement or Alumina cement, depending
on the time available. When the grout will have
several days to cure before being subjected to a
load or vibration, normal Portland cement can be
used, but when time is important, such as on a
weekend job, special cement should be used.
These cements wili be high early strength
Portland cement or Alumina cements such as
Lumnite or Cement Fondu. Alumina cements
should not be mixed with Portland cement as the
grout might set during mixing.
The mix for grouting up to four inches thick
is: one part cement, two parts sand, three parts
aggregate not over 3/8 of an inch diameter, with
only enough water to form a stiff consistency
(Cement Fondu). The grout should be so stiff that
it is placed and worked into position, not poured.
Thin grout for filling bolt holes can be: one
part cement, two parts sand, with enough water
so the grout can be poured. The finished grout
should be kept wet for 24 hours by the use of
sprays or wet canvas covers or sacking.
'\..\
MACHINE FOUNDATION 453
Pouring Grout
A dam of substantial material is made around
the foundation and grout poured in to the desired
level. The grout should completely f ill the space
between the machine base and the foundation
and should extend a short distance up the vertical
faces. Some machines have the complete space
between the base and foundation filled with grout
using special grout holes in the base. With other
equipment, grouting is limited to the actual
weight-bearing area.
Centrif ugal pumps will usually have the voids
between the foundation and the pump base
completely filled with grout. This not only acts as
an anchor, but also keeps fluid f rom pooling
underneath the base and creating a rust or
corrosion problem.
Gap Between Centrl{ugal Pump and Ease Fllled wlth Grout
lnstallations using pipe to allow for anchor
bolt movement should first have the pipe filled
with grout before grouting under the base. Some
plants may prefer to keep grout out of the pipe.
To change a complete assembly, there
should be some play in the anchor bolts to allow
for minor hole position variations.
Boxed anchor bolts require special care to
keep grout from getting into the space between
the bolt and the pipe.
Leave top of ioundation
rough; do not finish
with trowel
Fin ished
Grouting 3/4 to 1 1/2 lnches
454 MACHINE FOUNDATION
Pourlng Grout
Small machines, where the height to existing
equipment is not important, can be grout-
mounted on the existing concrete slab after the
necessary anchor bolts are installed and the
surface of the concrete is roughed. The regular
routine for levelling and grouting is then f ollowed.
Anchor bolts, used to bolt equipment to the
existing concrete structure of the floor, can be
installed in several ways. A common method of
bolting is to drill holes in the desired location,
insert bolts of suitable length and pour in a
conventional cement-based grout or an epoxy
filler to fill the space between the bolt and the
walls of the hole. There will not be much holding
power when standard grout is used in a hole
driiled by a diamond cutting bit; the walls are
usually too smooth.
Patented fasteners include lead and tapered
bushing assemblies which are driven together to
f ili the space between the bolt and the concrete, or
various types of expansion f ittings which depend
on the action of a bolt in a tapered metal sleeve to
obtain holding power. These fasteners call for a
definite diameter drill hole to obtain the best
results.
Power-driven tools, using an explosive charge
to drive special bolts are suitable for installing
bolts up to 3/8 of an inch in diameter.
Note: fhese toals are dangerous unless used
by a qualified operator.
The concrete to be grouted should have a
rough surface. Old concrete should have the
surface roughed or the finished layer removed.
A concrete area covered with oil should have
the oily section chipped out or at least have the
surface washed off with an active detergent or
solvent, then grouted at once before the oil works
to the surface.
Millwrights in small plants may be faced with
the job of mixing a srnall batch of concrete
because the quantity needed is too small for a
ready-mix order. An understanding of basic
concrete theory is an aid to creating a good usable
product.
Concrete is a solid mass of various sized
aggregates held together by a hardened paste
formed by the chemical action of cement and
water.
There are five types of Portland cement, two of
which the millwright will meet in ordinary work:
t Type 1 - normal cement used f or general
purpose concrete; and
> Type 2 high, early strength, used when forms
-
are to be removed as quickly as possible orwhen
the weather is near freezing.
Aggregates can be sand, gravel or crushed
stone, washed to remove mud and dirt, and
screened to specif ic sizes. The proportions of sand
and coarse aggregates are important as rough or
large size aggregates require more fine material to
fill the voids between the large particles. Gravel up
lo 1 1/2 inches in diameter forms the aggregate
range for most construction.
The water used in the mix should be clean, and
free of oil, acid or strong alkalies. lf the water islit
for drinking, it is suitable for concrete work.
Consistency refers to the amount of water in
the mix. Dry consistency indicates that the amount
of water is the minimum to hold the particles
together. Stif f consistency requires a larger
quantity of water, while a wet consistency uses a
maximum of water, near the limit for a particular
water/cement ratio.
Concrete with a wet consistency is easier to
pour and place and requires less working to
assume the shape of the form, but f or best results,
the stiffest consistency that can be placed should
be used. A wet sloppy mix allows the larger
aggregates to settle out as the concrete is being
poured or worked.

Wate r-to- on e -sac k -of -ce m e nt rat i o :
4 gallons (lmperial)
and weather - concrete for severe usage
watertight
-
4 4/5lo 5 gallons
ing watertight
- moderate wear and weather_
- to 6 gatlons tight
5 1/2
usage
watertight
- - possibty
Aggregate proportions vary according to the
volume of concrete, the narrowest or smallest
dimension of the form, and the desired strength.
The average fine to coarse ratio varies from 1:1
1/2lo 1:2.
Most proportions for small concrete jobs are
based on cement having a value of 1 (l sack
cement - 1 cubic foot). A 1:Z:4 designation
means one part cement, two parts sand, four
parts coarse aggregate.
Sacks of cement f or 1 cubic yard of concrete:
Mild exposure
Normal exposure- 5 bags
6
or sacks
bags or sacks
-
Severe exposure - 7 bags or sacks
Curing
The chemical reaction between cement and
water will stop as soon as the water is evaporated
or absorbed. To stop absorption, the f orm should
be soaked with water before the concrete is
poured, or treated with form oil to prevent water
f rom soaking into the wood. Moisture applied
to
the surface will prevent the too rapid evaporation
of water from the concrete. Moisture can be
applied by spraying or by covering the surface
with canvas, sacking or paper and keeping the
covering material wet. The spraying or covering
should not be started until the surface has
hardened. Forms should be left on as long as
possible to prevent evaporation from the side
surfaces. Three days is considered the minimum
time to maintain a water spray or covering.
Normal cement concrete reaches 100 per_
cent of its compressive strength in three days and
is considered to have reached its desired working
strength in 28 days.
Concrete hardens orsets as it gains strength.
The initial set occurs when the concrete hardens
and cannot be worked or trowelled. The final set
begins when the concrete becomes hard enough
to hold its shape. Concrete foundations that will
be grout-covered should have the surface rough_
ed up before the initial set is completed.
Air Entrainment
Air, in the form of microscopic bubbles,
\
MACHINE FOUNDATION 455
improves the durability of concrete. Air-entrained
concrete should be used where the hardened
concrete will be subject to alternate freezing and
thawing or where de-icing chemicals are used. It
is recommended for most outside jobs. Because
ai r-entrai ned concrete i m proves workability, it
should also be considered for most indoor jobs.
To entrain air, either an air-entraining
Portland cement or an air-entraining agent must
be used. lf an air-entraining cement is not used,
enough agent must be added to a portion of the
mixing water to produce the desired air content,
which is usually recommended by the manufac_
tu re r"
Laser Alignment
Laser equipment can vary from construction
/asers with an accuracy of plus or minus 1/4inch
(+ 1/4") at 300 feet from the instrument, to
precision /asers using special receivers to give an
accuracy of plus or minus 0.001 inch (+ 0.001,,)
for machine installation.
The common laser instrument uses a helium
neon tube to project a tight red beam that travels
in a straig ht path to prod uce either a visible round
red spot or a visible straightline effect.
The beam will cut through smoke, haze, and
welding fumes, and is easily read under varying
lig ht conditions.
The receivers are designed to read only the
laser beam and will not respond to other light
so u rces.
Saf ety:
> Do not look directly into either a laser beam or a
reflected laser beam. Other workers on or near
the job should also be warned;
> Follow instructions on the safe use of lasers as
set out by the lndustrial Health and Safety
Regulations, Workers' Compensation Board;
> Only a trained or qualif ied operator should use,
or be in charge of the machine;
> Any persistent'afterimages should be reported
to the first aid office.
Construction Lasers
Construction lasers emit a red beam which
has a diameter ol 1/2 inch at 300 feet and an
effective maximum ranEe of 500 feet. The beam is
emitted from a solid black circle at the top of the
tube. The beam can be held stationary to give a
spot reading or rotated to give a line reading.
 456 MACHINE FOUNDATION

Using the Beam

Vlsually
The projected laser beam can be read
directly f rom a wall or foundation, scale, survey-
or's rod, or an ordinary piece of 1 X 2 or 1 X 3
strapping. The beam width W will vary with the
distance f rom the laser.
Approximate level lines can be taken by
Ad.lusting
Screws marking the approximate centre of the beam, or
by marking the top and bottom limits of the beam
and finding the centre.

Power
Lead Readlng a Laser Beam from a Wall

Receivers
Ihe hand-held receiver gives an audio signal.
A single hand-held receiver can be held against
the wall or a piece of strapping and moved
towards the beam until the first audio signal or
"beep" is heard. A mark is made at this point and
the receiver moved through the beam until the
beep stops. Another mark is made and the
centerline of the beam will be between the two
marks.

Conalructlon Lasers

The power source can be a 12-volt battery or

a 110 AC source with a battery eliminator. When
hooking up to a battery power source, the correct
polarity should first be checked: red lead is
positive; black lead is negative.
The tripod shown is equipped with two levels
which are accurate to approximately 1/8 inch in
100 feet. Slngle Hand-held Recelver

il
 MACHINE FOUNDATION 457

Dual receivers can be used to obtain fairly

accurate readings. The receivers are set up to
cover the width of the beam. Two sound signals
indicate that the receivers are centred. One
sound signal indicates that one receiver is either
high or low. The degree of accuracy is controlled
by the width between the receivers.

_t__
t-at _-_+--
l-l - Uslng a Laser lo Check a Track

q e
U
The laser level is first set, then aimed down
the centre of the rail. Readings can be taken f rom
a scale clamped to a short length of 1 X 3 or its
equivalent, or direcily from a surveyor,s rod.
A reading is taken on the track above each
support or suitable distances apart and the
reading and position are recorded. After all the
readings have been taken, the results are evalu_
ated and adjustments made to the track level. A//
Dual Recelvers
elevations should be known before any positions
are changed.
The rod or batten should be at g0 degrees to
I the track for all readings. Any lean or slope will
g II
affect the accuracy of the readings.
--
- Correct t^^^/r^^'

I Rod Perpendlcular to Track lor laser Readlng

E
= lncllne
-I On incline applications such as conveyors, it
EE
- may be necessary to set the laser by reference to
the head drum and tail drum elevations, and to

hS bring all elevations in between up to suit, unless

bench mark references are given.

Dual Recelver Assembly Adjusted poelilon

-
Track Checks
Lasers can be used for a quick check of such
assemblies as carriage or crane tracks. Adlustments lor lncllne Readlnge
7 458 MACHINE FOUNDATION
Optlonal Mountlng
Clamp mountings are optional for attaching
the laser to an existing building member or
existing machinerY.
The clamp will allow for vertically mounting
as shown below but it can also be mounted on
horizontal members.
Column Clamp Mountlng to Attach a Laser to Bulldlng
or Machlnery
The levelling system in horizontal mounting
is not as accurate as the levelling system
vertical mounting: about 3/8 inch in 100 feet as
compared to 1/8 inch in 100 feet.
Horlzonlal Mountlng Bracket
Trlpod Footlng
Regardless of the style of mounting, the
tripod should sit on a f irm, solid footing to prevent
shifting or vibration. lf possible, it should be set in
a location where it can do the maximum amount
of work without moving the equipment. lf the
laser must be moved, at least two permanent
bench marks should be indicated f or f uture
reference in locating the laser.
Level or Not Level?
Almost all f oundations and equipment instal-
led in industrial plants are installed levelor on a
definite incline and are expected to stay in that
plane.
It is possible that building foundations will
gradually settle and the equipment will f ollow the
gradual change from level without creating any
maintenance problems or loss of production'
in
 I
F\
\
INDEX 461

lndex

A clearance, 121 floating, 128

Accumulators, 298-301
types of, 299-301
installation of , 30 1
Actuators,
roiary, 292
linear,294
Addendum, 212,223
Air,
pressure,352
properties and laws, 352-353
Arr circuits, 364-366
Air entrainment
in concrete, 455
Air-operated clutches, 167
air diaphragm clutch, 167
air tube clutch, 167
Aftercoolers, 357
Alignment
(see a/so Misalignment)
angular, 155
offset, 155
routine checks, 156, 163-164
tools for, 156
routine, l56-157
dial indicator, 158-161
shaft or rigid coupling,.163
line shaft, 163
V-belts. 180
sheaves, 189
pulleys, l96-197,394
seals, 328
laser,455
Anchor bolts, 451-452
ANSI standards
V-belts, 176
chain,236-237, 243
Antr-friction bearings, 117 -1 42
oil wedge formations, 86
lubrication system,93
grease lubrication,98
parts of, 1 17
rolling elements, 118
load. 1 18
speed, 1 19
sizes, 1 1 9
constructron, types of, 119
service weight, 120
seals and shields, 120
code,120-121
clearance for fits, 122
heating, 125,126
installation, hot, 125, 126
removal, 131-134
maintenance, l3T-142
wear, 137
in turbines,447
Arc of contact
(see Contact)
Armature discs, 169, 170
Atmospheric pressure, 352
Axial flow pumps, 338-339
Axial bearings, 127 -128
Axial clearance, 128
B maintenance, 199
Ba bbitt
key seats, in, 76
liner materral, as, 102-103
pour temperature, 1 03-1 04
mandrels, with, 105
procedure for use, 106
safe use of, 106
split lournal boxes, in, 107
bearing caps,107-108
pouring,103-109
finishing tools, 114
bearings, tinning for, 113-114
Black lash, 219
Eaffle plate, 268
Balance
static,429
dynamic, 429-430
Ball bearings, 118
Beari ngs
(see a/so Anti-friction bearings)
regular or "flat", 100
solid (see a/sc Dolly boxes),100-101
angle, 101
split, l01, 111, i35, 140
integrated, 102
gib-joint, 102
pillow block, 102, 108
one-piece, 108
fitting for contact, 109-1
clearance in, 111, 226
wear.112-113
Kingsbury Thrust, 116
liners, 1 14
heating the,.125
free.128
held. 128
fixed, 128
removal, 131-135
maintenance, 137-143
angular conlacl,227
failure, 137, 228
installation, 228-229
pusher, 228,229
trouble,232-234
turbines, in,447-450
Belt drive, 171-199
(see a/so Belts, Drive math)
theory of, 171-174
operation,171-174
installation, lSB-189
conveyor belting,389
Belts
(see a/so Conveyor Belting)
V-belts, 174-186
sheaves, 176, 186
timing or positive drive, 190-195
code numbertng, 191-193
poly V-, 192-194
flat belt drives, 194-195
joining, rnethods of, 197
operating tips, 198-199
size and speed calculations, 203-206
Belt tables, 414
Bernoulli's Principle, 262, 352
Bevel gears, 217
Blades,440-441
Bleed-off, 260
Blocks
rope,51-55
chain,57-58
snatch, 58
Bolt
threading a,13
eye, 62-63
Bore, in bearings, I19
Boring, 9
boring tools, 10
bored housing,126
10
chain sprockets, in, 238
Boyle's Law, 300, 352
Bu ckets
(see aiso Vanes)
elevator belts, 395-396
fixed, in steam turbines, 437-438
blades,440
Bushings
liners, 115
taper bushing, hubs, 151
t

462 INDEX

Camel-back chain, 404 recommended, tables of, 113 Coolers,272

Ca rcass, 367 shell crush,114 Cooper bearings, 140
Cartridge replacement, 136 def initions ol, 121, 223 Cord belts, construction, 175, 194
Centre distances (CD), 223 axial,128-129 Couplings, 143-164
horizontal centres, 241 in turbines,449 rigid, types o1, 143-144
long,242 Clearance pockets, 354-355 dimensions, 143
shorl.242 Clips, Crosby, 32 shop-made,144-145
Centres Clutch couplings, 154 shrink fit, 144-145
(see a/so Centre distances) CIutches,165-170 flexible, 145-152
closed,253 mechanical, 165-167 installation, 148-149
open, 254 friction, 165-167 fluid,152-154
tandem, 254 maintenance, 167 special characteristics, 154
float,255 air-operated,167-168 mechanical, 154
regenerative, 255 electrically activated, 169 clutch (centrifugal), 154
horizontai, 24 l Coeff icient alignment, 154-158
Centrif ugal couplings, 154 of expansion, 79 Cratering,268
Centrifugal pumps, 331 -351 of friction, 102, 171 Creep, 122
terms, 331-332 Combination chain, 406 Cup packing, 326-327
theory, 332-334 Com busti on Curing cement, 455
impellers,334-335 requirements for, 3 Cyl i nder
liquids. for,336-338 fuel density, 3 symbol tor,250
design,338-340 Compressed air, 352-366 direction control valves" 252
mounting, 338 atmospheric pressure, 352 totce,264-265
axial flow, 338-339 properties and laws, 352-353 speed, 265
installation,340 air circuits,364-366 hydraulic, 264-265, 294-298
start-up, 340,342 use, 362 mounting,297
maintenance, 342 Com pressron maintenance,29T-298
seals and leakage, 344-351 couplings,144
Chain V-belts, section of, 176
(see a/so Roller Chain) of liquids,261 D
length,403 Com pressors
detachable, 403 Dedendum,212
air, 353-366
pintle, 403, 406 Def lection
rec procating, 353-355
i

H-class, 403-404,407 belt tightening, in, 179, 193

staging and acting,354
transfer, 404 forces, 179, 193
heat control, 354
drag,405 Dial indicator
maximum pressure, 354
combrnation,406 reading for clearance, 1 12
unloading,354-355
fabricated, 406-407 alignment, 158-159
rotary, 355
tighteners, 407-408 mountings, 159-16.1
vane,355
checks,40B
electromagnet clutches, with, 170
iobe, 355
maintenance, 408 check for backlash, 219-220
screw, 356 Direction control valves, 252-255, 301
forged, 408-409 dynamic (kinetic), 356-357 four-port valves,253
silent,244 maintenance,35S-362
Dolly box (solid bearing), 100-101, 110
maintenance on a drive, 246 working components, 362-364 Drag chain, 405
multiple, 242-243 Concrete, 454-455 Drills
tables, 414 Conservation of Energy Law, 262, 352 twist drills. T
Chain conveyors, 399-413 Contact drilling machines,7-B
long link,399 area ot,100,157,220 shank drills, T
loading of, 399 fitting a bearing for, 109-110 presses, S
design of, 400 checking for, 1 10 tools for drilling, 10
parallel strand,400 positive (clutches), 165
materials for, 10
gravity drop, 400 belts, area of, 171
sizes, 10-1 1
S-d rives, 401 arc ot, 17 1-172, 181, 182
speed, 1 1
construction of, 401 gear,22O
feed, 1 1
Chain tables, 414-416 line of (gears), 216, 218
tap,13-15
Chamf ering Conveyor belting, 367-398 Drives
bearrngs, 109-1 10 types of, 367-369 (see a/so Belt drive,Jrive math and
lubrication, aid to, 110 joining, 369-371
scie n ce)
Charles's Law, 353 troughed conveyors, 371 -379
roller charn, 239-242
Circuits,250-260 harmful conditions, 377 -378
hydrostatic, 291-292
reading,250-260 maintenance, 379, 381 -389, 397-398
conveyor belting,389
symbols, 250, 27 1, 272, 286, 31 1 -31 2 installation,379-380 gravity drop (chain conveyors), 400
simple,250 design,389-397
S-drives,401
trouble-shooting,260 Conveyors
Drive math and science, 20A-211
tluid,267-272 (see a/so Chain conveyors)
(see a/so Beit drive)
air,364-366 gravity roller, 421 -422
pneumatic, 422-423 simple drives, 200-202
Clearance
compound drives, 209-21 1
iits, 78 air slide, 424 gear dflves, 220-222
.1
bearing, in a, 1l screw, 425
Drums. 403
checks for, 11 1-1 13 blow tanks an. 425
 {
INDEX 463

Duck, cotton, 367 non-metallic components In, 150 in mesh, 213-214

Dye penetrants, 434-435 pin couplings, 150-.151 spur,214-215
high-speed,152 helical, 21 5-216, 229-230
E spacer, 152 bevel, 217
Eccentricity, 429 floating shaft,.152 construction, 219-220
Elevator belti ng, 394-396 Flights,412-413 reduction unils, 224-232
Elongation Flow herringbone, 229
(see Percent elongation) (see a/so Fluid) tooth action, 213-214
Energy patterns, 253-255 single gear trains, 221
conservatton of, law of, 262,352 dividers,259 change,221
kinetic,262 restrictions, 259-260 pumps, 273-275
pressure, 262 streamline,262-263 motors, 287
potential,262 laminar, 262-263 Glands
heat, 262 measurement, 263 solid pack, 441
mechanical, 273 turbulent,263 carbon rings, 441
Flu id water sealed, 443
hydraulic, 273
Extin ishers
gu
properties of,261-264 Governors
hand, use of, 3 pressure, effect of, 261 centrifugal, 443
rating of, 4 flow, 251 , 262-263 mechanical constant speed, 443
markings,5 velocity of, 263, 265 adjustments, 443-444
Falk couplings, 146, 147, 152, 157 motors. 287 troubles, 444
Fasten ers hydraulic,292-293 maintenance, 444
installation ot,20-21 synthetic,294 hydraulic control, 444-445
bolted assemblies, 2.1 bleed-off,260 direct-acting,445
use of, 20 FIuid couplings, 1 52-1 54 pneumatic, 445-446
preload, 22-23 vortex action. 153 trips (automatic shutoff), 446-447
Fo rce
locking,23 Grease, 94-99
mechanical, 197 transmisston of.263 types of, 94-95
metal, 370 multiplication ol , 263-264 grades,95
Feeders,423-425 cylinder, 264,265 consistency,95
Fibre rope Foundations dropping point, 95
construction,34-35 machine, 45'1 -458 directional fluidity, 95
general use, 35-37 Frict ion use of, 96
Fillers, T6 (see a/so Friction bearings, Friction compatability of types, 96
Filters,270 clutches ) special applications, 96-97
types of, 271-272 cause oi Iire, 2 in anti-friction bearings, 98, 139-140
rating ot,271 over sheaves. 34 advantages of, 98
in compressors, 358 sliding, S2 on belting, 378
Fire rolling.83.84 Grooving
prevention,2 fluid. 84 in bearing caps, 110
causes of, 2, 3 comparisons, 85 Grout, 453
coef f icient of , 86 pouring,453-455
extinguishers, (see Extrnguishers)
classes of, 3 shoes,168 Gauge
resistant f luids, 293 energy loss, due to,262 pressure, 259-260, 262, 352
supporting fluids, 292-293 Friction bealngs, 100-1 16 flow, 260
parts of,100
Fire triangle,3
Fire fighting, principles, 3 styles of, 100-102 H
joint design, 102
F its Handi ng
clearance, T8 dimensions, l02
liners,102-103 (see Hight hand; Left hand)
transition, T8 Hand valves, 437
interference, 78, 122, 318 in turbines,447-448
Friction clutches, 165-167 Heat
drive, 78, 122,123 (see a/so Temperature)
press, 78, 122,124,126 disc or drum, 166
twin disc. .166 energy,262
shrink, 78, 124,126 exchangers,2T2
heating method, for,78, 125 toggle, 166
load limit. 166 belts, effect on, 378
drawing details, 80-81 Helical gears, 215-216
Fittings, hose, 310 centrifugal, l66
maintenance, l6T Helix
Flanged angle, 215
couplings,143-144 screw thread, 16
packing,321 G
Herringbone gears,229
pulleys, 196 Gaskets, 318-321 in single reduction units,229-230
Flanges, sheaves with, 188 O-rings, as, 324 High-low systems, 257
FIash point, B7 Gay-Lussac's Law, 353 Hoisting,50-65
Flexrble couplings, 1 45-1 52 Gears,212-234 Hose,307-310
metallic components in, 145-14g open, lubrication of, 96 Housi ng
slider couplings, 145 enclosed, lubrication of, 96-97 f riction bearing, 100
rollq; chain couplings, 145-146 couplings, 146-147 checks, anti-friction bearings, 123
gear couplings, 147 pilch, 212 bored,126
Falk couplings, 1 46-1 47 math and science, 220-223 split bearing, 135
t

464 INDEX

seals, 138-139, 328 Woodruff, 69 enclosed system 92

misaligned, 141 extraction, 73, 75 ring oiler, 93
Hubs emergency (saddle). 74 splash,93
removal, TS-77 step, 71 -72 manual.244
assembly, TT-79 spacer (Dutchman),73 dtip,245
shrink fit, 79 dritl,74 enclosed circulating, 93
expansion of , calculations, 79 Key seats oil bath, 116,245
taper bushing, 151 open or run-out, 70 oil mist, 94
Hydraulics, 250-317 boxed or round-end, 70 open gears, 96
symbols, 311-312 Woodruff, 70 enclosed gears,96-97
theory and laws, 261-264 emerEency, 73-74 anti-friction bearings, 98
math, 264-266 cutting, 74 safety, 98, 99
components, 267 Keyways torque values, eltecl on,22
pu mps, 266-267, 273-282 location of, 71 wire rope, 34
valves, 282-287 mismatched, 71 reduction units,225
fluids,292 Kingsbury thrust bearings, 116 roller chain, 244-245
Hypoid gears, 214,219 Kn ots compressors, 358
types ot, 37-49 orl classif ication, 89-91
I Lugs
L cast lifting, 63-64
ld le rs
use of, 181 Labyrinth seals,442 M
with poly V-belts, 194 Lagg i ng
pulleys, 196 types of, 392-393 Mandrels
sprockets,24.l Laser styles of,104
belt, 371 -374 align ment, 455-458 use of, 104-105
lmpellers construction lasers, 455-456 Maintenance, preventative, 427 -435
with fluid couPlings, 152, 153 beam, 456-457 Manganese steel,411
in centrif ugal pumps, 334-336 Lathes (engine and turret) chain,412
screw-style, 335 as drilling machines, S Mechanical clutches
with wearing rings, 336 Left-h an d jaw clutches, 165
wear and damage in,342,344 threads, 17 spiral iorm, 165
lndustrial Health and SafetY wire rope, 28-29 Meter
Reg ulations spooling, 31 vibration measuri ng, 432-433
(see Workers' Compensation Board) gears, 216, 218 Meter-in, 259-260
lnstallation reduction units, 225 Meter-out, 259-260
hot bearing, 125-126 Lift tables, 416-418 Metric
outer ring, 126 Limit end float couplings, 147 (see a/so ISO)
hydraulic, 134 ers
Li n thread, 19, 24
V-belts, 178-182 (see a/so Shells; Bushings) pitch nomenclalure,24
reduction units, 224 material, 100, 116 versus inch markings, 25
packing, 321-322 classes oi, 102 strength grades, 25, 26
O-rings, 323 friction bearing, 102 screw threads, 26
lip seals, 327-328 for preformed bearing, 114, 115 torque values,27
impellers, 334-336 Links pascal, 26l
pump,340 roller,235 V-belts, 183-184
seals,350 plate, 235 conversions, 26, 27
conveyor belting, 379-380 connecting,235 Misalign ment t
lntercoolers, 357 offset, 235-236 (see a/so Alignment) I
lnterrerence f its (see Fits) long link chain conveyors, 399, 408 conditions, 155 $
ISO lnternational Standards long link chain,408 deliberate, l55-156
Organization Lip seals, 327-328 shims to correct. 161
(see a/so Metric) Liq u ids calculations to correct, 161-162
thread,19-20 pumped,336-338 horizontal, l62-163
fits,80-81 hydraul ic theory, 261 -266 chain drive,24B
V-belts,183-184 Load pulley,394
chain, 236-237 , 243 radial, l 1B belt, 398
thrust, llB Motor
J axial, 1 19 tluid,287
capacity of bearings, 119 gear, 287
Jacks,50-51,112 Loadi ng vane, 287
Journal belts, 374-377 piston, 287-288
bearings,102 unloading,377 mounting, 288
boxes, split,107 Lobe compressors, 355 maintenance (vane), 288-290
Lubrication.82-99 theory, 290-291
K (see a/so Grease; Oil) multiple,291
Keys definition, S2 Mounting
rectangular,6T-68 theory of, 84 tapered bore bearings, 130, 134
tapered, 68 additives or inhibitors. 88 ball bearings, 130
gib-headed, 68-69 once through system, 90, 91 procedure,130

$:=-- -;
 INDEX 465

spherical roller bearings, 130 radial, pumps, 280 laser,456-457

thrust bearings, 137 motors, 287-288 Reci procating compressors, 353
dial indicator, 159 movement under power. 253 Records
rod, 159 Pitch belt drive, 173-174
clamp bar (alignment), 159-160 thread,18 maintenance, 427, 428
hydraulic, 134 belt, 191 Reduction
needle bearings, 136-1 37 pulley, 191 (see a/so Reduction units)
line (on belt), 174 calculations, 201-203
N pitch circle, 212,214 Reduction units
pitch line, 212,214 construction,224
Needle bearings, '1 17-1 18 gear,212-213 speed range, 224
mountrng, l36-137
diametral, 212,222 installation,224
Newton's Law, 436
diameler, 223 lubrication,225
Non-sym metry (u n balance), 428-429
circular, 212,223 worm gear, 225-226
Nozzles, 437
roller chain, 236, 237, 243 angular contact bearings. 22-
Plumbing shaf t-m ou nted, 230-231
o (see Pipe; Tubing) Reeds, 431
oir, 86-94, 96-99 Ply belts, 175-176,367 Reel stock, 176
(see a/so Viscosity, Lubrication, fabric, 194, 197 Refuse chain, 405
Grease ) synthetic,195,197 Reservoi rs
wedge, theory of, 84-86. 93. 116 Pneumatic conveyors, 422-423 symbol for, 250
choice of, 86 Polar attraction (soap molecules). 95 use of, 267-269
temperature range of . 86-87 Poppets, 282,286,316 Rig ht-hand
multi-grade, BB Port valves, 251-255 threads, 17
containers identification. 90 Positioning, axial, wrre rope, 28-29
engine, 89 bearing, 126-128 spooling,3l
air control in, BB Power drives (see Belts) gears, 215, 216,218
water control in, BB P resses reduction units,225
industrial,89 drill,8 Rigid couplings, 143-145
lubrication systems, 90-94. 364 cutting f luids for drill press, 11 flanged,143
mist lubrication, 94 P ress u re compression, 144
Oilers cracking,282 clamp, 144
wick-feed,91 :,,erride, 282 alignment, 163
drip-feed, 91, 92 a:mospheric,352 shop-made, 144-145
bottle, 91 3a,Ee, 259, 260, 262, 352 Ri ngs
ladder chain,92 a3sclute,352 o-, u-, v-,321-326
ring, 92, 93 P-:ss:re angles,213 piston,327
fog (in compressors), 364 0- wearing, 335-336
O-rings carbon (turbines),442
seating,322 ., :el ection method, 179 Rod wipers, 330
pressure,323 Roll cases, 418-421
installation, 323-324, 325 :: ia ^.,l'r-rbering, 192-193 guide,420
as gaskets, 324 nn 1Oi bottle,420
Outside diameter (OD) : a-::a. 'i 95 off-centre,421
def inition of , 223 - - s:e.a 195 Roller bearings, 117-1 .18
:-:;, -:: 95-96 '1
Roiler chain, 235-249
P : a' '34 construction, 235-236
drmensions,236
Pack i ng .,-.= 'Sa numbers,236-237
installation: inside, outside, 321 -322 {^/ "91 sprockets, 237-238
cup,326-327 ::'-s 3?2 drives,239-242
for pumps, 345-348 multiple widlh, 242
Pascal's Law,262,352 i-(:3 : :: 3:-:'i:gal pumps) lubrication,244-245
Percent elongation (tension), 172, 180
Pillow block 135 '-'a'. a' :' 2aa maintenance, 245-249
couplings,145-146
bearings, 102, 119
calculations, 2O7-209
solid, 108 Roller top chain, 409-410
gib-style, 111
Rooftop chain, 404
one-piece,135-136
Root diameter, 212
Pin couplings, 150-151
Rope
pin and bushing,150
pin and drsc connector 150 wire.28-34
pin and link connector, 1 50-1 fibre,34-37
51
R parts,37
Pintle chain,403,406
blocks, 51-55
Pipe, 304-305 Bal :s
knots, etc., 37-49
(see a/so Tubing) :- a: :^s. 200-203
Botor pump, 275
connections (symbolr t, zaI rnp-l :-::,: Run-in, 442
Piston Rean -, 3 "
rotary, pumps, 278 ReCer.e's
axial, pumps, 279 coara'es::'
7
A

466 INDEX

s Shells T
liners, 114-.1 15
Safety
ields
Tables (material moving)
Sh
(see a/so Workers' Compensation (see a/so Transfer tables)
use with anti-friction bearings, 120
Board) belt, 414
Shims
responsibility for, 1 chain,414-416
bearing, 111, 114
regulations, 1,32, 34, 57 lift,416-418
styles, with couplings, 159
in the shop, 2 turn,418
to correct misalignment, 161
on the job, 2 Take-u ps
to control end float, 226
fire prevention,2-3 screw, 390
hoisting,55-58 Shrink fit gravity, 391
hub assembly, 79
lubncants, handling of, 98-99 automatic, 391
couplings,144-145
when babbitting, 106 Tapping, 11, 12
Skids, 50, 417
V-belt installation, 178 hand,13-14
Skims,367
centrifugal pumps, 342 tap removal, 14-15, 16
Skirting,376
X-ray, 435 breakage, l4
Slack
laser, 455 Temperatu re
roller chain,240-241
Screw thread restrictions for slings, 59
theory of, 16-20 control, 249, 402 shaft expands, 67
Sleeves
def initions, 1 6-1 7 of oil, 86-87, 97, 98
adapter, 130, 131, 133,142
S-drives,401 heating for fits, 79, 124
Sealing,3l8-330 withdrawal, 131, 133-134 pouring babbitt, 103-109
(see a/so Seals) shaft, 339-340
critical, 79
external,318 seals, 438
heating the bearing, 125-126
internal, 318 Slide conveyors, 396-397
effect on belting, 378
glands,441 Slings,58-59 Tensile force
bridle, 60
Seals fasteners,20
stationary, 318 chain, grab, 61
bolts, 62
gaskets, Soap
31 8-321
greases,94-95 rigging science, 64
packing,321 Tension
polar attraction, 95
lip,327-328 belts, 172
Solenoids, 303-304
in housing,32B-329 effective, 172
Solid construction belt, 176
on shaft, 329-330 installed, 172
pump,344-351 Spacer couplings, 152, 157, 158 percenl, 172
Speed
mechanical,348-350 Th reads
bearing, 1 1 9
sleeve, 438 (see a/so Screw thread)
drive math and belts, 200-207
labyrinth,442 cutting, methods of, 12
.120 chain,208-211
anti-f riction bearings, threading a bolt, 13
control, valves, 260 poot,14
use of, 138
Splices
types of, 138, 139 purpose of, 17
eye splice,49
annulus,138 left-hand, 17
vulcanizing,369,394
Separators right-hand,17
(see a/so Spacer couplings)
Splicing
fabric ply belts, 197 multiple, 17
in anti-f riction bearings, 83, 117 symbols, 18
synthetic ply belts, 197
Setscrews series, 1B-19
I
skived joints, 197
i with hubs, 77 fasteners, 20
Spreader bar
I
Shaft studs, 23-24
! (see a/so Separators)
check, 123 recovery o1,24
use of, 63
i
I
I maintenance, 140-142 threading die, 12
Spri ng
I
couplings, floating, 152 Thrust
position, in gears,214 symbol lor,250
I

Sprockets
control in friction bearings, 1 15-1 16
I
intersecting, in gears, 217 end, 116, 215
I roller chain types, 237-239, 243-244
crossing, in gears,217 Kingsbury Bearings, 1 16
i
t for conveyor work, 410-411
i installation,22S-229 load, for bearings,119
i
in reduction units, 230-231 long link,410
I log haul, 410 adjustment, 128
I rolier chain, 240 bearings, mounting, 137
maintenance, 41 1
i seal on, 329
Squeeze,323
control, in turbines, 449
I
I sleeves,339-340 Timing
Stationary seals, 318
I turbine,438 belt, 191
!
parallel,214 Strainers
I
(see Filters)
pulley, 191
I
I Shanks,6-7 Tinning
Stuffing box, 344
{
t shank drills, T for babbit bearings,
Suction
Sheaves
rift,331,332 Tools
i V-belts, 177-178,183, 184, 231
I head,331,332 materials for, 10
t maintenance, 186-1 87, 1 89-1 90 hand tools for babbitting, 113-114
I im pellers, 334-335
variable speed drives, 187-188 for alignment, 156
Symbols
g
fixed, 188 Tooth thickness (T)
I standard graphic, 31 1-312
T variable,.'lBB-189 definition of, 223
fl
\ alignment, 189 Torque
rl
d
wire-rope, 32-33 values,21
E
p

t
i
i
ii
!:
\
E
l
iJ

H
I
I
l1
t
l--
 INDEX 467

lubrication,22 pressure control, 256, 258 Vulcanrzing,369,394

Tramp iron, 378 sequence, 258
Transfer chain, 404 volume control, 259-260, 286 w
Transfer tables, hydraulic,2B3
types of, 414-418 relief, pilot-operated, 283 Wearing plates, 336
gravity roller conveyors, 421-422 pressure-reduci ng, 284 Wearing rings, 335-336
Tripod, 458 Van e
Wedge action, 84
Tripper,377 pumps,276-278 Welding
Trips motors, 287 cause of fire, 2
overspeed, 446 compressors,355 Wheels (turbines)
manud, 447 blades, 440 radial,438-439
problems, 447 V-b elts axial,439
low oil pressure, 447 construction, lT4-177 solid, 439-440
solenoid,447 size groups,176 Whole depth
high back pressure,447 covers, 176 def inition of , 223
Tubing,305-307 shapes, 176 Winches, 58
Turbines,436-450 marking, 177 Wipers
theory, 436 installation ot, 178-182 rod, 330
reaction, 436 sheaves, 177-178,231 Wire rope
impulse,436 drive design, 182-184 construction,28-29
components, 437 link, 183 classification,29
speed control, 443 metric, 183-1 84 spoolrng on drums, 30-32
overhaul,450 Vibration sheaves, 32-33
fluid couplings, 152 monitoring, 428 wear, 33-34
Turn tables, 418 terms, 430-431 Iubrication,34
measuring equipment, 431 -433 replacement, 34
U in turbines,450 Workers' Compensation Board
Viscos ity lndustrial Health and Safety
Ultrasonics, 435 Regulations, 1, 32, 34, 57
Ultrmate tensile strength definition of,86
measurement of, 87 babbitting, l06
(see Tensile force) Working depth (WoD)
Unbalance,428-431 kinematic, ST
absolute, 87 definition,223
U-rings,324-325 Worm and wheel gears, 214.217 218
index,87
equivalents,90 224-227, 225
v
Volute. 333
Valves Vortex x
(see a/so Direction control valves) high, in fluid couplings, 153 X-ray,435
symbols lor, 250-251, 312 V-packing,325-326

Queen's Pilnter for Bdrish Columbia O

Victoria, 1986
MB-691