Proof REPORT

ARM BASED SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM 2015-16
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
One of the most promising renewable energy sources characterized by a huge potential
of conversion into electrical power is the solar energy. The conversion of solar radiation
into electrical energy by Photo-Voltaic (PV) effect is a very promising technology, being
clean, silent and reliable, with very small maintenance costs and small ecological impact.
The interest in the Photo Voltaic conversion systems is visibly reflected by the
exponential increase of sales in this market segment with a strong growth projection for
the next decades. According to recent market research reports carried out by European
Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA), the total installed power of PV conversion
equipment increased from about 1 GW in 2001up to nearly 23 GW in 2009.
The continuous evolution of the technology determined a sustained increase of the

conversion efficiency of PV panels, but nonetheless the most part of the commercial
panels have efficiencies no more than 20%. A constant research preoccupation of the
technical community involved in the solar energy harnessing technology refers to various
solutions to increase the PV panels conversion efficiency. Among PV efficiency
improving solutions we can mention: solar tracking, optimization of solar cells geometry,
enhancement of light trapping capability, use of new materials, etc. The output power
produced by the PV panels depends strongly on the incident light radiation.
The continuous modification of the sun-earth relative position determines a

continuously changing of incident radiation on a fixed PV panel. The point of maximum
received energy is reached when the direction of solar radiation is perpendicular on the
panel surface. Thus an increase of the output energy of a given PV panel can be obtained
by mounting the panel on a solar tracking device that follows the sun trajectory. Unlike
the classical fixed PV panels, the mobile ones driven by solar trackers are kept under
optimum insolation for all positions of the Sun, boosting thus the PV conversion
efficiency of the system. The output energy of PV panels equipped with solar trackers
may increase with tens of percents, especially during the summer when the energy
harnessed from the sun is more important. Photo-Voltaic or PV cells, known commonly
as solar cells, convert the energy from sunlight into DC electricity. PVs offer added
advantages over other renewable energy sources in that they give off no noise and require
Dept of ECE, NCET Page 1

practically no maintenance. A tracking system must be able to follow the sun with a
certain degree of accuracy, return the collector to its original position at the end of the day
and also track during periods of cloud over.
The major components of this system are as follows.

Light dependent resistor
Microcontroller.
Output mechanical transducer (stepper motor)
1.1 BACKGROUND
A Solar Tracker is a device onto which solar panels are fitted which tracks the motion
of the sun across the sky ensuring that the maximum amount of sunlight strikes the panels
throughout the day. The Solar Tracker will attempt to navigate to the best angle of
exposure of light from the sun. This report aims to let the reader understand the project
work which I have done. A brief introduction to Solar Panel and Solar Tracker is
explained in the Literature Research section. Basically the Solar Tracker is divided into
two main categories, hardware and software. It is further subdivided into six main
functionalities: Method of Tracker Mount, Drives, Sensors, RTC, Motors, and Power
Supply of the Solar Tracker is also explained and explored. The reader would then be
brief with some analysis and perceptions of the information.
By using solar arrays, a series of solar cells electrically connected, a DC voltage is

generated which can be physically used on a load. Solar arrays or panels are being used
increasingly as efficiencies reach higher levels, and are especially popular in remote areas
where placement of electricity lines is not economically viable. This alternative power
source is continuously achieving greater popularity especially since the realisation of
fossil fuels shortcomings. Renewable energy in the form of electricity has been in use to
some degree as long as 75 or 100 years ago. Sources such as Solar, Wind, Hydro and
Geothermal have all been utilised with varying levels of success. The most widely used
are hydro and wind power, with solar power being moderately used worldwide. This can
be attributed to the relatively high cost of solar cells and their low conversion efficiency.
Solar power is being heavily researched, and solar energy costs have now reached within
a few cents per kW/h of other forms of electricity generation, and will drop further with
new technologies such as titanium oxide cells. With a peak laboratory efficiency of 32%

and average efficiency of 15-20%, it is necessary to recover as much energy as possible

from a solar power system. This includes reducing inverter losses, storage losses, and
light gathering losses.
Light gathering is dependent on the angle of incidence of the light source providing
power (i.e. the sun) to the solar cells surface, and the closer to perpendicular, the greater
the power. If a flat solar panel is mounted on level ground, it is obvious that over the
course of the day the sunlight will have an angle of incidence close to 90 in the morning
and the evening. At such an angle, the light gathering ability of the cell is essentially zero,
resulting in no output. As the day progresses to midday, the angle of incidence
approaches 0, causing a steady increase in power until at the point where the light
incident on the panel is completely perpendicular, and maximum power is achieved. As
the day continues toward dusk, the reverse happens, and the increasing angle causes the
power to decrease again toward minimum again. From this background, we see the need
to maintain the maximum power output from the panel by maintaining an angle of
incidence as close to 0 as possible. By tilting the solar panel to continuously face the
sun, this can be achieved. This process of sensing and following the position of the sun is
known as Solar Tracking. It was resolved that real-time tracking would be necessary to
follow the sun effectively, so that no external data would be required in operation.
1.2 AIM OF THE PROJECT
The aim of the project is to keep the solar photovoltaic panel perpendicular to the
sun throughout the year in order to make it more efficient. The dual axis solar
photovoltaic panel takes astronomical data as reference and the tracking system has the
capability to always point the solar array toward the sun and can be installed in various
regions with minor modifications. The vertical and horizontal motion of the panel is
obtained by taking altitude angle and azimuth angle as reference. The fuzzy controller has
been used to control the position of DC motors. The mathematical simulation control of
dual axis solar tracking system ensures the point to point motion of the DC motors while
tracking the sun.

Chapter 2
OVERVIEW OF SOLAR PANEL SYSTEM
This chapter aims to provide a brief knowledge of Solar Panel, Solar Tracker and the
components which made up Solar Tracker.
2.1 TECHNOLOGY OF SOLAR PANEL
Solar panels are devices that convert light into electricity. They are called solar
after the sun because the sun is the most powerful source of the light available for use.
They are sometimes called photovoltaic which means "light-electricity". Solar cells or PV
cells rely on the photovoltaic effect to absorb the energy of the sun and cause current to
flow between two oppositely charge layers. A solar panel is a collection of solar cells.
Although each solar cell provides a relatively small amount of power, many solar cells
spread over a large area can provide enough power to be useful. To get the most power,
solar panels have to be pointed directly at the Sun. The development of solar cell
technology begins with 1839 research of French physicist Antoine-Cesar Becquerel. He
observed the photovoltaic effect while experimenting with a solid electrode in an
electrolyte solution. After that he saw a voltage developed when light fell upon the
electrode.
According to Encyclopaedia Britannica the first genuine for solar panel was built
around 1883 by Charles Fritts. He used junctions formed by coating selenium (a
semiconductor) with an extremely thin layer of gold. Crystalline silicon and gallium
arsenide are typical choices of materials for solar panels. Gallium arsenide crystals are
grown especially for photovoltaic use, but silicon crystals are available in less-expensive
standard ingots, which are produced mainly for consumption in the microelectronics
industry. Norways Renewable Energy Corporation has confirmed that it will build a
solar manufacturing plant in Singapore by 2010 - the largest in the world. This plant will
be able to produce products that can generate up to 1.5 Giga watts of energy every year.
That is enough to power several million households at any one time. Last year the world
as a whole produced products that could generate just 2 GW in total.

2.2 EVOLUTION OF SOLAR TRACKER
Since the sun moves across the sky throughout the day, in order to receive the best
angle of exposure to sunlight for collection energy. A tracking mechanism is often
incorporated into the solar arrays to keep the array pointed towards the sun. A solar
tracker is a device onto which solar panels are fitted which tracks the motion of the sun
across the sky ensuring that the maximum amount of sunlight strikes the panels
throughout the day. When compare to the price of the PV solar panels, the cost of a solar
tracker is relatively low. Most photovoltaic solar panels are fitted in a fixed location- for
example on the sloping roof of a house, or on framework fixed to the ground. Since the
sun moves across the sky though the day, this is far from an ideal solution. Solar panels
are usually set up to be in full direct sunshine at the middle of the day facing South in the
Northern Hemisphere, or North in the Southern Hemisphere. Therefore morning and
evening sunlight hits the panels at an acute angle reducing the total amount of electricity
which can be generated each day.
Fig 2.1 Suns apparent motion
During the day the sun appears to move across the sky from left to right and up
and down above the horizon from sunrise to noon to sunset. Figure 2.1 shows the
schematic above of the Sun's apparent motion as seen from the Northern Hemisphere.

To keep up with other green energies, the solar cell market has to be as efficient as
possible in order not to lose market shares on the global energy marketplace. The end-
user will prefer the tracking solution rather than a fixed ground system to increase
their earnings because:
The efficiency increases by 30-40%.

The space requirement for a solar park is reduced, and they keep the same
output.
The return of the investment timeline is reduced.
The tracking system amortizes itself within 4 years.
In terms of cost per Watt of the completed solar system, it is usually
cheaper to use a solar tracker and less solar panels where space and
planning permit.
A good solar tracker can typically lead to an increase in electricity
generation capacity of 30-50%.
2.3 CONCEPTS ON SOLAR RADIATION
Before talking about the solar tracking systems, we will review some basic
concepts concerning solar radiation and mention some important values to better
understand the results of this work. The sun, at an estimated temperature of 5800 K, emits
high amounts of energy in the form of radiation, which reaches the planets of the solar
system. Sunlight has two components, the direct beam and diffuse beam. Direct radiation
(also called beam radiation) is the solar radiation of the sun that has not been scattered
(causes shadow).
Direct beam carries about 90% of the solar energy, and the "diffuse sunlight" that
carries the remainder. The diffuse portion is the blue sky on a clear day and increases as a
proportion on cloudy days. The diffuse radiation is the sun radiation that has been
scattered (complete radiation on cloudy days). Reflected radiation is the incident radiation
(beam and diffuse) that has been reflected by the earth. The sum of beams, diffuse and
reflected radiation is considered as the global radiation on a surface. As the majority of
the energy is in the direct beam, maximizing collection requires the sun to be visible to
the panels as long as possible.

2.3.1 Declination Angle :
The declination of the sun is the angle between the equator and a line drawn from
the centre of the Earth to the centre of the sun. The declination is maximum (23.45o) on
the summer/winter (in India 21 June and 22 December) The declination angle, denoted by
, varies seasonally due to the tilt of the Earth on its axis of rotation and the rotation of
the Earth around the sun. If the earth were not tilted on its axis of rotation, the declination
would always be 0. However, the Earth is tilted by 23.45 and the declination angle
varies plus or minus this amount. Only at the spring and fall equinoxes is the declination
angle equal to 0.
2.3.2 Hour Angle
The Hour Angle is the angular distance that the earth has rotated in a day. It is
equal to 15 degrees multiplied by the number of hours from local solar noon. This is
based on the nominal time, 24 hours, required for the earth to rotate once i.e. 360 degrees.
Solar hour angle is zero when sun is straight over head, negative before noon, and
positive after noon.(here noon means 12.00 hour)
2.3.3 Solar Altitude (z)
The solar altitude is the vertical angle between the horizontal and the line
connecting to the sun. At sunset/sunrise altitude is 0 and is 90 degrees when the sun is at
the zenith. The altitude relates to the latitude of the site, the declination angle and the hour
angle.

Fig 2.2: The Declination Angles
2.3.4 Solar Azimuth (A)
The azimuth angle is the angle within the horizontal plane measured from true
South or North. The azimuth angle is measured clockwise from the zero azimuth. For
example, if you're in the Northern Hemisphere and the zero azimuth is set to South, the
azimuth angle value will be negative before solar noon, and positive after solar noon.
2.3.5 Insolation
Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area

and recorded during a given time. It is also called solar irradiation and expressed as
hourly irradiation if recorded during an hour, daily irradiation if recorded during a day,
for example. The unit recommended by the World Meteorological Organization is MJ/m2
(mega joules per square meter) or J/cm2 (joules per square centimeter).Practitioners in the
business of solar energy may use the unit Wh/m2 (watt-hours per square meter).

If this energy is divided by the recording time in hours, it is then a density of

power called irradiance, expressed in W/m2 (watts per square meter). Over the course of a
year the average solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere at any point
in time is roughly 1366 watts per square meter. The Sun's rays are attenuated as they pass
through the atmosphere, thus reducing the irradiance at the Earth's surface to
approximately 1000 W m2 for a surface perpendicular to the Sun's rays at sea level on a
clear day. The insolation of the sun can also be expressed in Suns, where one Sun equals
1000 W/m2
2.4 PROJECTION EFFECT
The insolation into a surface is largest when the surface directly faces the
Sun. As the angle increases between the direction at a right angle to the surface
and the direction of the rays of sunlight, the insolation is reduced in proportion to
cosine of the angle; see effect of sun angle on climate.
This 'projection effect' is the main reason why the Polar Regions are much
colder than equatorial regions on Earth. On an annual average the poles receive
less insolation than does the equator, because at the poles the Earth's surface are
angled away from the Sun.
2.5 WORKING OF PHOTOVOLTAICS
Photovoltaics are the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic
level. Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that
causes them to absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free
electrons are captured, an electric current results that can be used as electricity.
A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid

state electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by
the photovoltaic effect. Crystalline silicon PV cells are the most common
photovoltaic cells in use today.

Fig 2.3 : Photovoltaic panel or array

A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in
a support structure or frame are called a photovoltaic module. Modules are
designed to supply electricity at a certain voltage, such as a common 12 volts
system. The current produced is directly dependent on how much light strikes the
module. Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array. In general, the
larger the area of a module or array, the more electricity will be produced.
Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current (DC) electricity. They can
be connected in both series and parallel electrical arrangements to produce any
required voltage and current combination.

Chapter 3
SOLAR TRACKER
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Solar Tracker is a Device which follows the movement of the sun as it
rotates from the east to the west every day. The main function of all tracking
systems is to provide one or two degrees of freedom in movement. Trackers are
used to keep solar collectors/solar panels oriented directly towards the sun as it
moves through the sky every day. Using solar trackers increases the amount of
solar energy which is received by the solar energy collector and improves the
energy output of the heat/electricity which is generated. Solar trackers can increase
the output of solar panels by 20-30% which improves the economics of the solar
panel project.
3.2 NEED FOR SOLAR TRACKER

The energy contributed by the direct beam drops off with the cosine of the
angle between the incoming light and the panel. The table no. 3.1 shows the
Direct power lost (%) due to misalignment (angle i).
Misalignment (angle i ) Direct power lost (%)=1-cos(i)

0 degree 0
1 degree 0.015
3 degree 0.14
8 degree 1
23.4 degree 8.3
30 degree 13.4
45 degree 30
75 degree >75
Table no-3..1 Direct power lost (%) due to misalignment (angle i)
The sun travels through 360 degrees east-west a day, but from the
perspective of any fixed location the visible portion is 180 degrees during a 1/2 day
period. Local horizon effects reduce this somewhat, making the effective motion about
150 degrees. A solar panel in a fixed orientation between the dawn and sunset extremes
will see a motion of 75 degrees on either side, and thus, according to the table above, will
lose 75% of the energy in the morning and evening. Rotating the panels to the east and
west can help recapture these losses. A tracker rotating in the east-west direction is
known as a single-axis tracker. The sun also moves through 46 degrees north-south over
the period of a year. The same set of panels set at the midpoint between the two local
extremes will thus see the sun move 23 degrees on either side, causing losses of 8.3% A
tracker that accounts for both the daily and seasonal motions is known as a dual-axis
tracker.
3.3 TYPES OF SOLAR TRACKERS

3.3.1 PASSIVE TRACKING SYSTEMS
The passive tracking system realizes the movement of the system by
utilizing a low boiling point liquid. This liquid is vaporized by the added heat of
the sun and the center of mass is shifted leading to that the system finds the new
equilibrium position.
3.3.2 ACTIVE TRACKING SYSTEMS

The two basic types of active solar tracker are single-axis and double-axis.
Fig 3.1 : Active tracking system

3.2.3 Single axis trackers

The single axis tracking systems realizes the movement of either elevation or
azimuth for a solar power system. Which one of these movements is desired, depends on
the technology used on the tracker as well as the space that it is mounted on. For example
the parabolic through systems utilize the azimuthally tracking whereas the many rooftop
PV-systems utilize elevation tracking because of the lack of space. A single-axis tracker
can only pivot in one plane either horizontally or vertically. This makes it less
complicated and generally cheaper than a two-axis tracker, but also less effective at
harvesting the total solar energy available at a site. Trackers use motors and gear trains to
direct the tracker as commanded by a controller responding to the solar direction. Since
the motors consume energy, one wants to use them only as necessary.
Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation.
There are several common implementations of single axis trackers. These include
horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT) and vertical single axis trackers (VSAT).
A horizontal-axis tracker consists of a long horizontal tube to which solar modules
are attached. The tube is aligned in a north-south direction, is supported on bearings
mounted on pylons or frames, and rotates slowly on its axis to follow the sun's motion
across the sky. This kind of tracker is most effective at equatorial latitudes where the sun
is more or less overhead at noon. In general, it is effective wherever the solar path is high
in the sky for substantial parts of the year, but for this very reason, does not perform well
at higher latitudes. For higher latitude, a vertical-axis tracker is better suited. This works
well wherever the sun is typically lower in the sky and, at least in the summer months, the
days are long.
3.2.4 Dual Axis Trackers

Dual axis trackers as shown in the figure 2.6 have two degrees of freedom that act
as axes of rotation. Double-axis solar trackers, as the same suggest, can rotate
simultaneously in horizontal and vertical directions, and s o are able to point exactly at
the sun at all times in any location.
Dual axis tracking systems realize movement both along the elevation- and
azimuthally axes. These tracking systems naturally provide the best performance, given
that the components have high enough accuracy as well.

Fig 3.2: Dual axis solar tracker

CHAPTER 4
COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Solar Tracker is basically a device onto which solar panels are fitted which tracks
the motion of the sun across the sky ensuring that the maximum amount of sunlight
strikes the panels throughout the day. After finding the sunlight, the tracker will try to
navigate through the path ensuring the best sunlight is detected. The design of the Solar
Tracker requires many components. The design and construction of it could be divided
into six main parts that would need to work together harmoniously to achieve a smooth
run for the Solar Tracker, each with their main function. They are:
Methods of Tracker Mount

Methods of Drives
Sensor and Sensor Controller
Motor and Motor Controller
Tracker Solving Algorithm
4.1.1 Sensors
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal
which can be read by an observer or by an instrument.
1. Light Dependent Resistor
Light Dependent Resistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. It can also be

referred to as a photoconductor. If light falling on the device is of the high enough
frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy
to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron conducts electricity, thereby
lowering resistance. Hence, Light Dependent Resistors is very useful in light sensor
circuits. LDR is very high-resistance, sometimes as high as 10M, when they are
illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.
A Light Dependent Resistor is a resistor that changes in value according to the light
falling on it. A commonly used device, the ORP-12, has a high resistance in the dark, and

a low resistance in the light. Connecting the LDR to the microcontroller is very straight
forward, but some software calibrating is required. It should be remembered that the
LDR response is not linear, and so the readings will not change in exactly the same way
as with a potentiometer. In general there is a larger resistance change at brighter light
levels. This can be compensated for in the software by using a smaller range at darker
light levels.
Fig 4.1: Light Dependent Resistor
2 Photodiode
Photodiode is a light sensor which has a high speed and high sensitive silicon PIN
photodiode in a miniature flat plastic package. A photodiode is designed to be responsive
to optical input. Due to its water clear epoxy the device is sensitive to visible and infrared
radiation. The large active area combined with a flat case gives a high sensitivity at a
wide viewing angle. Photodiodes can be used in either zero bias or reverse bias. In zero
bias, light falling on the diode causes a voltage to develop across the device, leading to a
current in the forward bias direction. This is called the photovoltaic effect, and is the basis
for solar cells - in fact a solar cell is just a large number of big, cheap photodiodes.
Diodes usually have extremely high resistance when reverse biased. This resistance is
reduced when light of an appropriate frequency shines on the junction. Hence, a reverse
biased diode can be used as a detector by monitoring the current running through it.
Circuits based on this effect are more sensitive to light than ones based on the
photovoltaic effect.

FIG 4.2: different type of photo diodes

4.3 Motor
Motor is use to drive the Solar Tracker to the best angle of exposure of light. For this
section, we are using stepper motor.
Stepper Motor
Features
Linear speed control of stepper motor

Control of acceleration, deceleration, max speed and number of steps to move
Driven by one timer interrupt
Full - or half-stepping driving mode
Supports all AVR devices with 16bit timer
Introduction
This application note describes how to implement an exact linear speed controller
for stepper motors. The stepper motor is an electromagnetic device that converts digital
pulses into mechanical shaft rotation. Many advantages are achieved using this kind of
motors, such as higher simplicity, since no brushes or contacts are present, low cost, high
reliability, high torque at low speeds, and high accuracy of motion. Many systems with
stepper motors need to control the acceleration/deceleration when changing the speed.
This application note presents a driver with a demo application, capable of controlling
acceleration as well as position and speed.

Fig 4.3: Stepper Motors

Theory
Stepper motor
This application note covers the theory about linear speed ramp stepper motor control
as well as the realization of the controller itself. It is assumed that the reader is familiar
with basic stepper motor operation, but a summary of the most relevant topics will be
given.

Bipolar vs. Unipolar stepper motors
The two common types of stepper motors are the bipolar motor and the Unipolar
motor. The bipolar and unipolar motors are similar, except that the Unipolar has a centre
tap on each winding as shown in Figure 4.4
Unipolar stepper motor
Stepper motors are very accurate motors that are commonly used in computer disk
drives, printers and clocks. Unlike dc motors, which spin round freely when power is
applied, stepper motors require that their power supply be continuously pulsed in specific
patterns. For each pulse the stepper motor moves around one step often 15 degrees giving
24 steps in a full revolution.There are two main types of stepper motors - Unipolar and
Bipolar. Unipolar motors usually have four coils which are switched on and off in a
particular sequence. Bipolar motors have two coils in which the current flow is reversed
in a similar sequence. Each of the four coils in a Unipolar stepper motor must be switched
on and off in a certain order to make the motor turn. Many microprocessor systems use
four output lines to control the stepper motor, each output line controlling the power to
one of the coils. As the stepper motor operates at 5V, the standard transistor circuit is
required to switch each coil. As the coils create a back emf when switched off, a
suppression diode on each coil is also required. The table below show the four different
steps required to make the motor turn.
Step Coil 1 Coil 2 Coil 3 Coil 4

1 1 0 1 0
2 1 0 0 1
3 0 1 0 1
4 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
Table 4.1: Unipolar stepper motor operation
Look carefully at the table 4.1 and notice that a pattern is visible. Coil 2 is always
the opposite or logical NOT of coil 1. The same applies for coils 3 and 4. It is therefore
possible to cut down the number of microcontroller pins required to just two by the use of
two additional NOT gates. Fortunately the Darlington driver IC l298N can be used to
provide both the NOT and Darlington driver circuits. It also contains the back emf
suppression diodes so no external diodes are required.

Bipolar Stepper motor
The bipolar stepper motor has two coils that must be controlled so that the current
flows in different directions through the coils in a certain order. The changing magnetic
fields that these coils create cause the rotor of the motor to move around in steps.
The bipolar motor needs current to be driven in both directions through the windings,
and a full bridge driver is needed as shown in Figure 4.5 (a). The centre tap on the
Unipolar motor allows a simpler driving circuit shown in Figure 4.5 (b), limiting the
current flow to one direction. The main drawback with the Unipolar motor is the limited
capability to energize all windings at any time, resulting in a lower torque compared to
the bipolar motor. The Unipolar stepper motor can be used as a bipolar motor by
disconnecting the centre tap.
(a) (b)
Fig 4.4: Bipolar and Unipolar drivers with MOS transistors
Implementation
A working implementation written in C is included with this application note. The

demo application demonstrates linear speed control of a stepper motor. The user can
control the stepper motor speed profile by issuing different commands using the serial
port, and the LPC2148 will drive the connected stepper motor accordingly. the main
routine. Main c has a menu and a command interface, giving the user control of the
stepper motor by a terminal connected to the serial line. Speed controller c calculates the

needed data and generates step pulses to make the stepper motor follow the desired speed
profile. Smdriver.c counts the steps and outputs the correct signals to control the stepper
motor.
4.4 LCD Display

A Liquid Crystal Display is an electronic device that can be used to show numbers or
text. There are two main types of LCD display, numeric display and alphanumeric text
displays. The display is made up of a number of shaped crystals. In numeric displays
these crystals are shaped into bars, and in alphanumeric displays the crystals are simply
arranged into patterns of dots. Each crystal has an individual electrical connection so
that each crystal can be controlled independently. When the crystal is off i.e. when no
current is passed through the crystal, the crystal reflect the same amount of light as the
background material, and so the crystals cannot be seen. However when the crystal has an
electric current passed through it, it changes shape and so absorbs more light. This makes
the crystal appear darker to the human eye - and so the shape of the dot or bar can be seen
against the background. It is important to realise the difference between a LCD display
and an LED display. An LED display often used in clock radios is made up of a number
of LEDs which actually give off light and so can be seen in the dark. An LCD display
only reflect slight, and so cannot be seen in the dark.
The dot-matrix liquid crystal display controller and driver LSI displays alphanumeric,
characters, and symbols. It can be configured to drive a dot-matrix liquid crystal display
under the control of a 4 or 8-bit microprocessor. Since all the functions such as display
RAM, character generator, and liquid crystal driver, required for driving a dot-matrix
liquid crystal display are internally provided on one chip, a minimal system can be
interfaced with this controller/driver. A single HD44780U can display up to two 8-
character lines 16 x 2. A 16 x 2 line LCD module to display user information.
Fig 4.5: 2 x16 LCD Display

4.5 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-
wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired
as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.
Basic operation
According to the conventional model of current flow originally established by

Benjamin Franklin and still followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to flow
through electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free
electrons in a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the
vast majority of applications, however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant.
Therefore, in the discussion below the conventional model is retained. In the diagrams
below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is positive, and the
input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper supply
terminal to the right along the red(positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower
supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.
Fig 4.6: Bridge rectifier
When the input connected to the left corner is negative, and the input connected to the
right corner is positive, current flows from the lower supply terminal to the right along the
red path to the output, and returns to the upper supply terminal via the blue path.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative.
Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC
output from an AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity
protection". That is, it permits normal functioning of DC-powered equipment when

batteries have been installed backwards, or when the leads from a DC power source have
been reversed, and protects the equipment from potential damage caused by reverse
polarity. Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was always
constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four terminal
component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge configuration became a
standard commercial component and is now available with various voltage and current
ratings.
Output smoothing
For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave bridge
serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be desired
because the bridge alone supplies an output of fixed polarity but continuously varying or
pulsating magnitude.
Fig 4.7: Bridge rectifier in parallel capacitor at the output
The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor is to lessen the variation
in the rectified AC output voltage waveform from the bridge. One explanation of
smoothing is that the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of
the output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In
less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be
cancelled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This charge flows out as additional current
through the load. Thus the change of load current and voltage is reduced relative to what
would occur without the capacitor. Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess
charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change in output voltage / current. The

simplified circuit shown has a well-deserved reputation for being dangerous, because, in
some applications, the capacitor can retain a lethal charge after the AC power source is
removed. If supplying a dangerous voltage, a practical circuit should include a reliable
way to safely discharge the capacitor. If the normal load cannot be guaranteed to perform
this function, perhaps because it can be disconnected, the circuit should include a bleeder
resistor connected as close as practical across the capacitor. This resistor should consume
a current large enough to discharge the capacitor in a reasonable time, but small enough
to minimize unnecessary power waste. Because a bleeder sets a minimum current drain,
the regulation of the circuit, defined as percentage voltage change from minimum to
maximum load, is improved. However in many cases the improvement is of in significant
magnitude. capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC where C
and R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor is
large enough so that this time constant is much longer than the time of one ripple cycle,
the above configuration will produce a smoothed DC voltage across the load.
In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The
smoothing can then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitorresistor pairs,
often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be sensitive to
supply voltage noise. The idealized waveforms shown above are seen for both voltage
and current when the load on the bridge is resistive. When the load includes a smoothing
capacitor, both the voltage and the current waveforms will be greatly changed. While the
voltage is smoothed, as described above, current will flow through the bridge only during
the time when the input voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage. For example, if the
load draws an average current of n Amps, and the diodes conduct for 10% of the time, the
average diode current during conduction must be 10n Amps.
This non-sinusoidal current leads to harmonic distortion and a poor power factor in
the AC supply. In a practical circuit, when a capacitor is directly connected to the output
of abridge, the bridge diodes must be sized to withstand the current surge that occurs
when the power is turned on at the peak of the AC voltage and the capacitor is fully
discharged. Sometimes a small series resistor is included before the capacitor to limit this
current, though in most applications the power supply transformer's resistance is already
sufficient. Output can also be smoothed using a choke and second capacitor. The choke
tends to keep the current rather than the voltage more constant. Due to the relatively high

cost of an effective choke compared to a resistor and capacitor this is not employed in
modern equipment.
4.6 REGULATOR IC
It is a three pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts unregulated DC current

into regulated DC current. First pin is used for input, second for ground and third pin
gives the rectified and filtered output. It has an inbuilt filtering circuit which removes the
ripples present in the rectified DC obtained from full bridge rectifier circuit.
Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the output of the
filtered DC see in above diagram. It can also be used in circuits to get a low DC voltage
from a high DC voltage for example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V. There are two
types of voltage regulators 1. fixed voltage regulators 78xx, 79xx 2. Variable voltage
regulators in fixed voltage regulators there is another classification 1. + ve voltage
regulators 2.vevoltage regulators positive voltage regulators this include 78xx voltage
regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and 7812. 7805 gives fixed 5V DC
voltage if input voltage is in 7.5V, 20V. 7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It
is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a
circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage
regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates
the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power
supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending
upon the respective voltage levels.

Fig 4.8: MCT7805CT voltage regulator
4.7 Light Emitting Diode
An LED is a very simple electronics component which lights up when electricity

flows through it. Since it is a diode, electricity can only flow one way. There is usually a
flat section on the side of the LED to mark its polarity: this side should be connected to

ground. This side usually also has a shorter leg. In order to prevent too much current
flowing through an LED and damaging it, it should be connected in series with a resistor.
Fig 4.9: Light Emitting Diode

4.8 Resistor
A resistor is a component of a circuit that resists the flow of electrical current. It

has two terminals across which electricity must pass, and it is designed to drop the
voltage of the current as it flows from one terminal to the other. Resistors are primarily
used to create and maintain known safe currents within electrical components. Resistance
is measured in ohms, after Ohm's law. This law states that electrical resistance is equal to
the drop in voltage across the terminals of the resistor divided by the current being
applied. A high ohm rating indicates a high resistance to current. This rating can be
written in a number of different ways - for example, 81R represents 81 ohms, while 81K
represents 81,000 ohms. Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of opposing
the flow of electric charge. This opposition is due to the collisions between electrons that
make up the materials. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as
resistance and is represented by the symbol R. Resistance is expressed in ohms which is
symbolized by the capital Greek letter omega.
The resistance of any material is dictated by four factors:
Material property-each material will oppose the flow of current differently.

Length-the longer the length, the more is the probability of collisions and, hence,
the larger the resistance.
Cross-sectional area-the larger the area A, the easier it becomes for electrons to
flow and, hence, the lower the resistance.
Temperature-typically, for metals, as temperature increases, the resistance
increases.

The amount of resistance offered by a resistor is determined by its physical

construction. A carbon composition resistor has resistive carbon packed into a ceramic
cylinder, while a carbon film resistor consists of a similar ceramic tube, but has
conductive carbon film wrapped around the outside. Metal film or metal oxide resistors
are made much the same way, but with metal instead of carbon. A wire wound resistor,
made with metal wire wrapped around clay, plastic, or fibre glass tubing, offers resistance
at higher power levels. Those used for applications that must withstand high temperatures
are typically made of materials such as cermets, a ceramic-metal composite, or tantalum,
a rare metal, so that they can endure the heat.
Resistors are coated with paint or enamel, or covered in moulded plastic to protect
them. Because they are often too small to be written on, a standardized color-coding
system is used to identify them. The first three colors represent ohm value, and a fourth
indicates the tolerance, or how close by percentage the resistor is to its ohm value. This is
important for two reasons: the nature of its construction is imprecise, and if used above its
maximum current, the value can change or the unit itself can burn up. The circuit element
used to model the current-resisting behavior of a material is the resistor. For the purpose
of constructing circuits, resistors shown in Figure 4.22 are usually made from metallic
alloys and carbon compounds. The resistor is the simplest passive element.
1 1
Fig 4.10:from top to bottom: 4 W, 2 W, and 1-W resistors

TYPES OF RESISTER
Different types of resistors have been created to meet different requirements. Some
resistors are shown in Figure 4.23. The primary functions of resistors are to limit current,
divide voltage and dissipate heat. A resistor is either fixed or variable. Most resistors are
of the fixed type that is their resistance remains constant. The two common types of fixed
resistors wire wound and composition are shown in Figure 4.24. Wire wound resistors are
used when there is a need to dissipate a large amount of heat while the composition
resistors are used when large resistance is needed.
Fig 4.11: Different types of resistors
(a) (b)
Fig 4.12: Fixed resistors: (a) wire wound type (b) Carbon film type
4.9 MICROCONTROLLER
The LPC2148 microcontrollers are based on a 16-bit/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S CPU

with real-time emulation and embedded trace support, that combine the microcontroller
with embedded high-speed flash memory ranging from 32 kB to 512 kB. A128-bit wide

memory interface and a unique accelerator architecture enable 32-bit codeexecution at

the maximum clock rate. For critical code size applications, the alternative 16-bit Thumb
mode reduces code by more than 30 % with minimal performance penalty. Due to their
tiny size and low power consumption, LPC2148 are ideal for applications where
miniaturization is a key requirement, such as access control and point-of-sale.
Serial communications interfaces ranging from a USB 2.0 Full-speed device,

multiple UARTs, SPI, SSP to I2C-bus and on-chip SRAM of 8 kB up to 40 kB, make
these devices very well suited for communication gateways and protocol converters, soft
modems, voice recognition and low end imaging, providing both large buffer size and
high processing power. Various 32-bit timers, single or dual 10-bit ADC(s), 10-bit DAC,
PWM channels and 45 fast GPIO lines with up to nine edge or level sensitive external
interrupt pins make these microcontrollers suitable for industrial control and medical
systems.
Features
1. 16-bit/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S microcontroller in a tiny LQFP64 package.
2. 8 kB to 40 kB of on-chip static RAM and 32 kB to 512 kB of on-chip flash

memory.128-bit wide interface/accelerator enables high-speed 60 MHz operation.
3. In-System Programming/In-Application Programming (ISP/IAP) via on-chip boot

loader software. Single flash sector or full chip erase in 400 ms and programming
of 256 B in 1 ms.
4. EmbeddedICE RT and Embedded Trace interfaces offer real-time debugging with

the on-chip RealMonitor software and high-speed tracing of instruction execution.
5. USB 2.0 Full-speed compliant device controller with 2 kB of endpoint RAM.In

addition, the LPC2148 provides 8 kB of on-chip RAM accessible to USB by
DMA.
6. One or two (LPC2141/42 vs. LPC2144/46/48) 10-bit ADCs provide a total of 6/14
analog inputs, with conversion times as low as 2.44 s per channel.
7. Single 10-bit DAC provides variable analog output (LPC2148 only).
8. Two 32-bit timers/external event counters (with four capture and four compare
channels each), PWM unit (six outputs) and watchdog.
9. Low power Real-Time Clock (RTC) with independent power and 32 kHz clock
input.
10. Multiple serial interfaces including two UARTs (16C550), two Fast I2C-bus (400
kbit/s), SPI and SSP with buffering and variable data length capabilities.

11. Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) with configurable priorities and vector
addresses.
12. Up to 45 of 5 V tolerant fast general purpose I/O pins in a tiny LQFP64 package.
13. Up to 21 external interrupt pins available.
14. 60 MHz maximum CPU clock available from programmable on-chip PLL with
settling time of 100us.
15. On-chip integrated oscillator operates with an external crystal from 1 MHz to 25
MHz.
16. Power saving modes include Idle and Power-down.
17. Individual enable/disable of peripheral functions as well as peripheral clock

scaling for additional power optimization.
18. Processor wake-up from Power-down mode via external interrupt or BOD.\
19. Single power supply chip with POR and BOD circuits:
CPU operating voltage range of 3.0 V to 3.6 V (3.3 V 10 %) with 5 V tolerant

I/O pads.
Pin Diagram:

Chapter 5
CIRCUIT AND WORKING
5.1 Block Diagram:
Fig 5.1: System Concept
Our design of Solar Tracker is to develop and implement a active tracker method
type of solar tracker fitted to a panel. It will be able to navigate to the best angle of
exposure of light from the sunlight. A pair of sensors is used to point the East and West of
the location of the light. A scaled-down model of a prototype will be designed and built to
test the workability of the tracking system. The center of the drive is a stepper motor.This
will be controlled via microcontroller program. The designed algorithm will power the
motor drive after processing the feedback signals from the sensor array.
The Microcontroller program will also include monitoring and display of light
intensity output from the photodiodes. The light detected by the Eastward-facing sensor is
at a lower intensity to that detected by the Westward-facing sensor. Hence, the sensor
must be turned westwards (by the motor controlled by the solar tracker circuit) until the

levels of light detected by both the East and the West sensors are equal. At the point of
the solar panel will be directly facing the light and generated electricity optimally.
Obviously real world solar trackers are not so simple. A solar tracker must be able to reset
itself at sunset so it is ready for sunrise, it must cope with heavy cloud, and it. In addition
a mount for the solar panel must be constructed which can cope with strong winds and a
suitable motor found.
5.2 Flow Chart:

Program :
#include <lpc21xx.h>
#include "adc.h"
#include "LCD.h"
#define AD06 ((1<<9)|(1<<8)) //Select AD0.6 function for P0.4
#define AD07 ((1<<11)|(1<<10)) //Select AD0.7 function for P0.5
#define SEL_AD06 (1<<6)
#define SEL_AD07 (1<<7)
#define CLKDIV (15-1)
// 4Mhz ADC clock (ADC_CLOCK=PCLK/CLKDIV) where "CLKDIV-1"

//is actually used , in our case PCLK=60mhz
#define BURST_MODE_OFF (0<<1) // 1 for on and 0 for off
#define PowerUP (1<<21)
#define START_NOW ((0<<26)|(0<<25)|(1<<24))

//001 for starting the conversion immediately
#define ADC_DONE (1<<31)
#define VREF 3.3 //Reference Voltage at VREF Pin
#define COIL_A 24
#define THRESHOLD 100
unsigned int Angle = 0;

void motor_cw(void);
void motor_ccw(void);
unsigned char STEP[] = {0x08, 0x02, 0x04, 0x01};
int main(void)
int result=0;
unsigned long AD0CR_setup = (CLKDIV<<8) |

BURST_MODE_OFF | PowerUP;
int ldr1 =0;
int ldr2 =0;
initClocks(); //CCLK and PCLK @ 60Mhz
initUART0(); //Initialize UART0 for printf
init_lcd();
PINSEL0 |= AD06 | AD07 ;
//select AD0.6 and AD0.7 for P0.4 and P0.5
printf(" Solar Tracker\n");
while(1)
lcd_command(0x01);

lcd_command(0x80);
printlcd("Solar Tracker");
delayms(100);
//Perform Conversion on Channel 6
AD0CR = AD0CR_setup | SEL_AD06;
AD0CR |= START_NOW;
//Start new Conversion
while( (AD0DR6 & ADC_DONE) == 0 );
result = (AD0DR6>>6) & 0x3ff;
printf("LDR1 = %dmV | " , (int)( result*VREF ));
ldr1 = result*VREF;
//Now Perform Conversion on Channel 7
AD0CR = AD0CR_setup | SEL_AD07;
AD0CR |= START_NOW;
//Start new Conversion
while( (AD0DR7 & ADC_DONE) == 0 );
result = (AD0DR7>>6) & 0x3ff;
printf("LDR2 = %dmV\n" , (int)( result*VREF ));
ldr2 = result*VREF;
if(ldr1 > ldr2)

if((ldr1 - ldr2) > 200){
if(Angle <180)
motor_cw();
Angle++;
else
Angle = 180;
else if (ldr1 < ldr2)
if((ldr2 - ldr1) > 200){
if(Angle >0 )
motor_ccw();
Angle--;

else
Angle =0;
else if ( ldr1 == ldr2)
delayms(100);
printf("Angle :%d\n",Angle);
return 0;
void motor_ccw(void) // anti- clockwise rotation
unsigned int i=0;
while (STEP[i] != '\0')
IOSET1 = STEP[i] << COIL_A;
delayms(100);

IOCLR1 = STEP[i] << COIL_A;
delayms(100);
i++;
void motor_cw(void) // clock wise rotation
int i = 7;
while (i >= 0)
IOSET1 = STEP[i] << COIL_A;
delayms(100);
IOCLR1 = STEP[i] << COIL_A;
delayms(100);
i--;

CONCLUSION
From the design of experimental set up with Micro Controller Based Solar
Tracking System Using Stepper Motor If we compare Tracking by the use of LDR with
Fixed Solar Panel System we found that the efficiency of Micro Controller Based Solar
Tracking System is improved by 30-45% and it was found that all the parts of the
experimental setup are giving good results. Moreover, this tracking system does track the
sun in a continuous manner. And this system is more efficient and cost effective in long
run. From the results it is found that, by automatic tracking system, there is 30 % gain in
increase of efficiency when compared with non-tracking system. The solar tracker can be
still enhanced additional features like rain protection and wind protection which can be
done as future work.
A modeling and optimization method from a new point of view is proposed. More
factors can be taken into consideration in the future modeling and optimization, such as
the sensitivity range of the controlling system which determines when the solar tracker
should operate to generate more power or stay still to save energy. The research provides
references for solar tracking system designing, and the modeling and optimization method
can be modified and applied in other mechanical and electronic systems.
FUTURE SCOPE:

REFERENCES
1. Wettergreen D., Benjamin Shamah, Paul Tompkins, William Whittaker, Robotic
Planetary Exploration by Sun-Synchronous Navigation, 6th International
Symposium on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics & Automation in Space,i-
SAIRAS 2001, Canadian Space Agency, St-Hubert, Quebec, Canada, June 18-22,
2001.
2. Saravanan C. , Dr .M.A. Panneerselvam, I. William Christopher, A Novel Low
Cost Automatic Solar Tracking System, International Journal of Computer
Applications (0975 8887) Volume 31 No.9, October 2011.
3. Hasan A Yousaf, Design And Implementation of a Fuzzy Logic Computer-
Controlled Sun Tracking System, Proceedings of the IEEE International
Symposium on Industrial Electronics, Volume 3, 12-16 July 1999, pp 1030-1034.
4. Tanvir Arafat Khan Md., S.M. ShahrearTanzil, RifatRahman, S M ShafiulAlam,
Design and Construction of an Automatic Solar Tracking System,presented at
6th International Conference on Electrical and Computer EngineeringICECE
2010, 18-20 December 2010, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
5. " IMPLEMENTATION OF A PROTOTYPE FOR A TRADITIONAL SOLAR
TRACKING SYSTEM" by Nader Barsoum published in the 2009 Third UKSim
European Symposium on Computer Modeling and Simulation.
6. " Microcontroller Based Solar Tracking System" by Aleksandar Stjepanovic,
Sladjana Stjepanovic, Ferid Softic, Zlatko Bundalo published in
Serbia,Nis,October 7-9, 2009.
7. " Microcontroller-Based Two-Axis Solar Tracking System" by Lwin Lwin Oo and
Nang Kaythi Hlaing published in Second International Conference on Computer
Research and Development.

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ARM BASED SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM 2015-16

The continuous evolution of the technology determined a sustained increase of the

The continuous modification of the sun-earth relative position determines a

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 1

The major components of this system are as follows.

By using solar arrays, a series of solar cells electrically connected, a DC voltage is

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 2

and average efficiency of 15-20%, it is necessary to recover as much energy as possible

1.2 AIM OF THE PROJECT

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 3

2.1 TECHNOLOGY OF SOLAR PANEL

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 4

2.2 EVOLUTION OF SOLAR TRACKER

Fig 2.1 Suns apparent motion

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 5

The efficiency increases by 30-40%.

2.3 CONCEPTS ON SOLAR RADIATION

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 6

2.3.1 Declination Angle :

2.3.2 Hour Angle

2.3.3 Solar Altitude (z)

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 7

Fig 2.2: The Declination Angles

2.3.4 Solar Azimuth (A)

Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 8

If this energy is divided by the recording time in hours, it is then a density of

2.4 PROJECTION EFFECT

2.5 WORKING OF PHOTOVOLTAICS

A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 9

Fig 2.3 : Photovoltaic panel or array

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 10

3.2 NEED FOR SOLAR TRACKER

Misalignment (angle i ) Direct power lost (%)=1-cos(i)

3.3 TYPES OF SOLAR TRACKERS

3.3.2 ACTIVE TRACKING SYSTEMS

Fig 3.1 : Active tracking system

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 12

3.2.3 Single axis trackers

3.2.4 Dual Axis Trackers

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 13

Fig 3.2: Dual axis solar tracker

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 14

Methods of Tracker Mount

1. Light Dependent Resistor

Light Dependent Resistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. It can also be

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 15

Fig 4.1: Light Dependent Resistor

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 16

FIG 4.2: different type of photo diodes

Linear speed control of stepper motor

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 17

Fig 4.3: Stepper Motors

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 18

Bipolar vs. Unipolar stepper motors

Unipolar stepper motor

Step Coil 1 Coil 2 Coil 3 Coil 4

Table 4.1: Unipolar stepper motor operation

Dept of ECE, NCET Page 19

Bipolar Stepper motor

Fig 4.4: Bipolar and Unipolar drivers with MOS transistors

A working implementation written in C is included with this application note. The