Climate change

Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change
lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years). Climate change may refer
to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around longer-term
average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by
factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics,
and volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities have also been identified as significant causes
of recent climate change, often referred to as global warming.[1]

Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and
theoretical models. A climate recordextending deep into the Earth's pasthas been assembled,
and continues to be built up, based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles,
cores removed from deep accumulations of ice, floral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial
processes, stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers, and records of past sea levels.
More recent data are provided by the instrumental record. General circulation models, based on
the physical sciences, are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make
future projections, and link causes and effects in climate change.

Weather

Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or
stormy, clear or cloudy.[1] Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere,[2][3] just below the
stratosphere. Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas
climate is the term for the statistics of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time.[4]
When used without qualification, "weather" is generally understood to mean the weather of
Earth.

Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place and
another. These differences can occur due to the sun's angle at any particular spot, which varies by
latitude from the tropics. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives
rise to the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are
caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its
orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. On Earth's
surface, temperatures usually range 40 C (40 F to 100 F) annually. Over thousands of
years, changes in Earth's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by
the Earth, thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change.

Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler
than lower altitudes due to differences in compressional heating. Weather forecasting is the
application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and
a given location. The system is a chaotic system; so small changes to one part of the system can
grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the weather have
occurred throughout human history, and there is evidence that human activities such as
agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns.
Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather
works on Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an
anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is not limited
to planetary bodies. A star's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially
a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the
Sun is known as the solar wind.

Sunlight

Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, in particular infrared,
visible, and ultraviolet light. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through Earth's atmosphere, and is
obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon. When the direct solar radiation is not
blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat.
When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects, it is experienced as diffused light. The
World Meteorological Organization uses the term "sunshine duration" to mean the cumulative
time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square
meter.[1] Other sources indicate an "Average over the entire earth" of "164 Watts per square
meter over a 24 hour day".[2]

The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects, as it is both a
principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen.

Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun. A photon starting at
the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would
take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface.[3]

Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis, the process used by plants and other autotrophic
organisms to convert light energy, normally from the Sun, into chemical energy that can be used
to fuel the organisms' activities.

Plate tectonics

Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the Greek: "pertaining to
building")[1] is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of 7 large plates and the
movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth's lithosphere, over the last hundreds
of millions of years. The theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift developed
during the first few decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate-
tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is
broken up into tectonic plates. The Earth's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates
(depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their
relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform.
Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along
these plate boundaries. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to
100 mm annually.[2]
Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each
topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction carries plates into the
mantle; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new (oceanic) crust along
divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the total surface of the lithosphere remains
the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle.
Earlier theories, since disproven, proposed gradual shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion
of the globe.[3]

Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has greater strength than the
underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection. Plate
movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the
spreading ridge (due to variations in topography and density of the crust, which result in
differences in gravitational forces) and drag, with downward suction, at the subduction zones.
Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the Sun and Moon.
The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear,
and still the subject of much debate.

Types of volcanic eruptions

Several types of volcanic eruptionsduring which lava, tephra (ash, lapilli, volcanic bombs
and blocks), and assorted gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissurehave been
distinguished by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type
of behavior has been observed. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of
eruption during a period of activity, while others may display an entire sequence of types all in
one eruptive series.

There are three different types of eruptions. The most well-observed are magmatic eruptions,
which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward. Phreatomagmatic
eruptions are another type of volcanic eruption, driven by the compression of gas within magma,
the direct opposite of the process powering magmatic activity. The third eruptive type is the
phreatic eruption, which is driven by the superheating of steam via contact with magma; these
eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release, instead causing the granulation of existing
rock.

Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes. The weakest are Hawaiian and
submarine, then Strombolian, followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan. The stronger eruptive types
are Pelean eruptions, followed by Plinian eruptions; the strongest eruptions are called "Ultra-
Plinian." Subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in
strength. An important measure of eruptive strength is Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), an
order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types.

Global warming

Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century-scale rise in the
average temperature of the Earth's climate system and its related effects.[2][3] Multiple lines of
scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming.[4][5][6] Although the increase of near-
surface atmospheric temperature is the measure of global warming often reported in the popular
press, most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has gone into the
oceans. The rest has melted ice and warmed the continents and atmosphere.[7][a] Many of the
observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented over tens to thousands of years.[8]

Scientific understanding of global warming is increasing. The United Nations Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported in 2014, that "It is extremely likely that human
influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century." [9]
Human activities have led to carbon dioxide concentrations above levels not seen in hundreds of
thousands of years. Currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of
fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere. The rest is absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.[10]
Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the
global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 C (0.5 to 3.1 F) for their lowest
emissions scenario and 2.6 to 4.8 C (4.7 to 8.6 F) for the highest emissions scenario.[11] These
findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized
nations[12][b] and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing.[14]

Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the
globe.[15][16] Anticipated effects include warming global temperature, rising sea levels, changing
precipitation, and expansion of deserts in the subtropics.[17] Warming is expected to be greater
over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic, with the continuing retreat of glaciers,
permafrost and sea ice. Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events
including heat waves, droughts, heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall;[18] ocean
acidification; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects significant to
humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of
populated areas due to rising sea levels.[19][20] Because the climate system has a large "inertia"
and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time, many of these effects will not
only exist for decades or centuries, but will persist for tens of thousands of years.[21]

Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction,

adaptation to its effects, building systems resilient to its effects, and possible future climate
engineering. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC),[22] whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate
change.[23] Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required[24] and
that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C (3.6 F) relative to pre-industrial
levels,[c] with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C (2.7 F).[26]

Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing. A global
2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54% consider it "a very serious problem".
There are significant regional differences, with Americans and Chinese (whose economies are
responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions) among the least concerned.[27]

Climate

Climate is the statistics of weather, usually over a 30-year interval.[1][2] It is measured by

assessing the patterns of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind,
precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region
over long periods of time. Climate differs from weather, in that weather only describes the short-
term conditions of these variables in a given region.

A region's climate is generated by the climate system, which has five components: atmosphere,
hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.[3]

The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, and altitude, as well as nearby water
bodies and their currents. Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical
ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most
commonly used classification scheme was the Kppen climate classification. The Thornthwaite
system,[4] in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and
precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change
effects it. The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air
masses that define the climate of a region.

Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Since direct observations of climate are not
available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include
non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores, and biotic evidence such
as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present and future
climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors;
recent warming is discussed in global warming. Global warming results in redistributions. For
example, "a 3C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of
approximately 300400 km in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m in elevation. Therefore,
species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to
shifting climate zones".[5][6]

General circulation model

A general circulation model (GCM) is a type of climate model. It employs a mathematical

model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean. It uses the NavierStokes
equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources (radiation,
latent heat). These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth's
atmosphere or oceans. Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs (AGCM and OGCM) are key
components along with sea ice and land-surface components.

GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting, understanding the climate
and forecasting climate change.

Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created
by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton,
New Jersey.[1] These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical,
chemical and sometimes biological equations

Outline of physical science

Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life
science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the
"physical sciences". However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary
distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena and
branches of chemistry such as organic chemistry.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the leading international body for the
assessment of climate change. It was established by the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988 to provide the world with a
clear scientific view on the current state of knowledge in climate change and its potential
environmental and socio-economic impacts. In the same year, the UN General Assembly
endorsed the action by WMO and UNEP in jointly establishing the IPCC.

The IPCC reviews and assesses the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic
information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change. It does not
conduct any research nor does it monitor climate related data or parameters.

As an intergovernmental body, membership of the IPCC is open to all member countries of the
United Nations (UN) and WMO. Currently 195 countries are Members of the IPCC.
Governments participate in the review process and the plenary Sessions, where main decisions
about the IPCC work programme are taken and reports are accepted, adopted and approved. The
IPCC Bureau Members, including the Chair, are also elected during the plenary Sessions