1.

NATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

Livestock farmers are constantly striving to improve their actual level of production. In so doing, it
becomes very important for them to know the basic body structure of the animals they rear. Since body
structure is closely related to body function, a knowledge of structure and function of an animal's body
will help farmers to understand clearly how each structure works to produce a particular livestock product
e.g. meat, milk, eggs. This sort of understanding is essential when the farmer's goal is to improve his
management practices which would later result in efficient production. Hence, the farmer's work would
be concentrated only on those practices which promote good health and comfort for animals so that they
can produce at their maximum levels with minimum cost to their owners.

The term "anatomy" refers to the science concerned with the form, structure and spatial relationships of
living organisms. In this chapter two aspects of the anatomy of farm animals will be presented the gross
anatomy and the systemic anatomy.

The gross anatomy

The gross anatomy deals with the relative positions of various body parts with emphasis on the external
features of an animal's body. In addition to the popular
classes of livestock, reference will also be made to fish and bees. Morphology relates to the form and
structure of an organism

A knowledge of morphology will help farmers to:

select breeding stock,

give to the veterinary surgeon or livestock officer oral descriptions on the exact position of injury or
abnormality of the body,
identify correct positions on the animal's body for administering injections,
give precise reports to the Artificial Inseminator,
comment accurately on body conformation at Animal Shows or Livestock Sales,
classify animals according to breeds and types, for example, for an animal to be registered as member
of a particular breed, it must show the external features

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Fig. 1.14

a) The respiratory system of the fowl

b) The structure of the lung and alveoli
c) The process of gaseous exchange in an alveolus

Energy required for the operation of all body processes is obtained during respiration. Respiration
involves breathing and the chemical breakdown of simple sugar within the cells to produce energy. Study
this chemical formula.
C 6 H12 06 + 6 02 Energy + 6C02 + 6H20

Simple Sugar oxygen carbon water

(Glucose) dioxide
Air reaches the lungs by passing through the nostrils, pharynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. The
bronchioles within the lungs end in clusters of air sacs called alveoli. Alveoli are surrounded with a net
work of blood capillaries. It is in the alveoli that oxygen gas inhaled is diffused into the blood cells in the
capillary network and carbon dioxide gas is diffused from the blood cells into the alveoli to be exhaled
through the nostrils. Oxygen in the blood cells (oxygenated blood) is now taken to all the body cells to
take part in cell respiration.

Feeding
All livestock consume food so as to supply their bodies with nutrients for normal growth and body
developments. For this goal to be achieved food ingested needs to be physically broken down into much

18
Revision exercises Natomy and physiology of farm animals

1. What are some key points one should know about morphology?
2. List three (3) dorsal position of a fish
3. What are the basic body positions of an animal?
4. a. Describe the position of the Kidney.
b. Identify the components of the abdominal cavity.
5. What are the components of the excretory organs?
6. Why should farmers be aware of the body systems?
7. List four (4) joints that can be found in an animals body
8. a. In relation to the nervous system, the brain is described as?
b. Describe how a response action occur
9. Why is respiration necessary?
10. Trace the movements of food from the mouth to the rectum
11. Which are the digestive organs that make the fowl different from the pigs?
12. How many teeth a Rabbit should have?
13. Which compartment is the true stomach in ruminants?
14. What is the function of the reticulum?
15. What is the major source of protein for ruminants?
16. What percentage of moisture is reabsorbed in the animals body?
17. What causes normal addition of body tissues?
18. Why are chromosomes important?
19. How do farm animals grow?
20. When fat is added to the body of animal.
21. Why is sexual reproduction important?
22. What hinders rate of reproduction?
23. Sate the groups of farm animals.
24. Differentiate between reproduction in birds and mammals.
25. What are gametes?
26. What is cryptorchism?
27. What produces sperms?
28. a. States the functions of the Cowpers gland.
b. Describe the prepuce.
29. Describe graafian follicles.
30. Give the function of the vagina.

38- i
Revision exercises Animal nutrition

1. What are the classifications of starch?

2. Describe what are Essential Amino acids.
3. What are two sources of calcium?
4. How can you determine the presence of manganese in an animal?
5. Why iodine is essential in the diet of animals.
6. What sources of food is required in a high proportion by animals?
7. Define fodder.
8. How additives are beneficial in the diet of animals?
9. How antibiotics help in the health of animals?
10. Identify the types of ration.
11. What cause an animal to consume much of the food that is provided?
12. What are the classifications of pasture?

60- i
and sperm viability. It is then diluted and extended with egg yolk, pasteurized, homogenized milk, citrate
or glycerol up to twenty (20) times the original volume.

Storage of Semen
Diluted semen is placed in smaller receptacles (straws) and then stored in carbon dioxide cabinets at
173C. One straw may contain up to 25cc of semen

Inseminating the cow

The operator carries out the following in the process of inseminating:

washes and disinfects his hands
inserts the left hand into a plastic glove which covers the arm, up to the shoulder
lubricates the glove to facilitate easy entry of the hand into the rectum.
collects a straw of semen from the flask
the gloved hand in the rectum is used to locate the cervix of the reproductive tract

Fig. 39 Inseminating a cow

Advantages of artificial insemination

Artificial insemination has many benefits:

Sperms from selected hulls can be transferred from miles away.

Semen can be preserved long after the bulls are dead.
The spread of venereal disease can be minimized.
The cost of keeping a bull on the farm is not incurred.
A large number of females can be bread from one ejaculation.

There are some disadvantages:

The operator may not be skilled and can damage the genital tract.
Insanitary practices can cause infection of the genital tract.
Non-detection of heat by the farmer can result in had timing on the part of the inseminator.

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Insemination Procedure

The most common AI method used on cattle is called the rectovaginal technique. With this technique,
the technician inserts a disposable catheter containing thawed semen into the vagina and guides it into
the cervix with a gloved hand inserted into the cow's rectum. Because the vaginal walls are made up
of thin muscle, he can easily feel the catheter through the wall between the rectum and vagina.

He passes the catheter through the cervix into the uterus and slowly deposits part of the semen, then
deposits the rest into the cervix as he withdraws the catheter. This process may be repeated later to
decrease the chance of conception failure.

Embryo Transfer

This technique involves the collection of fertilized eggs (embryos) from high producing cows and
transferring them to other cows. The donor cow is treated with
hormones to induce ovulation. Several eggs are produced and the cows are then bred naturally or by
artificial insemination with sperms from superior bulls.

After one week, the fertilized eggs are removed from the donor. They are immediately transferred to other
cows (surrogates) or are frozen at -196C for future use.

Trinidad is known to have made use of this system by importing embryo from the U.S.A.

Reproduction
A good cow should calve once every year. Reproduction requires that the following
conditions are met.

Puberty - sexual maturity of both male and female

Oestrous or heat - readiness of the female for the male

Oestrous cycle - interval between two oestrous

Ovulation - shedding of eggs by the ovary in the female

Ejaculation- shedding of sperms in the vagina by the male

Fertilization - union of the sperm and egg in the female reproductive tract

Conception - union of the fertilized egg unto the wall of the uterus (placentation)

Pregnancy Gestation - period of development of the foetus in the uterus or womb

75
1. Mouth 2. Muzzle 3. Nostril 4. Forehead
5. Ear 6. Eye 7. Neck 8. Breast
9. Shoulder 10. Top of Shoulder 11. Back 12. Ribs
13. Belly 14. Fore leg 15. Dew claw 16. Hoof
17. Udder 18. Teat 19. Rump 20. Thigh
21. Hock 22. Hind leg 23. Tail 24. Hip
25. Loin 26. Fore Flank 27. Rear Flank 28.Horn

These animals feed on a wide range of forage and can survive where little herbage is available.
They therefore are ideal for our conditions in this region where lush pastures are not readily
available.

Types and breeds

Somali Blackheaded Russian Dorper

Fig. 4. 3 Sheep breeds

Sheep belong to the group of animals known as Ovidae, while goats belong to the group called Capra.
Like cows they are ruminants and can be classified into three types basically.

There are: wool type and meat type and milk type

Some breeds of sheep are

Barbados Black Belly
Black-headed Persian
Marino

Anglo-Nubian Saanen Alpine Toggenburg Barbados

Blackbelly
Fig. 4.4 Goat Breeds
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Some breeds of goats are:

Anglo Nubian

Saanen
Toggenburg

Alpine

Breeds of Sheep

Barbados Black Belly: This breed was developed in Barbados. Its hair is reddish brown with
conspicuous black on the sides extending to the lower part of the legs. There are also black points on the
face. The ears point forward and are black with
white margins.

Both male and female are polled. The rams have a characteristic mane extending from the neck to the
brisket. This is a very prolific breed and breeding can take place twice per year.

The breed is known for giving birth to twins.

The Black Head Persian: This breed originated in Somalia (Africa) and was introduced into the
Caribbean.

It is a large fat-rumped sheep having a pale coat with a fine woolly under coat. Its colour is white or light
brown except for the head, neck and feet which are dark brown to black. It is polled with long legs, semi-
lopped ears and a well developed dewlap. The tip of the tail is thin.

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1.
2.
3. Revenue from farms and Food Processing Unit

4. An Endowment Fund
Guyana School of Agriculture plays an active role in training students from overseas territories including
Antigua, the Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts - Nevis, St Vincent in the
Caribbean area and Zimbabwe and Nigeria in Africa.

Research institutions

The National Agricultural Research Institute (N.A.R.I) was established in 1985. The mission statement of
this Institute is 'To advise on and develop technologies and systems for sustained Agriculture
Development.' This institution is governed by a committee of ten members who are under the direction of
the Ministry of Agriculture. N.A.R.I was recently renamed N.A.R.E.I National Agricultural Research
and Extension Institute and takes on the same role as N.A.R.I with the inclusion of the extension
component.
The main objective of this institute is to educate the farmers on the best methods of propagation and
systems of eradication of pests and diseases in crops.
Specially trained Extension Field Officers are engaged in field and laboratory experiments in the effort of
gaining new techniques for improved varieties.
There are three branches of operation

Mon Repos
Burma
Ebini

At Mon Repos there is a field research unit with the following sections
The Library
The Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory
The Weed Herbarium Laboratory
The Soil Chemistry Laboratory
The Plant Pathology Laboratory
The Seed Technology Laboratory
Entomology Laboratory
Soil Survey Laboratory
Field Equipment Maintenance Laboratory
Hosororo, agricultural Station
Ebini Livestock Station
St Ignatius Livestock Station
Central Horticultural Station Atkinson Field
Coastal Plains Field Research Unit at Burma (1984)
Coastal Plains Field Research Uint at Mahicony
Intermediate Savannahs Field Research Unit at Ebini
Coconut Seed Garden (1986)

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Burma Branch
This is basically the research on rice for the production of improved and resistant varieties.

Ebini Branch
A research centre in operation for the propagation of selected crops in the Interme- diate Savannahs.

Local marketing institution

The New Guyana Marketing Corporation was the Guyana Marketing Corporation which was formed in
1963. This included the Ham and Bacon Factory, the Fish Marketing Centre, the Processing Factory, the
Milk Pasteurization Plant and Produce Depots.

This corporation handled the transportation, storage, packaging and communication of highly perishable
products of variable quality, which were graphically dispersed. Today because of many difficulties this
corporation was forced to change course.

However it was felt that the Government needed to have a more indirect role in the marketing of non-
traditional agricultural produce. This brought about the formation of a New Marketing Corporation with a
new strategy. This new corporation is the government agency for improving market access and for
providing market intelligence. It is responsible for the collection, analysis and dissemination of market
information. In addition to this, the corporation analyses market performance. It recommends to
Government, ways to reduce transportation cost and to increase processing of agricultural produce. The
improvement of grading, packaging and storage is an essential area of additional responsibility since it
addresses the issue of losses owing to post-harvest handling.

This corporation co-ordinates the activities of the domestic and overseas

markets by performing the following functions:

Establishing a non-stop desk, thereby reducing the eleven steps involved in the
export of fresh fruits and vegetables, to a basic minimum.

Inspecting and approving the quality of produce taken to an export

point.

Identifying and documenting for use by potential exporters, the specific export
markets.

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suitable recommendations.

The Agricultural Credit Department is located in each of the ten Administrative Regions. It deals with
credit for the farmers with small projects.

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8. CROPS
BANANA

Botanical name: Musa acuminata

Family: Musaceae
Origins and importance of banana as a food crop

Banana is one of the most fascinating and important of all crops. It is a large monocotyledonous herb that
originated in Southeast Asia. Virtually all of the cultivars that are grown are thought to have been selected
as naturally occurring hybrids in this region by the earliest of farmers. It is believed that banana was one
of the first crops to be domesticated by man.
Despite the current, clear understanding of its ancestry, the edible bananas origins are often confused in
the literature. Almost all the 300 or more cultivars that are known arose from two seeded, diploid species,
Musa acuminate Cola and M. balbisiana Colla, they are diploid, triploid and tetraploid hybrids a mong
subspecies of M.acuminata, and between M. acuminate and M.balbisiana.

Conventionally, the haploid contributions of the respective species to the cultivars are noted with A and
B. for example, the Cavendish cultivars that are the mainstays of the export trades are pure triploid
acuminate and, thus, AAA. The Limean species M. paradisia (the AAB plantains) and M.sapientum (the
sweet dessert bananas, of which silk AAB is the type cultivar) are invalid and no longer used.

Women selling fruit of Dwarf Cavendish AAA and Pisang awak ABB

Banana is now one of the most popular of all fruits. Although it is viewed as only a dessert or an addition
to breakfast cereal in most developed countries, it is actually a very important agricultural product. After
rice, wheat and milk, it is the fourth most valuable food. In export, it ranks fourth among all agricultural
commodities and is the most significant of all fruits, with world trade totaling $ 2.5 billion annually. Yet,
only 10% of the annual global output of 86 million tons entries international commerce. Much of the
remaining harvest is consumed by poor subsistence farmers in tropical Africa, America and Asia. For
most of the latter producers, banana and plantain (which is a type of banana) are staple foods that
represent major dietary sources of carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins A, B6 and C, and potassium, phosphorus
and calcium.

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 This photograph shows seed-packed fruit of Musa balbisiana, one of the ancestors of the edible bananas.

Sowing Bananas

Growing bananas does not take much effort, but it does require that you a few get things right when you
first get started.

Banana plants grow well in the following:

Rich, dark fertile soils.
Lots of mulch and organic matter. LOTS. Just keep piling it on.
Lot of nitrogen and potassium. (Chicken manure)
Steady warmth, not too hot and not too cold. (Bananas are sissies when it comes to temperatures.)
Steady moisture, in the ground and in the air.
The shelter of other bananas. Thats the most overlooked aspect by home growers.

However the crop will not thrive well in the following:

Strong winds
Extreme heat or cold
Being hungry or thirsty
Being alone and exposed

However do bananas grow?

Bananas arent real trees, not even palm trees, even though they are often called banana palms. Bananas
are perennial herbs. Gingers, heliconias and bird-of-paradise flowers are distant relatives of bananas.
They are in the same order, Zingiberales.
Banana trunks consist of all the leaf stalks wrapped around each other. New leaves start growing inside,
below the ground. They push up through the middle and emerge from the centre of the crown. So does the
flower, which finally turns into a bunch of bananas.

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Here is a picture series showing how the flower looks at first, and how the bananas appear
and curl up towards the light.

Those pictures were taken over the course of a few days.

A banana plant takes about 9 months to grow up and produce a bunch of bananas. Then the mother plant
dies. But around the base of it are many suckers, little baby plants.

At the base of a banana plant, under the ground, is a big rhizome, called there corm.

The corn has growing points and they turn into new suckers. These suckers can be taken off and
transplanted, and one or two can be left in position to replace the mother plant.

Great, so now you know what to do once you have banana growing in your garden, but how do you start?

How to get started growing bananas?

First you need to make sure that you can grow bananas where you are.

You need a tropical or warm subtropical climate. Bananas can handle extreme heat (if they have enough
water), but they dont like it. They can handle cool weather for a short while, but they dont like that
either. Below 14 C (57F) they just stop growing.

159
If the temperatures drop any lower the fruit suffers (the skin turns grayish) and the leaves can turn yellow.
Frost kills the plant above ground, but the corm can survive and may re-shoot.

The ideal temperature range for banana growing is around 26-30 C (78-86F). You need a lot of water to
grow bananas. The huge soft leaves evaporate a lot, and you have to keep up the supply. Bananas also
need high humidity to be happy. (Where I live the commercial banana growers water their plants two or
three times a day with sprinklers to keep up the humidity in the banana plantation).

You need very rich soil. If you dont have good soil to start with, make some. Incorporate lots and lots of
compost and plenty of chicken manure before you plant your bananas (wood ash for extra potassium
doesnt hurt either), and then mulch them very thickly. And keep mulching and feeding them.

And you need room so you can plant enough of them together. Bananas need shelter from wind. Growing
many banana plants together increases the humidity in the middle, evens out temperature changes a bit,
and it shade and cools the trunks. (You dont want to cook the flower thats forming in the middle).

You should plant bananas in blocks or clumps, not single rows and definitely not single plants. If you
have very little room you can grow a few banana plants together and grow something else on the outside
to protect them. But you do need to give them that sheltered jungle environment if you want them to be
happy.

Planting bananas

The best suckers are the ones with the small, spear shaped leaves, NOT the pretty ones with the big round
leaves.

Why? A sucker that is still fed by the mother plant does not need to do much photosynthesis, so it doesnt
need to produce big leaves.

And a sucker that is well looked after by the mother plant will produce better fruit and be stronger than
one that had to struggle on its own.

160
 A mature plantation is pretty much self mulching. Just throw all the leaves and old trunks etc. back under
the plants. You can also grow other plants in the understory to produce more mulch. (Use cassava, sweet
potato and crotolaria).

You just need to sprinkle on some fertilizer every now and then, to replace what you look out of the
system when you took the bananas. Keep the feriliser close to the trunk as bananas dont have a big root
system.

Growing banana fruit

You may see your first flower emerge after about six months, depending on the weather. Leave the
leaves around it, especially the one protecting the top bend of the stalk from sunburn.

As the purple flower petals curl back and drop off they reveal a hand of bananas under each. Each
banana is a finger.

You may get anything between four to a dozen or more full hands. Then, under the next petal, youll see a
hand of very tiny excuses for bananas. Those are the male fingers.
The male fingers just dry and drop off. Only the stalk remains. If you let it grow it will eventually reach
the ground.

161
The bell can be broken

The bunch of purple flower petals at the about 15cm below the last female hand. That way the banana
plant puts its energy and reserves into growing big bananas, and not into growing a long stalk. Commercial
banana growers also remove some of the bottom female hands, so the remaining bananas grow bigger.

Well, and then you patiently wait for at least another two months. You may have to prop your banana
bunch, because it becomes very heavy, and a bunch can snap off or pull the whole plant over.

A good prop would be a long stick with a u-shaped hook at the end. But a long enough plank or pole can
do the job, too. I leave that to your ingenuity.

Bananas are ready to be picked when they look well rounded with ribs, and the little flowers at the end are
dry and rub off easily.

They will eventually ripen on the bunch, and those bananas taste the best. But once they start they ripen
very quickly, faster than you can eat or use them. So you may well cut the top hands off a bit earlier and
ripen them on the kitchen bench.

You can also cut whole bunch and hang it somewhere if you need to protect it from possums or birds or
other thieves. But then all bananas will ripen at once. So be prepared.

You can preserve bananas for use in cooking and baking by peeling and freezing them. Or, to preserve
them for eating, peel, split in half lengthwise and dry them.

Once the bunch is picked the rest of the plant will die quickly. Cut it to the ground, throw on some chook
poo, and let the next sucker grow while you process all the bananas.

You cannot grow bananas from seeds. Banana plants dont produce seeds.

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The best way is to start with the above mentioned suckers. Know someone who grows bananas? Talk
to them. Every banana plant produces a lot more suckers than you need, so people usually have plenty to
give away.

Only take suckers from vigorous banana plants. The suckers should have small, spear shaped leaves and
ideally be about four feet high. Smaller suckers will take longer to fruit and the first bunch will be smaller.

Cut the sucker from the main banana plant with a sharp shovel. Cut downwards between the mature
plant and the sucker. You have to cut through the corm. Its not easy.

Make sure you get a good chunk of corm and many roots with it. Chop the top off the sucker to reduce
evaporation while you move it and while you move it and while it settles into its new home. Remember,
the growing point is at the bottom of a banana plant. But it takes longer than growing banana suckers.

Plant your bits or suckers in your well prepared banana patch, keeping two to five meters between them.

The spacing depends on your layout. Bananas can grow in a block of several double rows. Within the
double rows the spacing is two to three meters, but there are two plants in each position, suckers of the
initial plant. And I have four to five meters between the double rows.

I also have a banana circle around an outdoor shower where there is two metres between individual plants,
and they are growing in a haphazard way. And if you have just a single clump of a few banana plants you
can put them even closer together

Keep your banana plants moist but not too wet in the early days, or they may rot. They dont have leaves
yet to evaporate water, so they dont need much.

Maintaining your banana patch

The most common cause of death for bananas is lack of water. The most common cause for not getting
fruit is starvation. Banana plants blow over in strong winds. Protect them and feed them and water them
and all will be well. Other than that bananas dont need much maintenance.

Just remove any dead leaves and cut down the dead plants every now and then.
You get bigger fruit if you remove all unwanted suckers, only keeping the best one.

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Varieties
Gros Michel The fruit of this variety are of good flavor and high quality, but due to its susceptibility to
the Panama disease and to leaf spot, it has now being replaced by varieties which, although not so well
flavoured are more resistant to this disease.

Various varieties of the Cavendish banana, a hardier group, have been crossed with Gros Michel to
produce commercial varieties.

Other varieties include the Cavendish, Valery, Lacatan, Robusta, triploid and tetraploid. Of these the
valery, Lacatan and Robusta are the three most important. The newer varieties (triploid and tetraploid)
are being produced and cultivated to such an extent that is meaningless to mention them.

Planting and Cultivation

The banana is propagated exclusively by vegetative methods. The pseudo stem produces three main types
of suckers: Maiden, water and sword. The water sucker is one in which the stem is the same width from
top to bottom. These are usually produced by the remote or grandparent corm and must never be used for
planting. Sword sucker are very vigorous and are produced by the main stem; such suckers are relatively
large from the bottom and taper towards the top; they also have long, thin blade like leaves. These are
the best suckers for planting. Between the sword and the water sucker is the maiden sucker which has
narrower leaves than the water sucker leaves. The stem tapers somewhat from bottom to top, but not to
the same degree as in the sword sucker. Maiden suckers also make good planting materials. The best
plants are obtained from the corms of old stems which have one or two buds on them.
Bananas keep growing for several years. There are many alluvial valleys and plains where they remain in
production for 10 20 years without being replanted. However, the average period of productive growth
without replanting is about 5 years. This is particularly true of crops planted on clayey soils commonly
found in the region.

All new planting materials for banana should be free from pests and diseases. Whether old corms or
suckers are being planted, they should be inspected for plant borers and nematodes. All other roots and
trash are removed and decaying portion of stem should be cut away. The stem should be dipped in
Nemagon to which a sticker such as Triton has been added. Suckers or Corms, sometimes referred to as
heads, are planted in holes about 45cm wide and 45cm deep at a spacing of about 2.4m 2.1m or closer,
depending on the fertility of the soil, the slope of the land and the banana variety. Bananas were
previously sold by the stem or bunch, but they are now sold by the stem or bunch and the emphasis was
on the number of hands per bunch, but they are now sold by weight to the farmer. The aim is to produce a
high tonnage per hectare, although individual fruits may be smaller. This means that if the spacing
between plants is reduced, more plants can be planted per hectare and higher yield can be obtained.

164
Application of fertilisers
Bananas require fertilizer if a high level of production is to be maintained year after year. At least two
applications per year are recommended, but the rate of application and type of fertilizer used has to be
determined by soil testing. A mixed fertilizer is generally recommended since bananas do not appear to
show any major mineral deficiency.

Pruning
The attitude towards cutting out suckers has changed considerably since the introduction of the practice of
selling bananas by weight. In fertile soils, as many as four or five suckers may be allowed to develop
from the parent plant; whereas, in less fertile soils, it is advisable to allow only two suckers to be
produced at different stages of development. In short, the farmer has to decide for himself whether sucker
removal is necessary and to what extent it should be done. Where a sucker needs to be removed from the
parent plant, this should be done using a sharp cutlass or machete, by inserting it between the sucker and
the parent. If a choice has to be made between a number of suckers, the one furthest removed from the
parent plant or one growing on a lower slope should be removed since these are not so firmly established
as others which are closer to the parent plant. A smooth, clean cut is essential since it discourages
possible infection of the plant .

Harvesting
The top portion of the pseudo stem is cut off and allowed to remain at the base of the plant. This work
as a source of mulch; alternatively it can be fed to cattle and some farmers use it as supplementary feed in
times of scarcity. Most losses occur during harvesting and rejection of bunches is usually based on the
maturity of the fruit which is often harvested when immature. Some rejection takes place because the
fruits are bruised. In some plantations, the young fruits are wrapped in polythene bags to prevent grazing
of the fruits. The bananas are transported from the field to boxing plants where they are cut into hands,
washed and boxed for shipment to foreign markets. Hands of bananas may be dipped in growth
regulators substances gibberlins to improve post harvest storage. Keeping at temperatures of 13 - 15C
and 85% relative humidity also prolongs the storage time.
Diseases and Pests

Panama disease is caused by a fungus of which there are two major strains. This fungus enters through
the roots and is transported throughout the tissues of the plant. The first sign of the disease is that the
heart leaves turn yellow and fall over eventually the whole plant dies. No effective chemical has yet been
found to control this fungus, but the farmer can prevent it by planting resistant varieties. Cavendish
hybrids such as Robusta, Valery and Lacatan are fairly resistant.

Moko disease is caused by a bacterium (Pseudomonas sp). Its symptoms are similar to panama disease:
leaves become yellow then topple over. A grayish exudation comes from the corm when cut, and the
interior of the fruits become discoloured. At the present time the disease is confined to some countries in
the region Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada and St Lucia, but has the potential to spread to
others. There is no effective chemical control: avoid infested soil, plant materials and tools: practice good
sanitary methods and plant resistant varieties.

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All varieties of banana are susceptible to leaf spot. As the name of the disease suggest, spots appear on
the leaves. These spots first appear yellow then turn brown. The condition is more serious when the
humidity is high. Infection commonly occurs initially on the underside of the young leaves especially on
the tip. The tips of the leaves eventually die back. Petroleum oil is used to spray which have been found to
be effective.

Black Sigatoka is a leaf spot disease of banana plants caused by ascomyecte fungus Mycosphaerella
fijiensis (Morelet). Plants with leaves damaged by the disease may have up to 50% lower yield of fruit.
Black Sigatoka, also known as balck leaf streak, was named for its similarities with the yellow Sigatoka
caused by Mycosphaerella musicola (Mulder), after the Sigatoka Valley in Fiji where an outbreak of this
disease reached epidemic proportions from 1912 to 1923.

When spores of M.fijiensis are deposited on a susceptible banana leaf they germinate within three hours if
there is a film of water present or if the humidity is very high. The optimal temperature for germinatin of
the conidia is 27 C. The germ tube grows epiphytically over the epidermis for two to three days before
penetrating the leaf via a stoma once inside the leaf the invasive hypha forms a vesicle and fine hyphae
grow through the mesophyll layer into an air chamer. More hyphae then grow into the palisade tissue and
continue on into other air chambers, eventually emerging through stomata in the streak that has
developed. Further epiphytic growth occurs before the re-entry of the hypha into the leaf through another
stoma repeats the process. The optimal conditions for M.fijiensis as compared with M. musicola are a
higher temperatures and higher relative humidity and the whole disease cycle is much faster in
M.fijiensis.

In commercial export plantations, Black Sigatoka is controlled by frequent applications of fungicides.

Removal of affected leaves, good drainage, and sufficient spacing also help to fight the disease. Although
fungicides improved over the years, the pathogen developed resistance. Therefore higher frequency of
application is required, increasing the impact on the environment and health of the banana workers.

Small farmers growing bananas for local market cannot afford expensive measures to fight the disease.
However, some cultivars of banana are resistant to the disease. Research is done to improve productivity
and fruit properties of these cultivars.

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Example of a Sucker showing Black Sigatoka

The banana borer and nematodes are the major pests of banana. Both are difficult to control and the
easiest method of control is to maintain high standards of cultivation, removing all sources of infection or
breeding. The borers make tunnels in the corm and are difficult to reach the insecticides.

Nematodes make galls or knots under the epidermis or outer layers of the root. Nemagon is quite
effective, but it is very expensive to apply on a field scale and control is not 100% effective.

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HELICONIA
Scientific Name: Heliconia latispatha
Family: Heliconiaceae
Description

Heliconia, derived from the Greek word helikonios, is a genus of about 100 to 200 species of flowering
plants native to the tropical Americas and the Pacific Ocean islands West to Indonesia. Many species of
Heliconia are found in rainforests or tropical wet forest of these regions. Common names for the genus
include lobster- claws, wild plantains or false bird-of-paradise. The last term refers to their close
similarity to the bird- of-paradise flowers (Strelitzia). Collectively, these plants are also simply referred to
as heliconias.

The Heliconia are a monophyletic genus in the family Heliconiaceae, but was formerly included in the
family Musaceae, which includes the bananas (e.g, Musa, Ensete; Judd et al, 2007). However, this was
later placed in the order Zingibreales, in the commelinid clade of monocots.

These herbaceous plants range from 0.5 to nearly 4.5 meters (1.5-15feet) tall depending on the species
(Berry and Kress, 1991). The simple leaves of these plants are 15-300 cm (6 in-10 ft). They are
characteristically long, oblong, alternate, or growing opposite one another on non-woody petioles often
longer than the leaf forming large clumps with age. Their flowers are produced on long, erect or drooping
panicles, and consist of brightly coloured waxy bracts, with small true flowers peeping out from the
bracts. The growth habit of heliconias is similar to Conna, Strelitzia, and bananas, to which they are
related. The flowers can be hues of reds, oranges, yellows, and greens, and are subtended by brightly
colored bracts. The plants typically flower during the wet season. Theses bracts protect the flowers; floral
shape often limits pollination to a subset of the hummingbirds in the region (Gilman and Meerow, 2007).

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Economics Importance

They are widely used as ornamentals. Heliconias are grown for their beautiful, brilliant colorful flowering
bracts. Breathtaking and unusual flower heads (bracts) rise from clumps of banana like leaves, sometimes
very large or slender.

Heliconia flowers are actually highly modified leaves and bracts. The flowering stems are mostly
pendulous. A bract is a leaf structure at the base of a flower. Heliconia flowers are produced on long,
erect or drooping panicles, and consist of brightly coloured waxy bracts, with small true flowers inside the
bracts. Bracts which can be orange, purple, red, yellow, pink, green, or their combinations

Sowing Heliconia

Preparing your potting mixture: select a well-draining purchase potting mix and add one third peat moss
and one third sand. You then fill you pot about half full of your potting mix. If you are planting your
heliconia outdoors, dig a hole slightly larger than the rootball and add in sand and peat moss.

Place the plant in the pot or hole you have dug, making certain that the tip of the rhizome will stick out
the top of the soil.

Fill your pot or hole with the potting mix you have prepared with peat moss and sand.

Water thoroughly and keep the soil moist but not soggy. Heliconias need and abundance of water.

Fertilize at least once a month with an all-purpose fertilizer. If you are growing your heliconia indoors or
in a low humidity climate outdoors, its helpful if you mist your plant every day.

Heliconias should be planted in a draining soil with the top sticking out of the ground. Heliconias flourish
well in loamy soils rich in humus.

Heliconias need sunlight, with temperatures that do not go below 40 degrees Fathrenheit.
Plant rhizomes which may or may not have a young shoot.
Cut back the old shoot to about 6 inches before planting.
The eyes or buds, present in the Heliconia rhizome helps to grow new shoots in about four weeks,
while roots grow from the rhizome.
Since Heliconias are heavy feeders, a soluble balanced or granular time- release fertilizer can be used.
Heliconias blooming season is once to several times a year.

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Growing Heliconias

Typically, heliconias grow naturally in lowland to mid elevation humid tropical areas. Many if not most,
occur in light gap areas, along rivers and such and some are even pioneer plants along road cuts. Moisture
is always available even for those species, which are native to seasonally dry areas. They are fast growing
plants, which easily take advantage of soil fertility. Understanding these factors should help in the
understanding of Heliconia cultivation.

In cultivation, a plant is often started from a rhizome division, which includes at least one erect
pseudostem. We start our plants in a sterile potting medium, in a pot just large enough to accommodate
the plant. All leaf blades are removed or at least reduced to slow water loss through transportation. The
pot is then put in a warm, lightly shaded spot and watered regularly to keep it moist but not perpetually
soggy. Some growers find it useful to place a paper cup or other shield over the cut end of the pseudostem
to prevent excess water from entering and accelerating decay. Once new sprouts are seen at the base of
the plant it is considered strong enough to be planted directly into the garden. If the season is cool or dry,
the plant will be held until warmer, wetter weather is the expected norm.

Fertilizing
It is my practice in plant Heliconias four to six inches deeper than they are in their sprouting container. I
also place a slow release fertilizer directly into the planting hole. Planting tablets 13-5-13 give a practical
boost to the newly planted Heliconia. This fertilizer was formulated to be used by rice farmers in wet
conditions and is very slow release. Since heliconias are fast growing plants they are heavy feeders. In
addition to the fertilizer placed in the planting hole, the plants get a hefty fertilizing four time per year.

Mulching
Maintaining a layer of organic mulch around Heliconia plants serves several purposes.

1. Mulch helps to retain moisture around root zone.

2. The mulch also helps to hold fertilizers for slower release to the plants.
3. There is evidence that organic mulches help to reduce infestations of nematodes. Nematodes are
often a serious problem for plants growing In rock or sandy soils.
4. Mulches help to control weeds and maintain a tidier appearance around plants.

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Grooming
As wonderful as Heliconias can be in the landscape, basic grooming always improves their look. Some
species are naturally easier to maintain at their best. Here are the basic steps to keeping your plants
looking tidy.

1. Remove any dead leaves and stems.

2. Remove flowered out stems by cutting them to the ground.
3. Remove damaged foliage, for example, if you have to remove more than two or three leaf blades,
cut the whole stem to the ground, because removing the leaf blade causes the petiole to dry up,
reducing the support for the pseudostem, causing it to lean or fall over.
4. Strategically remove a leaf blade to show off inflorescences but bear in mind that each leaf
removal will weaken the pseudostem from which it is taken.

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Heliconia Disease

Foliage Diseases Caused by Fungi

Calonectria spathiphylli
Disease and symptoms: the most pronounced foliar symptoms on heliconia caused by Calonectria
spathiphylli are leaf yellowing, firing or drying of leaf margins, sheath spots and petiole blights. Rots of
the sheath and petiole interfere with water movement to the leaf, causing water stress and producing dry
leaf edges. As rots of the sheath expand, less water moves up to the leaf blade, and leaves become yellow.
Eventually the leaves die, resulting in premature loss of older leaves. Less frequently, the fungus causes
brown, oval spots of varying sizes up to 9.5 by 19mm (3/8 by 3/4 inches). The photosynthetic or food-
producing capacity of the diseased plants is reduced by multiple sheath and petiole infections followed by
leaf loss. Foliage loss and root rots (discussed below) cause large, vigorous plants with the high
productivity to decline in a few years and become small, weak plants with the poor flower production.
Severely diseased plants of susceptible cultivars are killed.
Biology and spread: Calonectria spathiphylli has been isolated from diseased heliconia throughout the
state. This common pathogen attacks Heliconia species and cultivars such as H. angusta. Holiday
(formerly red Christmas, H. bihai. Kamehameha and. Lobster Claw one (formerly H. jacquinii), H.
Caribaea. Ourpurea(formerly Red Caribaea or Red Caribe) H.indica . Spectabilis (formerly H. illustris
var. rubricaulis), H. mutisiana, H. psittacorum . Parakeet, H. Psittacorum X H. spathocitcinata. Golden
Torch 9Known as Parrot in Hawaii), H. stricta. Dwarf Jamaican. Fire Bird, and H. wagneriana (known
in Hawaii as Rainbow, Avenue, Elongata, Easter, and Easter egg Flower).
In Hawaii, Calonectria spathiphylli is also a highly destructive pathogen of many cultivars of
spathiphyllum. In Florida, besides heliconia and spathiphyllum, this pathogen has been found on Strelitzia
nicolia (white bird-of-paradise tree) and Ludwigia palustris (water purclane) El-Gholl et al.1992).
Calonectria also produces microsclerotia which are compact aggregates of fungal cells. These aggregates
are survival structures that allow the fungus to persist in the soil for many months to years without the
host.
Nomenclature; in its life cycle, Calonectria has an asexual stage that produces spores or conidia. This
sexual stage is referred to as Cylindrocladium. A pathogenic (disease causing) fungus was discovered in
Hawaii on rotting heliconia in the late 1980s (Uchida et al. 1989). Based on the characteristics of the
sexual stage, the fungus was identified as Cylindrocladium spathiphulli. The shape and size of the asexual
spores were similar to C. spathiphylli discovered on spathiphyllum in Hawaiiduring the early 1980s
(Uchhida 1989; Uchida and Aragaki 1992). Subsequently, mating studies showed that Cylindrocladium
from spathiphyllum and heliconia world produce that sexual stage when certain pairs were grown together

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(El-Gholl et al. 1992). The fruiting bodies and spores of the sexual stage (ascospores) are characteristic of
the genus Calonectria. Thus, Calonectria spathiphylli is now recognized as the fungus from heliconia and
spathiphyllum.

Bipolaris incurvata and other Bipolaris species

Disease and symptoms: Bipolaris causes leaf spots and large rots of the leaf (referred to as blights). The
disease begins as small, water soaked flecks and spots. The fungus continues to grow in the leaf tissue,
and the spots enlarge. After two weeks, many spots are 9.5 to 35 mm (3/8 to 13/8 inches) in diameter,
oval or irregular in shape, and are yellowed around the spot. The spots are light brown with a darker edge.
Holes form on the leaf as diseased tissue falls out. Leaf blisters an unusual symptom, also are formed on
the under-surface of the leaf in wet weather,. The petiole, sheath, and floral bracts also are spotted with
faint brown to purplish-red spots. Spotting of floral bracts makes flowers unmarketable.
Infections of young leaves result in deformed, blighted mature leaves. In advanced stages of the disease,
leaves become tattered and brown.
Biology and spread: Bipolaris incurvata has been the most commonly encountered species on diseased
heliconia. Other species such as B. cynodontis, B. salviniae, and B. setariae have been isolated also
9Uchida and Aragaki, unpublished).
Heliconia strict acv. Dwarf Jamaican, H. orthotricha, H. chartacea, and H. mutisiana are susceptible to
Bipolaris species (Uchinda and Aragaki, unpublished). With further testing, many other susceptible
cultivars are likely to be identified. Various Bipolaris species commonly occur on grasses, causing severe
diseases of corn, rice, wheat, oats and sorghum. In Hawaii, Bipolaris species cause significant diseases of
corn, turf, and palms. Bipolaris setariae and B. incurvata are frequently found on grasses surrounding
heliconia fields (Uchida and Aragaki, unpublished). In addition, they have been isolated from diseased
orchids, bromeliads, proteas, and other plants.
With continuous moisture for at least 24 hours, spores of these fungi are produced on the surface of
diseased tissue. Wind and splashing water move spores to healthy leaf surface. Movement of foliage and
contact with diseased leaves during field operations also agitate plants, causing spore dispersal. Given
moisture, the spores germinate; penetrate the leaf surface, and initiate new spots. Bipolaris spores are
dark colored and frequently have thickened walls, two characteristics that aid fungal survival.

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Exserohilum rostratum
Disease and symptoms: leaf spots caused by Exserohilum rostratum are similar to those caused by
Biplaris. Typical spots are oval and brown with slightly yellow borders. The spots expand into larger
blights that kill part of the leaves.
Biology and spread: Exserohilum has been isolated from diseased Dwarf Jamaican and other diseased
plants such as Chrysalidocarpus ;utescens (the common areca palm), orchids 9uchida and Aragaki 1979),
and grasses (Uchida and Aragaki, unpublished) Exserohilum rostratum is distributed world- wide and is
common on the grass family. As with Bipolaris, Exserohilum spores are produced in moist environments
on the surface of diseased leaves and are spread by wind and splashing water. Its biology is similar to
Bipolaris.

Rhizome and root diseases caused by fungi

Calonectria spathiphylli
Disease and symptoms: This fungus is presently the most widely spread pathogen attacking roots and
rhizomes of heliconia in Hawaii. Severe root and rhizome rot kill plants or cause rapid plant decline. Root
and rhizome rots of field heliconia start at the center of clumps with old diseased stalks, which are dry and
collapsed, and develop outward. New growth is the healthiest and diseased clumps of heliconia have
empty circles within the older diseased growth. Root rots prevent proper anchorage, and taller diseased
heliconia cultivars are prone to toppling.
Biology and spread: Calonectria infects roots and rhizomes of heliconia and can be found deep within the
rhizomes in infected root traces that originate from severe root rots.
Fungal spores and microsclerotia move into a field with water (e.g run-off). The pathogen also moves in
infested or contaminated soil, especially in mud adhering to trucks, plows other field equipment, tools,
boots, etc. the fungus is also transported when infested rhizomes are moved to new fields.

Phytophthora nicotianae
Disease and symptoms: Phytophthora nicotianae has been isolated from rotted roots and rhizomes of H.
caribaea (Ogata and Uchida, unpublished). Healthy, vigorous plants gradually decline over one to three
years and then produce few flowers. The disease has been found on Kauai and Oahu. Heliconia mutisiana
appears to be highly tolerant of P. nicotianae (Aragaki and Uchida, unpublished). Diseased stems have
brown rots at the collar and are surrounded by rotted roots. Within the stem, the rot is blackish-brown.
Biology and spread: In Hawaii, P. nicotianae causes diseases of numerous crops. These include papaya,
orchid, vegetables (tomato, pepper, eggplant, etc), herbs (parsley, thyme, sage, rosemary, etc.), and
ornamentals (spathiphyllum, hibiscus, African violet, poinsettia, gerbera, etc.) palms, pineapple, and

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many other plants. This pathogen is generally nonspecific, and cross infection can occur between different
hosts.
Phytophthora species produce specialized spores called sporangia which release 20 or more swimming
spores when water is abundant. These motile spores aid pathogen movement from one part of the plant to
another or over longer distances through irrigation ditches, run-off, and streams. Spherical
chlamydospores with thickened walls are formed in diseased tissue. These specialized spores allow the
fungus to survive without the host for many months. Contact with spores on diseased plants or movement
of infected tissues also transport the pathogen.

Pythium species
Disease and symptoms; several phythium species have been isolated from diseased heliconia roots and
rhizomes. These include P. splendens, P. aphanidermatum, P. myriotylum, and others. The role of these
organisms needs to be investigated further. To date, P. splendens appears to be pathogenic, with disease
developing slowly over a three-to four-month period (Aragaki and Uchida, unpublished). Root rot slow
decline of the plants are primary symptoms.
Biology and spread: Pythium species have been found on the cultivars Bengal Heliconia indica cv.
Spectabilis, and H. psittacorum. Pythium species have been isolated from many agricultural and
landscape plants around the world. In Hawaii, important diseases caused by Pythium are root rots of taro,
macadamia, papaya, orchids, vegetables, dracaena and other foliage plants, alfalfa and other legumes,
turf, and more.
Moisture and poor drainage greatly favor diseases caused by pythium. Like Phytophthora, most Phythium
species produce motile spores which distribute the fungi over greater distances. Other spores, such as
oospores, have thickened walls which enable the fungus to survive long periods within the dead plant
tissue or in the soil. The pathogen is transported to new locations by the movement of contaminated soil
and water or infected plants.

Rhizoctonia solani-like fungi and Rhizoctonia solani

Disease and symptoms: Rhizoctonia solani-like fungi have been recovered from rotting roots of H. Bihai
cv. Lobster Claw One and H. caribaea 9Uchida, unpublished). Although frequently associated with
diseased plants, these fungi are generally considered weak pathogens, and pathogenicity tests are needed
to determine the role of these organisms on heliconia.
Rhizoctonia solani is one of the most common pathogens occurring throughout the world. Almost every
crop is affected by R. solani or other Rhizoctonia species. In Hawaii, R solani Causes root rots of many
legumes, papaya, alfalfa, and foliage plants; fruit and root rots of tomato, bean, and cucumber; and web

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blights (Massive rots) of poinsettia cuttings ornamentals, and herbs. World- Wide, R. solani causes major
losses in potato, vegetables, cereals, and numerous ornamentals.

Other Fungi Associated with Heliconia

Other fungi have been recovered from heliconia in addition to those described above. The ability of these
fungi to cause disease on heliconia is not known, and continued research is needed. These fungi are listed
here for documentation purposes include Colletotrichum, Pestalotiopsis, Phyllosticta,
Phomopsis,Acremonium and Fusarium .

Disease Causes by Bacteria

Pseudomonas solanacearum
Disease and symptoms: The bacterial wilt pathogen Pseudomonas solanacearum causes foliar symptoms
that include leaf rolling and wilting, leaf margin firing (browning of edges), and eventual dieback of the
shoot. Leaves curl initially due to water stress caused by vascular plugging following infection of roots
and rhizomes. As the disease advances in the rhizome, drying and browning of leaf edges occurs,
followed by formation of large patches of necrotic tissue towards the midrib. Usually, these symptoms are
more pronounced on older leaves. Eventually, the entire leaf turns dark brown with an oily appearance,
resulting in leaf loss. Within the rhizome, a dark brown discoloration of the vascular tissue runs
longitudinally down the center. Often, a milky ooze is associated with this brown vascular discoloration.
Biology and spread: Pseudomonas solanacearum survives in plant parts and many weed host. As diseased
plants die and decompose, bacteria are released into the soil, where they can then spread by the movement
of infested soil and water through fields. The bacteria can spread rapidly, especially in high-rainfall areas
where surface run-off is common. It can spread quickly within the crop rows because of high-density
planting practices. Field-to-field spread also occurs by transplanting infected rhizomes into clean fields.
Infection occurs through plant wounds or natural openings.
In Hawaii, Pseudomonas solanacearum has been identified on H. psittacorum and H. rostrata (Ferreira et
al. 1991).

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Root Disease Caused by Nematodes
Nematodes are microscopic roundworms that inhabit the soil and feed on plants and animals. Nematodes
differ from segmented worms (such as earthworms) in morphology, anatomy, and life cycle. Plant-
parasitic nematodes cause diseases such as leaf rots, root or rhizome rots, flower or bulb rots, and seed
damage.
Disease and symptoms: the major disease symptoms are brown, rotted roots, swollen roots or root knots,
and root lesions. Nematode infections of roots may occur alone but sometimes are accompanied by
pathogenic fungi such as Calonectria spathiphylli, Rhizoctonia spp., and Pythium spp. Although the
relationship between nematodes and fungi on heliconia roots is not well understood, nematode- fungus
relationships are known to cause diseases in other crops.
Plants with roots infected by nematodes exhibit symptoms similar to those caused by water stress and
nutrient deficiency. These symptoms include yellow leaves, excessive leaf curling and waiting, and poor
growth rate. With severe nematode infections accompanied by Calonectria spathiphylli, plants will topple
over or fall with minor wind movement because of insufficient anchorage. Biology and spread:
Nematodes recovered from heliconias include the burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis), a root knot
nematode
(Meloidogyne sp.) a lesion nematode (Pratylenchus sp.), the reniform nematode Rotylenchus reniformis,
and a spiral nematode
(Helicotylenshus sp.) The burrowing, root-knot, and lesion nematodes are endoparasites that enter the
host plant and feed within the roots. In the case of the root- knot nematode, the female becomes stationary
in the plant and initiates gall formation. Other species move more freely within the plant or move about in
the soil, feeding on roots without becoming attracted to them.
Nematodes have been recovered from roots of H. angusta cv. Yellow Christmas; H. Farinosa cv. Rio;
H.chartacea cv. Sexy Pink; H. strict acv. Bucky; H. caribaea cv. Purpurea; H. psittacorum cv.
Andromeda; H. rostrata; and more 9Sewake and Ogata, unpublished).
Most nematodes complete their life cycle from egg to larvae to adult in about three to four weeks given
proper soil temperature, moisture, and aeration. If environmental conditions are not suitable for
development, egg can remain dormant for years, and larvae of some species can remain quiescent for long
periods.
Nematodes are not very mobile in soil and move slowly within the soil solution that surrounds soil
solution that surrounds soil particles. They are spread greater distances by movement of soil on farm
equipment and tools, surface water run-off, and infected plant propagation materials.

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Fungal Disease Cycle and Control

In a typical fungal disease cycle, the pathogen produces spores or other propagules that are spread by
various means to healthy plants. These spores germinate, producing fungal hyphae (strands or threads)
which then infect the plant. In a susceptible plant, the fungus grows and feeds on the plant by releasing
enzymes and absorbing nutrients released from damaged plant cells. The growth of the fungus and the
plant damage it causes by its metabolic processes are seen as disease symptoms, i.e ., spots, rots etc. The
pathogen continues to grow and produce new spores which repeat this cycle. This may occur as soon as a
few weeks after infection or many months later. The sexual stage frequently increases the range if disease
spread, since ascospores are forcibly discharged into the air, becoming wind- borne. Asexual spores
formed early in the disease cycle may also be wind-borne but are primarily spread by splashing water.
All effective disease control methods interfere with one or more elements of this disease cycle. Some of
the objectives of disease control are to prevent infection, to prevent pathogen growth after infection, to
reduce pathogen movement in the plant, to reduce or eliminate sporulation, and to reduce pathogen level
in the environment.

These control measures are discussed below:

1. Prevention. Clean seed and clean rhizomes will prevent the introduction of pathogens to commercial
nurseries. Few heliconias are propagated by seed, but for those for which seed is available, even in
very small quantities, a unique opportunity exists for the establishment of clean stock. Seeds collected
fresh from the field are generally free of pathogens. The fruits should be washed, rinsed, and dipped
in a dilute household bleach solution (10-20 percent bleach in water) for one minute. Set aside all
blemished or rotted fruit. Inspect the seeds for signs of rot, and keep only healthy seeds. Remove the
pulp from clean fruits, rinse the seeds, and plant them in moist pasteurized sphagnum
moss.Procedures for producing clean rhizomes are as follows; Wash rhizomes well, remove all brown
sheath tissue and all roots, and trim the outer layer of the rhizome. Dip in 10-20 percent household
bleached for one minute. Plant the cleaned rhizome in clean media.

2. Moisture control. In general, moisture is needed for fungal sporulation, spore dispersal, spore
germination, and penetration of the fungus into the leaf. For most tropical diseases, the rate at which
the fungus grows in the plant (or the rate at which the disease develops) depends on moisture. In
general, high moisture favors pathogen growth, especially for those diseases, the rate at which the
fungus grows in the plant (or the rate at which the disease develops) depends on moisture. In general,

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 high moisture favors pathogen growth, especially for those diseases caused by Pythium,
Phytophthora, Bipolaris and some Cercospora species. Because moisture is so critical to the
establishment and progress of disease, controlling moisture will decrease disease levels. Some
moisture control suggested are as follows:
A. Grow seedlings and clean rhizomes under solid cover
(Polyethylene film, fiberglass, solid plastic, etc).
B. Increase air movement within the field. Adjust row direction to
produce the best air flow based on wind direction and terrain.
Remove dead plants and old leaves to eliminate damp areas.
Keep weed low.
C. Prepare the field along contour lines that will provide good
Drainage, avoiding patterns which pond or pool water. Areas with poor drainage are highly
conducive to Pythium or Phytophthora rots.

3. Sanitation. Keeping the greenhouse or field free of diseased plants will reduce or eliminate pathogens.
Severely diseased leaves in the field harbor pathogens and are a source of pathogen spores. Fungi
survive in diseased plant tissue and persist in the environment for many months. Removal of
pathogen sources will reduce possibilities of continuing the disease cycle.
Soil from fields with diseased heliconia may contain pathogen spores or plant tissue containing
the pathogen. All field equipment should be washed before moving to a clean field to minimize
transporting of pathogens through soil movement. This includes bulldozers, jeeps, and trucks and
all tools such as shovels, hoes, picks and sickles.

4. Organic matter. Adding organic matter to the field generally reduces the severity of root rots. Organic
matter provides nutrients and aeration, promotes good drainage, and increases microbial competition.
All of these factors can reduce pathogen growth. In some cases, microorganisms inhibit each other,
either by micro-parasitism or through competition for nutrients. Incorporating organic matter before
the field is first planted or adding organic matter to established fields may reduce root rots in
heliconia, especially if the established field is declining severely from root and rhizome rots.

5. Host resistance. Host resistance uses the ability of the host plant to prevent disease. It is therefore the
most economical and best method to control disease, but it usually takes a long time to develop. For
many commercially important crops that have been in cultivation for a long time, researchers have
identified sources of disease resistance and have added these genes to the plants. Today,

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 biotechnological techniques that allow the transfer of genes from one plant species to another may
hasten the development of new crops resistant to serious diseases.

6. Chemical control. Many chemical pesticides that inhibit of reduce the growth of fungal pathogens
have been developed for agricultural crops. Broad- spectrum fungicides such as mancozeb are
effective against Bipolaris, Pseudocercospora, Exserohilum,, Phytophthora, and others. Metalaxyl is
effective against phytophthora and Pythium. Check with your local Cooperative Extension Service
Office for new fungicides available for use on heliconia and follow the pesticide label directions.

7. Insect and pest control. Snail, slugs, insect, rodents (Figure 37), and other animals such as pigs
(Figure 38, 39) will transport spores of fungal pathogens. Large animals such as pigs easily track soil-
borne spores from diseased to clean fields. Insects and slugs also carry pathogens because of the
microscopic size of fungal spores, thus, populations of these pests in field and on plants should be
kept to a minimum.

Bacterial Disease Control

Control measures described in the fungal disease control section also pertain to control of bacterial
diseases, with the exception of chemical control. Unlike fungal diseases, bacterial diseases are seldom
adequately controlled by chemicals. Prevention and sanitation are the keys to controlling bacterial
diseases.

Although heliconia is affected by the bacterium Pseudomonas solanacearum, it is helpful to understand

the specific baterical control procedures used for anthurium blight caused by Xanthomonas campestris
dieffenbachiae. The general prevention and sanitation control procedures are similar for both heliconia
and anthurium, regardless of the bacterial organism. Anthurium blight control recommendations are
published in the proceedings of the second anthurium blight conference (Nishijima 1989) Common
mistakes in authurium Blight Control practices. These publications discuss anthurium propagation and
establishment for the production of disease-free plants, preparation of beds for planting, prevention of
disease establishment in fields, and prevention of intra-field spread. These procedures can be adapted to
control bacterial in heliconias, of foremost important is the ability of pseudomonas solanacearum to
survive for long periods in soil and in many weed hosts. The bacterium moves with soil or water
movement, therefore, control measures should include immediate rogueing of infected plants or killing
them with herbicide and keeping that area undisturbed. The adjacent areas should also be plant-free for
several months, water run-off should be prevented by covering the ground with trap and diverting water

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flow away from contaminated areas. Heliconias can probably be replanted using disease-free plants
following 6 to 12 months or more of weed-free fallow.

Nematode Control
In native, endemic vegetation, serious pathogens such as the burrowing nematode are not likely to be
present. Thus, the establishment of new heliconia fields with clean rhizomes is crucial. Some guidelines
for heat treatment of diseased heliconia rhizomes can be adopted from those for the control of burrowing
nematode in banana. For banana, corms are trimmed and all discolored areas are removed. These cleaned
corms are placed in hot water held at 50 C for 10-15 minutes and immediate dipping into cold water to
stop the treatment has been suggested (Criley 1988). The cleaning process used for banana corms may be
used for heliconia rhizomes prior to hot water treatment (Figure 40). In certain tropical countries, some
banana fields are flooded foe five to six months to destroy nematodes and other pathogens. This
procedure would have little applicability in volcanic soils but may help in heavy clay soils. Traditionally,
soil fumigation has been used to control many types of nematode diseases. These chemicals are becoming
increasingly difficult to register for use and many are now unavailable for agricultural uses. Development
of bio control strategies is being intensely pursued. Parasites that attack the eggs, larvae, or adults of
pathogenic nematodes are being tested in many laboratories, along with new technologies develop to
manipulate the complex host-pathogen relationships in ways that reduce susceptibility to disease.

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Disorders Disease
Aerial Disorders
Leaf Spots Bipolaris and Alternaria
Shoot Rots
Emerging Shoots Pythium myriotylum
Basal Rots
Pseudostem at ground level Cylindrocladium floridanum
Soilborne Plants Disorders
Wilt syndrome A form species of Fusarium
oxysporum
Rhizome Rot Cylindrocladium floridanum
Root Knot Nematode
Meloidogyne
Root Rots caused by poor soil drainage
Fine-feeder roots Phytophthora and Pythium
Factors affecting Flower Quality
Physical Abrasion due to wind causes
brown superficial lesions on
peduncles and bracts
Chemical Spray-damage due to herbicide
drift can cause discolouration of
bracts.
Poor spraying practices can
cause scorch marks and reduce
bloom quality.
Biological Flower attacked by ants and
rodents are not salable.
Curvularia and Alternaria can
182
Treatment
Preicur and Fongarid. Avoid water-
logging
No chemical control currently
available. Usually attacks weakened
plants, so avoid water-logging, which
can cause other root rots.
No chemical control available. Clean
knives when harvesting flowers clean
planting material. Never re-plant on
diseased ground.
No chemical control currently
available. Avoid water-logging.
Nematicides not recommended due to
cost and toxicity. Organic mulches,
e.g. green manures, forage hay
incorporated into beds at planting.
Recommended fungicidal drench, e.g.
cropper oxychlorride, fongarid. Avoid
planting in wet season. Incorporate
gypsum in clay soils to aid in water
dispersal. Do not plant rhizomes too
deep in beds.
Incorporate wind breaks, e.g. native
timber, palms and/or barna grass.
Do not spray on windy days; choose
calm weather conditions
Spray in early morning or late evening,
cooler parts of day. Use correct
formulation, concentrations
recommended on the label.
Aim to reduce pest populations
through appropriates trash
management.
Regular spray program of bravo.
cause severe spotting on bracts
Bipolaris incurvata can cause
flower bract spots
183
Improve aeration during wet season to
avoid water build-up on leaves.
Regular spray program of Mancozeb,
Rovral and Tilt. Improve aeration
during wet season to avoid water
build-up on leaves.
View of Fusarium wilt infected Heliconia
psittacorum Plants causesd by a form
species of Fusarium Oxysporum Leaf Spot on psittacorum flower
caused by Curvularia incurvata

Internal vascular discolouration of lower pseudo

stem of Heliconia psittacorum, caused by a
form species of Fusarium Oxysporum.

Base and rhizome rot caused by

Floridanum

184
Revision exercises Crops

1. What are the major varieties of banana?

2. What is the best sucker for planting materials?

3. Describe how pruning should be done.

4. How Black Sigatoka can be controlled?

5. How long banana takes to bear?

6. What are male fingerers in growing banana?

7. What is the ideal source for planting suckers?

8. What causes suckers to rot?

9. What is the main use of crops?

10. What is the minimum temperature for heliconia to grow?

11. What are the colors of the heliconia flowers?

12. In what way mulching is helpful in heliconia production?

13. What is grooming?

14. Describe Bipolar spores.

15. How cross infection occur with Phytophorg Nicotianae?

16. Describe Nematoes.

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Next Page: 201
Revision exercises Farming as a business

1. What are the types of erosion?

2. Describe a bench Terrace.

3. List two inventory records.

4. What are possible farm incomes?

5. What is net income?

214- i