1

In a Different Voice
Carol Gilligan

carmen.L.camilleri@um.edu,mt

Introduction

Carol Gilligan is a social psychologist who earned her doctorate from Harvard University
in 1964 and later began teaching at Harvard University with the psychologist Erik
Erikson1 and in 1970 she became a research assistant for Laurence Kohlberg. Kohlberg is
known for his research on moral development, justice and rights 2. For Gilligan,
Kohlbergs theory was biased towards males but against women. Her criticism is found
in the book In a different voice. For her, women have different moral and psychological
tendencies than men. Men think in terms of rules and justice while women think in terms
of caring and relationships. So her work emphasizes the necessity to value men and
women equally.

She thinks that women hesitate to judge because they see the complexity of relationships.
She argued that girls and boys in her research studies had a different moral development
and ethical concerns. For girls, she maintained that entering adolescence meant
sacrificing an authentic self and genuine voice to the urgent need for relationship, thus
developing a female ethics of care more complex and conflicted than a male one.
However, she was criticized for her small sample of interviews with 12 year old boys and
girls, and like Kohlberg she was biased. But Gilligan herself admits that additional
longitudinal studies of womens judgments are needed in order to refine and validate her
descriptions and she also insists that her findings have been published in leading journals.
She is considered as a pioneer of gender studies and particularly in the psychological and

1
Eric Erikson is a developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst, known for his theory on social
development on human beings, and for coining the phrase identity crisis. Refer also to Appendix.
2
Refer to Appendix.
 2

moral development of girls. So she has been instrumental in research on adolescence,

moral development, womens development and conflict resolution.

Developmental Psychology

Gilligan wanted to assert that women were not inferior in their personal and moral
development, but that they are different from men. They developed in a way that focused
on connections among people, rather than separation, and with an ethic of care for those
people, rather than an ethic of justice. So in offering this alternative theory she divided it
on three major divisions: the preconventional, conventional and post conventional. In
other words, the changes are from selfish stage to social stage and to principled morality 3.
For Gilligan the transitions between the stages are due to changes in the sense of self
rather than in changes in cognitive capability which Piaget and Kohlberg referred to.

For Gilligan, to have a voice is to be human, and to have something to say is to be a

person. But speaking depends on listening and being heard. This is a relational act. Her
central study was that of whether or not to perform an abortion. Gilligan is a supporter of
a womens right to choose, but she discusses also responsibility. Joining the
understanding of womens psychological development with theories of human
development, she has broken the idea that there is only one dimension of moral
reasoning. She has connected moral decision about the self and the social environment in
which the self lives. The self may also be women and not only men.

The images of relationship introduce the reader to a central claim that Gilligan wants to
make, mainly that men and women view relationships differently and this is the main
argument in the first three chapters. However, Developmental psychology has not been
concerned with whether human beings have a more real nature beyond the concepts of
the mind, beyond ideas, beyond images. Thus the exploration and studies have been
subject to a great deal of confusion as these theories do not take Being into consideration,
but rather take self-image as the centre of realization. According to St. Augustine, to do
3
Refer to Appendix.
 3

justice is the love of God, and thereupon the love of one another. Moreover, in the
Genesis man is created in the image of God which means that humans are created good,
intelligent, free beings by a God who is all these things of necessity. The tendency to see
women as less complete images of God certainly is one example of how classical ideals
have given mere lip service in society and polity4.

Systematic Theology

For Augustine a true polity is a people constituted by justice. This justice is described by
the first and second commandments. The commandments acquire a positive meaning of
virtues which is reflected in a Eucharistic right, without any destruction of inferiority.
Therefore in loving God man does justice to his/her neighbour, that is, to the other, to the
community and does not remain individualistic and selfish. The relationship is expressed
in Incarnation when God made man is conceived in the womb of a young virgin to
redeem man from sin. Original sin symbolizes that the world which humans enter at birth
lacks the beauty and harmony intended by Gods creative action. It signifies the need of
God not only as sustaining creator but as a Saviour from the destructive evil which is
outside man but also, tragically within. So the potential in Crisis Situations can be either
positive or negative. The search should be from detachment and rebellion to one of
commitment and responsible for consequences5.

The good is constituted neither, in obedience to commands nor in a cultivation of virtues,

of what a human is and becomes. Ontologically humans are involved in God and so with
each other, and so this way they become moral beings. But this God is a Triune God
whose own reality is deontological and who is three persons who mutually command
and obey. God is making a world of love to God and one another and thus also
teleological. A people united in a common spirit, meaning a people who have become
a community, is a polity, or ekklesia. In fact Gilligan refers to the transitional phase
which marks a shift in concern from goodness to truth, a transition which begins with
4
THOMAS P. RAUSCH, The college students introduction to theology, Minnesota 1993, 113.
5
CAROL GILLIGAN, In a different voice, Psychological Theory and womens development, Cambridge et al,
2003, 123-5.
 4

reconsideration of the relationship between self and other6. In the person of Jesus Christ
human beings find the image of God and their own destiny because he is both God and
human. Because Man is made in the image and likeness of God, man reaches his/her
potential only in relationship as generous, self-giving people.

In the book In a different voice, the dilemma arises over the issue of justification for
taking a life, when the other is a child in the mothers womb and the issues regarding
abortion. Ford states that:

Ethical or moral thought is about how people should or may behave. There are dozens of ways of
understanding morality. Some of the most popular core ideas are: follow your conscience; do your
duty; cultivate certain virtues and habits; relate your actions to certain values, standards, or some
idea of what is good; stick to certain principles; accept the norms of a particular traditions; imitate
good examples; pursue your deepest desires; make a rational choice taking into account the
consequences of your actions. Each of those raises many questions, and some of the answers are
in the form of ethical theories such as those worked out by Western schools of thought including
Platonists, Aristotelians, Stoics, Thomists, Kantians, utilitarians, existentialists, and evolutionists 7.

(David Ford, Theology. A very short introduction, 55).

Systematic Theology is on what God wants man to believe and to know. In the late
twentieth century biblical studies, human sciences, philosophical development and
Christology, ecclesiology and anthropology have challenged and enriched moral
theology. Since Leo XII who was Pope from 1878 till 1903, moral theologians studied
questions of social justice, church-state relations and international peace. However issues
as abortion have created problematic issues not only internationally but also
psychological problems on the individual basis of the person who commits it.

Therefore, nowadays moral theories seem to have lost their force and that is why today
people put more trust in witnesses, than in teachers, in experience than in teaching, and

6
CAROL GILLIGAN, In a different voice, Psychological Theory and womens development, Cambridge et al,
2003, 82.
7
DAVID FORD, Theology. A very short introduction, Oxford 2000, 55.
 5

in life and action than in theories8. Gilligan denies that the justice and care orientation
correlates strictly with gender as men and women are capable of shifting easily from one
orientation to the other, though it is women who are most likely to exhibit caring
tendency, while men have a justice approach to a moral problem.

The Knowledge of God

What is certain is that, wisdom is that power which enables one to put to practical use the
knowledge and skill which one possesses, to choose wise ends of action, and to attain
these ends by wise means. It is that guidance of the understanding under which the will
determines wisely its pleasure, and puts forth power to accomplish it. Wisdom in God is
infinite and unerring, choosing the best end and the best means of attaining it. It is seen
in creation, and in providence, but is manifested in redemption9. God is an intelligent
being possessed or else he is knowledge himself. This is proved from his spirituality, his
perfection and his causal relations to other beings and things. The whole universe, with
animals, creatures, humans and spiritual beings is ever before him. He knows their
essences which to them remain unknown. He has perfect perception of the intents and
thoughts of their hearts. God is greater than our hearts and knoweth all things, 1Jn 3,
19. So abiding by God we shall know that we are of the truth.

Ford, insists that Christian theological ethics contributed to forming the minds, hearts,
and wills of individuals and communities who continually find themselves in situations
requiring responsible judgments, decision and action 10. Laurence Kohlberg expects a
person to act morally out of a sense of justice to others, moved ultimately by an
interiorization of the value of justice in ones own life. It is a self-centered morality
where one acts in order to avoid punishment or to receive praise. This is a type of
narcissism which actually leads to death. On the other hand, Gilligan writes As a
framework for moral decision, care is grounded in the assumption that the other and self
8
JOHN PAUL II POPE, Redemptoris Missio, Encyclical Letter on the permanent value of the Churchs
mandate, Vatican City 1991, 42.
9
JAMES PETIGRU BOYCE Rev., The Knowledge of God in Systematic Theology, 1887,
http://www.founders.org/library/boyce1/toc.html. Chapter IX.
10
DAVID FORD, Theology. A very short introduction, Oxford 2000.
 6

are interdependent11 and that the good life is one which involves a progress of
affiliative relationship12 and that the concept of identityincludes the experience of
interconnection13. Therefore she proposes a moral morality as directed to the other.
Gilligan tries to create a balance between passion and duty in relating the narratives of
abortion and also show how creating a new ladder, that is, a new virtue after erring will
include responsibility and care. She also alludes to the fact that self-sacrifice is in
conflict with the concept of rights14.

However, both Kohlberg and Gilligan presume that relationality is essential for moral
development. It is through relationships with others that a person matures and becomes
the self and continues to become aware of the close interdependence of the human
community. But one can here refer to what Richard of St. Victor states about the Father
as Lover, The Son as Beloved, and the Spirit as Love itself and what the Genesis reveals
that the human person is created in Gods image and likeness (Gen. 1, 26). Gilligan ties
morality to the understanding that arises from the experience of relationship, since she
considers the capacity to understand what someone else is experiencing as the
prerequisite for moral response. Referring to George Eliots novel The Mill on the floss
(1860) confirms that since

the mysterious complexity of our life cannot be lace up in formulas moral judgment cannot be
bound by general rules but must instead be informed by a life vivid and intense enough to have
created a wide, fellow-feeling with all that is human.
(Carol Gilligan, In a different voice, 130).

Debates on formulation of theories seem ridiculous if only self centered. Life is worth
more than money because everybody has the right to live 15 and one has to be sure of it
as everyone is an image of God. So when it comes to decision and action in morality

11
CAROL GILLIGAN, In a different voice, Psychological Theory and womens development, Cambridge et al,
2003, 24.
12
Ibid. 170.
13
Ibid. 173.
14
Ibid. 131-2.
15
Ibid. 57. This is what Claire, one of the participants in the research study stated in relation to the Heinz
Dilemma about stealing drug to save the wife.
 7

Gilligan does not specify any ages in her theory as she realizes that it is a continuous
development in a journey to Rome16 related to each individual case she studied.

Conclusion

Therefore it is of the utmost importance to include the existence of Being to any theory of
developmental psychology to avoid further confusion and debates between female and
male socialization. After all every individual being in being male or female is a creation
of God and one complements the other. So listening and confronting a dialogue will one
day lead to a compromise and eradicate the idea of womens inferiority maybe as
interpreted from the Bible story that the women are created from Adams rib. When it
comes to decisions as abortion then, the solution or choice is based on the existence of
Being, that is God and this surely will not create conflicts in womens decisions, choices
and actions.

In short, if the general psychological theories of human development considering the

growth of moral life insist on, movement from self-absorption to self-transcendence, and
not self-realization, contemporary theories of moral development will be more defined
and reasonable. Then, the process of growth and development enables individuals to act
freely in the pursuit of internalized value, with a sense of belonging to and responsibility
for others whether male or female in any situation both on individual, communal and
international and globalized situations and no matter the age with a vision of maturity.
Moreover, the change in progress with regards moral development has to be in a spiral
form and not in a circular manner as otherwise one remains in the same level never
reaching transcendence.

16
Ibid. 155.
 8

Bibliography

BOYCE JAMES PETIGRU Rev., The Knowledge of God in Systematic Theology, 1887,
http://www.founders.org/library/boyce1/toc.html.

FORD DAVID, Theology. A very short introduction, Oxford 2000.

GILLIGAN CAROL, In a different voice, Psychological Theory and womens development,

Cambridge et al, 2003.

JOHN PAUL II POPE, Redemptoris Missio, Encyclical Letter on the permanent value of the
Churchs mandate, Vatican City 1991.

RAUSCH THOMAS P., The college students introduction to theology, Minnesota 1993.
 9

Appendix

Eric Eriksons Theory of Personality

Erikson life-stage virtues include hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, caring
and wisdom.

Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development

0.2 Sensorimotor concept of object of Representation/Mental
2.7 Pre-operational concept of conversation
7.11 Concrete operations concept of conversation but cannot reason abstractly
11.12 Formal operations reason abstractly

Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development

0-9 Preconventional (cognitive ability)
1. Avoid punishment
2. Gain reward
9-20 Conventional - (decenter moral universe)
3. Gain approval and avoid disapproval
4. Duty and guild
Age 20+ Postconventional - (morality on a logic principle)
(Maybe never) 5. Agreed upon rights
6. Personal moral standards

Gilligans Stages of the Ethic of Care

Age not listed Preconventional Goal is individual survival
TRANSITION is from selfishness to responsibility to others

Age not listed Conventional Self-sacrifice is goodness

TRANSITION is from goodness to truth that she is a person too
 10

Age not listed Postconventional Principle of non violence: do not hurt others
Or self

(Reference: adapted from Gilligans In a Different Voice, Reading Questions

http://www.stolaf.edu/people/huff/classes/handbook/Gilligan.html 3/6/2008).