Johann Kuppers April 1, 2017

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BPK 105: Assignment #4

Module 10:

2. Draw and label a diagram of the respiratory system including the detailed anatomy of the lungs (utilize
figures 15.1 and 15.5). (6 marks)

6. Describe gas exchange in the pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems for oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Include the changes in partial pressures for both of these dissolved gases and the driving force for exchange.
What impact does pulmonary edema, an increase in interstitial fluid in the lungs, have on gas exchange? (6
marks)
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Pulmonary circulatory System (lungs):

-partial pressure of O2 is higher in the alveoli than in the blood, and partial pressure of CO2 is higher in the
blood than in the alveoli. The CO2 flows down its pressure gradient, exiting the blood, and is exhaled from the
lungs. The O2 diffuses into the blood and is mostly bound to hemoglobin, which transports it to the tissues for
oxidative respiration in the tissues.

Systemic circulatory system (tissues):

-the partial pressure of O2 is higher in the interstitial fluid than in the tissues, while the partial pressure of CO2
is higher in the tissues than in the interstitial fluid. The CO2 flows back into the interstitial fluid, and then into
the blood due to osmotic pressure exceeding blood pressure at the venous end of the capillary network. The
O2 diffuses down its pressure gradient into the tissues from the interstitial fluid, where it provides the
necessary electromotive potential to drive oxidative phosphorylation to make ATP aerobically.

-Pulmonary edema essentially increases the thickness of the respiratory membrane between the capillaries
and the alveolar space. This decreases the rate at whih gas exchange occurs, reducing the amount of CO2 and
O2 that are exchanged. O2 levels are more effected by this because O2 diffuses at about 1/20 th the rate at
which CO2 diffuses. This means that O2 levels in the blood will drop significantly, requiring increased
respiratory rate and heart rate to compensate.

9. Describe the chemical control of ventilation. Are oxygen levels important under normal circumstances?
Describe the step-by-step response to an increase in carbon dioxide in the blood. (6 marks)

-Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata and in the carotid and aortic bodies send signals to the respiratory
center in the brain to increase or decrease breathing rate, according to the levels of CO2 (pH) and O2 in the
blood. CO2 receptors of the medulla oblongata play a much more regular role in chemical regulation of
breathing. These receptors detect changes in pH in response to CO2 changes. For example, if CO2 levels
increase dramatically in the blood (hypercapnia), the blood pH will drop due to the generation of H+ ions and
bicarbonate ions upon the combination of water with the CO2. This pH drop will stimulate the chemoreceptors
of the medulla oblongata to send a powerful stimulus to the respiratory center to initiate breathing. Enhanced
respiratory rate will expel more CO2 from the lungs, leading to a decrease in CO2 in the blood, and shifting the
equilibrium to bring blood pH back up to nominal levels. Thus, O2 levels are not normally important, unless O2
drops very low.

Module 11:

3. Describe the cephalic phase of stomach secretion. Include the function, stimulation for release, and gland of
origin of each secretion. (6 marks)

The cephalic phase of stomach secretion begins when signals to the brain indicate that food will soon be
entering the stomach. These signals can include pleasant thoughts of food, chewing, and the smell and taste of
food. Signals from the medulla oblongata are sent down parasympathetic tracts in the vagus nerve, where they
synapse with postganglionic neurons in the enteric plexus and stimulate the release of various secretions into
the stomach. Stomach mucosa cells release HCl, pepsin, mucus, and intrinsic factor. Endocrine cells of the
stomach are stimulated to secrete gastrin and histamine.
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6. Describe the control of release and function of each of the secretions from the exocrine pancreas. (6 marks)

-Bicarbonate ions: -functions to raise the pH and neutralize the acidic chime from the stomach
-release regulated by secretin, which is secreted in response to chime entry into
the duodenum

-trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase: -function to further digest proteins and polypeptides

-pancreatic amylase: -functions to digest polysaccharides into monosaccharides

-lipase: -functions to digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

-nucleases: -function to digest nucleic acids into nucleotides

-the above enzymes are contained in the pancreatic juices, which are released by stimulation via
cholecystokinin, which in turn is released in response to amino acids and fatty acids entering the small
intestine

-nervous control via the vagus nerve also helps regulate pancreatic exocrine function. Parasympathetic
stimulation encourages exocrine function, while sympathetic stimulation inhibits exocrine function.

9. Describe the digestion and absorption of lipids through the entire digestive system. Include a detailed
description of the roles of the liver and the process of emulsification. Describe the process of lipid absorption
and transport. (6 marks)

-Lipid digestion doesnt begin until the small intestine

-Bile salts secreted by the liver via the gall bladder into the duodenum, emulsify lipids. Because bile salts are
amphipathic molecules, their hydrophobic end can interact with the lipids, while their hydrophilic component
can interact with the aqueous environment of the small intestine. This allows them to break up the lipid
aggregates into smaller particles called micelles. The increased surface area of the micells allows lipase,
secreted by the pancreas, to break down the lipids more efficiently. The products of lipase digestion; fatty acid
chains, and monoglycerides, are taken up into the lacteals, where they are reassembled into triacylglycerides.
The TAGs are combined with specific proteins into lipoprotein complexes, known as chylomicrons. These
chylomicrons are transported via the lymphatic system and introduced into the blood stream. Various types of
chylomircones exist, but the most common are low density lipoproteins and high density lipoproteins. LDLs
are considered bad because they carry cholesterol to the tissues, where it can accumulate and lead to
atherosclerosis. HDLs, on the other hand, are considered good because they carry cholesterol from the tissues
to the liver, where it is converted into other products, or stored. Thus, in clinical terms, having a high HDL:LDL
ratio is preferred.
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Module 12:

1. Discuss the structural factors and pressure gradients that result in filtration through the glomerulus. (4
marks)

Structural:
-the glomerular filtration membrane allows substances to pass selectively based on their size and also their
charge. This filtration membrane is formed by the endothelium of the glomerular capillaries, the podocyte
cells, and the basement membrane. Pores, or more specifically, fenestrations; allow selected solutes to cross.
Small molecules and some small proteins (ie: albumin) are able to cross the membrane, while larger blood
components, such as cells, cannot.

Pressure gradients:

-there are three pressures at play across the filtration membrane. One of them forces fluids out of the blood,
while the other two work against this force, working to keep fluid from crossing the membrane. The force
working to move fluid out of the blood is the glomerular capillary pressure, which is the BP at this site. The two
forces opposing this are the capsular pressure and the colloid osmotic pressure. The capsular pressure is
pressure created intrinsically by fluid already present in the Bowmans capsule. The colloid osmotic pressure is
created by charged proteins and other molecules in the blood that pull fluid back out of the Bowmans capsule.
The net force is called the filtration pressure, and it is normally directed in favour of movement out of the
glomerular capillaries into the Bowmans capsule. This occurs because the glomerular capillary pressure is
greater than the sum of the capsular pressure and the colloid osmotic pressure.

6. Draw the series of reversible reactions catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, including the names
and formulae of the components involved. Describe the compensation that would occur within this buffer
system if there was a sudden increase in carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood. (5 marks)

-If carbon dioxide in the blood suddenly increased, the buffer system would be able to initially deal with the
influx of carbon dioxide, but eventually the buffer system would fail as its range would be exceeded. This
would result in the equilibrium being shifted to the right, resulting in increased production of bicarbonate ions
and hydrogen ions. The increase in hydrogen ions would decrease the pH of the blood. To counter this
equilibrium shift, the amount of water or carbon dioxide need to be decreased. Decreasing the amount of
water is essentially not viable physiologically, however, decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide is very
simple. The respiration rate can be increased, forcing more carbon dioxide out of the blood through gas
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exchange in the lungs, and thus shifting the equilibrium to the left, back to its homeostatic range. This would
remove the excess protons from the blood and restore the blood pH to its normal range.

8. An increase in Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) will result in more water returning to circulation from the
nephron. Describe what would stimulate an increase in ADH, where it is released from, and its influence at the
nephron. (5 marks)

-An increase in ADH secretion would occur due to two stimuli: Either an increase in the solute concentration in
the blood, or a drastic decrease in blood pressure.

-ADH is released from the posterior pituitary by direct neural stimulation from the hypothalamus.

-ADH prevents water loss through the kidneys, by increasing the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule
and collecting ducts in the nephron. Water more readily moves back into the interstitial space, and is readily
taken up back into the blood.