Hotwatt, made in USA, is a quality supplier

to oems in the industrial, medical,

commercial, packaging,instrumentation,
aviation, transportation and military fields.

Contents
Basics of
Electric Heaters Types of
heaters 1
The simplest definition
of an electric heater is any
device that changes electrical
energy into heat energy. But Transfer of
from that simple explanation, heat 2
electric heaters explode into
a myriad of types, sizes,
applications, and designs
depending upon whats being
heated, the degree of heating Heat losses 2
needed, and the method by
which the heat is applied.
The measure of electrical
energy is called the Joule Basic heat
after its discoverer, James equations 3
Prescott Joule. Through
numerous experiments, Joule
determined that the quantity
(Q) of heat transferred
from electrical energy is Specific
proportional to the square of applications 3
the current (I 2 ) multiplied
by the resistance (R) for the
period of time (t) through
which it passes: An application
Q I2 R t example 4
However, one seldom sees a reference to for a specific application. The selection of a
Joules used in modern
Q I 2electric
R circuits.
t Instead, heater depends on the material being heated,
the controlling factor
P =becomes
I 2 R that of power the heater style, the sheath material that
(P): surrounds the heating element and protects Watt density 5
it from the material being heated, and the
P = I2 R operating voltage of the heater.
Styles of heaters include strip, ring,
A = D h or 6 5 = 941/4 in2
YoullS note the only difference between the rope and cable, cartridge, tubular, band,
formula for determining power and that of immersion, circulation, process air and duct,
determining Joules is the time component.2 radiant, comfort, flexible, tote, and drum.
The time D inhheating
AS =factor 5 = 941/4
or 6 becomes in
readily The style of heater chosen depends on the
c
apparent in any devicemthat Fhot when
gets application. The type chosen depends on the
W=
an electric current flows through
3.412 T it: its heated objects shape, size, and mass, as well
temperature rises as time passes. as performance requirements.
m c F For example, band heaters work best on Presented by
Types of heaters W= cylindrical object such as tanks and pipes.
3.412 T
Heaters come in Wmany
= WL/SFdifferent
A styles Cartridge heaters are typically inserted in
and configurations, each design optimized close fitting holes in large blocks of metal

Sponsored by Hotwatt W = WL/SF A 1 March 2013

m H
 Hotwatt manufactures cartridge, air
process, immersion, strip and finned strip,
tubular, band, foil, flexible glasrope,
Type of heater 1

crankcase and ceramic heaters.

such as platens and

molds. And immersion
heaters may, as their name
implies, be immersed
directly into the material
being heated. As added
protection, an immersion
heater may use a heat
well, a protective device
that isolates the heater
Basic heat equations 3

from the material being

heated but still allows heat
transfer to the material.
Heat wells also allow
immersion heaters to be
replaced without the need
to drain the tank.
Sheath materials can
include steel, Incoloy,
iron, silicone, Kapton,
copper, ceramic, and glass
overbraid among others to handle specific materials. The infrared wavelengths, although thats not the only frequency
choice of sheath material depends upon the material being used. For example, microwave ovens use wavelengths many
heated. times longer than infrared to heat food while medical
diathermy machines use even lower radio frequencies to
An application example 4

Transfer of heat warm parts of the human body.

When a body starts to generate heat, meaning its
temperature rises above that of other nearby objects, it
is called a heat source. As its temperature rises, it starts
to raise the temperature of the materials in its vicinity
using any combination of three different methods. Those
three methods are known as conduction, convection, and
radiation.
Conduction transfers heat energy from one material to
another via direct contact. It is the most direct method of
transferring heat energy, and is usually considered the most
efficient: the highest percentage of heat energy created
transfers to the colder object from the heat source.
Convection also uses physical contact to transfer heat
energy, but the contact entails the use of an intermediary
gas, typically air. In convection heating, the heat source
warms the gas. The warmed gas now weighs less per
volume measure, producing a buoyancy effect. This
buoyancy is easily seen in the flight of hot air balloons. The
hot gas rises, creating convection currents that move the
heated gas into contact with the colder objects, warming
them. The now cooled gas flows back to the heat source
where it is warmed again, and the process repeats.
Watt density 5
Electric heaters use all three methods to warm specific
objects. Which of the three methods becomes the best choice
depends upon the application.
Heat losses
As stated previously, an object subjected to electric heating
continues to become hotter as long as current passes through
it until it reaches its burn out temperature and the heat
source is destroyed. Obviously, when used properly modern
electric heaters do not experience this burn out condition.
The answer lies in heat losses, or the transfer of heat away
from the heat source that keeps its temperature down.
The term heat loss is typically reserved for heat energy
transferred to undesired areas, but heat energy is also
transferred to the desired point. All three methods of heat
transfer can lead to heat losses. For example, a contact heater
placed on the bottom of a container heats the contents
of the container. The primary form of heat transfer is via
conduction from the heater to the container and then its
contents, but conduction losses can occur between the
container and any supporting structure. As the container
and heater are both in air, a convection heat loss occurs as air

The third method of transferring heat energy, radiation,
does not rely on any physical contact between the heat
source and the object to be heated. Instead, heat energy
is transmitted through space from the heat source to the
object in the form of electromagnetic radiation: typically as
Sponsored by Hotwatt
circulates around the container. In addition, a hand held one
foot away from the side of the container can feel the radiated
heat loss.
Needless to say, the size of these objects also plays a
considerable role. For a container the amount of radiated
2 March 2013
 Type of heater 1
Hotwatt can also supply compatible
accessory items to offer our customers
acomplete heater system.

heat energy lost isQdetermined

I 2 R byt the outer surface
area. Assume the container is a cylinder 6-in.
diameter and 5-in. tall. The surface area of the
container (AS) equals the circumference of the
container (calculatedP as
= Ieither
2
R times the diameter
D, or 2 times the radius R) multiplied by its height
(h):

Transfer of heat 2
AS = D h or 6 5 = 941/4 in2
Just enlarging the diameter of the container by one
inch means the surface area of the container increases
by 15.7 in2, an almost 17% increase in surface
area and thus heat loss.mWhen determining the size
c F
W = needed to reach a specific
of the heating element 3.412 T
temperature, all of these heat losses must be taken Q I2 R t
into effect.

Basic heat equations

W = WL/SF A
It would appear at first that calculating all of P = I2 R
the heat transfers and losses in a design would be
a daunting task. Fortunately
Q I 2 anumber
R t of equations were cylindrical objects as well as the top surface losses from a
developed that help simplify this task. First the equations horizontal surface laid flat. Curve B shows the average heat
were divided intoWthree m H
= tasks referred to as Equations A, loss from theAStop
= DandQbottom
horI2
6 ofR
ahorizontal
5t = 941/4 surface
in2 laid
3.412
B, or C: the wattage needed to Theat a material to a specific flat while Curve C shows the heat loss from the bottom

An application example 4
temperature in a given amount of time (Equation A); only of a horizontal surface laid flat.
P = I 2 the
the wattage needed to overcome R losses at operating The final equation, Equation C, determines the
temperature (Equation Q B);
I and
2
Ra special
t calculation needed additional wattage necessary for melting or vaporizing a
m c F WL/SF A(Equation C.) P =mI 2
c R F
to reach a melting or vaporizing point material. Whenever a W material
= changes state, whether from
W= +
Equation A 3.412
calculates
Tthe amount 2 of wattage2 (W) needed a solid to liquid, or liquid to gas,
3.412 it Trequires an additional
S
= D h ofora 6
to raise the Atemperature 5 =a specific
material 941/4 inamount in F influx of energy to initiate the change.
(F) in a given number Pof=hours I 2 R(T), you first need to know The heat needed to melt a solid material is known as
the mass (m) of the material being heated and its specific the latent heat D
AS =of h (Hf
fusion or 6 5 the
) while = 941/4
latentinheat of
2

heat
c value
F1 (c): m Hf
W = WL/SF
vaporization (Hv) determines theenergy
A needed to change
W=
m
3.412 T
+
3.412 W T = ( m c F2 WL/SF A
+m c F
3.412 T
+
2 ) a substance from a liquid to a vapor. The equation for
both is identical, with the value of Hf or Hv substituted as
AS = D h or3.412 6 5T = 941/4 in2 necessary for the value H: m c F
The mass and specific heat of some materials may be W=
m HT
3.412
found on our Web site at: www.hotwatt.com/table1.htm for W=
3.412 T
metallic solids, table2.htm
W = for solids
WL/SF A other than metals, and
320 in.3 table3.htm
2 0.284for= certain
181.7 lb m0.12
liquidsand
cBTU/lb/F
gases.
F (400-70)F Again, m is the weight of the material in lb, while T is
W = = 2,110 W
Equation3.412
B calculates the amount of wattage (W) needed the heat-up time in hours. The values
A for the latent heat of
Watt density 5

1hr 3.412 T W= W
to maintain the temperature of a material based upon its fusion or vaporization can beL/SF found in the same look-up
m A.
c F WL/SF A
known wattage loss per square foot (WL/SF) multiplied by tables used in Equation
W= +
= 270 in.the
3 area (A) in square feet:
2 0.286 = 154.5 m H 3.412 T 2
W =lb 0.12 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F = 1,800 W
3.412
W = WL/SF A T Specific applications
3.412 1hr m H
To heat a liquid requires
W = additional energy due to losses
The wattage loss per square foot is found for specific 3.412 T by adding half of
by evaporation. This is usually covered
materials in tables located at www.hotwatt.com/heatloss.htm.
A sample table is shown
Surfaces). NoteWthat
5.6 lb 0.55
m c(Losses
F from
m
BTU/lb/F
WL/SF
+H have
= some materials
A
Uninsulated Metal
themwattage
==300
c Fneeded
(400-70)FW (Equation
W
3.412 TB)
1 +
to that
to
m
of
maintain
Hf
its
3.412 T
the m
initial (
materials
c Ftemperature
+ heating period
3.412 T
2
WL/SF A
+(Equation
2 )
W =T
3.412 2 three
3.412 different
1hr A):
3.412
curves identified as A, B, or T A represents the
C. Curve m c F WL/SF A
heat losses from vertical surfaces of tanks, pipes, and other W = +
3.412 T 2
Sponsored by Hotwatt 3 March 2013
m c F1 10 4m4H+ m4
f 8 4W
WL/SF A= 320 in.3 2 0.284 = 181.7 lb 0.12 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F
c AF2 (1084)
 W = WL/SF A

Hotwatt is a quality supplier to oems

in the industrial, medical, commercial,
Q I R t m H 2
packaging, instrumentation,
W=
aviation,
Type of heater 1

transportation and military 3.412 fields.

T

P = I2 R
m c F WL/SF A
W= +
To heat a solid to a liquid state temperature requires
3.412three
T different2calculations. First, use the solid calculation
(Equation A) from the initial temperature of the material to its melting point. Then add in the wattage needed to
AS = DC).
transition from solid to liquid (Equation hFinally, 5the=equation
or 6use 941/4 in2 for a liquid material from its melting point to the
final temperature:
W=
m c F1
3.412 T
+
m Hf
3.412 T
+ ( m3.412
c F
T
+2
W L/SF

2
A
)
m c F
For example, you want to raise the temperature
W = of solid lead from a room temperature of 70F to a molten 950F.
From Table 1 on our Web site, the melting point3.412 Tlead is 620F. That makes the first change in temperature,
of solid
F1, equal to 620 - 70 or 550F. The second change in temperature, F 2, equals 950 - 620 or 330F.
(1084) = 320 in.3 2 0.284 = 181.7 lb 0.12 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F
Transfer of heat 2

An application example = 2,110 W

W =3.412 A
WL/SF
A steel mold is being used to form polyethylene parts.1hr
Every hour 90 ounces of nylon is introduced to the mold. The
mold itself measures 10 8 4 in. The mold is attached between two stainless steel platens, each measuring 15 12
1.5 in. thick. The platens are=insulated
(15121.5) 270 in.3 from
2 the press=mechanism
0.286 with BTU/lb/F
154.5 lb 0.12 0.5 in. thick
insulation.
(400-70)FOperating temperature
of the mold is 400F and must reach this temperature in 1 hour from an ambient temperature of=70F. 1,800 W
From Table 1: Properties of Metals 3.412 1hr
m H
Specific heat of steel: 0.12 BTU/lb/F W=
3.412 T
Specific heat of stainless steel: 0.12 BTU/lb/F
5.6 lb 0.55 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F
Converting cubic inches into pounds (density lb/in2) = 300 W
3.412 1hr
m c F WL/SF A
W= +
3.412 T 2
From Table 2: Properties of Non-Metallic Solids
10 4 4 + 8 4 4
Basic heat equations 3

Specific heat of polyethelyne: 0.55 BTU/lb/F = 2 ft2 350 W/ft2/hr = 700 W

144 in.2/ft2
From Graph 1: Guide
W=
Heat losses curves: A + 3.412
F1 Lossesm Hf
c Heat
m for
B @ 400F
T
+
3.412 T
+ ( m c F
3.412 T
+
W

1.5 15 4 + 1.5 12 4
2 L/SF

2
A
)
= 1.1 ft2 350 W/ft2/hr = 385 W
Equation A: Wattage required for heat-up 144 in.2/ft2

To heat the mold:

15
(1084) = 320 in.3 2 0.284 = 181.7 lb12 2 - BTU/lb/F
0.12 (10 8 2) (400-70)F
= 1.3 ft2 250 W/ft2/hr = 350 W
144 in.2/ft2 = 2,110 W
3.412 1hr

To heat the platens:

(15121.5) = 270 in.3 2 0.286 = 154.5 lb 0.1215 12 2 (400-70)F
BTU/lb/F = 2.5 ft2 100 W/ft 2
/hr W
= 250 W
= 1,800
144 in.
3.412 1hr

To heat the polyethelyne (90 oz / 16 oz/lb = 5.6 lb): (700W + 385W + 350W + 250W) 0.20 = 340 W
5.6 lb 0.55 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F
= 300 W
3.412 1hr
Compensation Factor: 20%
(2,101 + 1,800 + 300) 0.20  AS = D L = 840 W
Watt density 5

Total wattage needed for heat-up  = 5,050 W

3.1416 0.75 9 = 21.1 in
2

10 4 4 + 8 4 4
= 2 ft2 350 W/ft2/hr = 700 W
144 in. /ft
2 2

500W 21.1 in2 = 23.7W /in.2

Sponsored by Hotwatt 1.5 15 4 + 1.5 12 4 4 March 2013
= 1.1 ft2 350 W/ft2/hr = 385 W
2 2
 (1084) = 320 in. 2 W0.284
= WL/SF=181.7
A lb 0.12 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F = 1,
= 2,110
3.412 1hr W
3.412 1hr

Type of heater 1
ESTABLISHED
(15121.5) = 270 in.3 IN
2 1952, HOTWATT
0.286 = 154.5 IS A LEADER
lb 0.12 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F 5.6 lb 0.55 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F
=
IN MANUFACTURING W=
m H RESISTANCE HEATING
3.412 1hr
= 1,800 W
3.412 1hr
ELEMENTSFOR 3.412 TOVER 60 YEARS.
5.6 lb 0.55 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F
= 300 W
m c F WL/SF A 3.412 1hr 10 4 4 + 8 4 4
W= + = 2 ft2 350 W/ft2/hr =
3.412
Equation B: Wattage at
losses T operating2 temperature (See graphs: Guide for Heat Losses)
144 in. /ft
2 2

Heat loss from mold (vertical surfaces)

1.5 15 4 + 1.5 12 4
10 4 4 + 8 4 4 = 1.1 ft2 350 W/ft2/hr =
(
m c F2 WL/SF A
= 2 ft
)
350 W/ft /hr = 700 W
2 2
m c F1 m Hf 144 in. /ft
2 2
W= + + +2
144 in.2/ft
3.412 T 3.412 T 3.412 T 2

Transfer of heat 2
Heat loss from platen (vertical surfaces)
1.5 15 4 + 1.5 12 4 15 12 2 - (10 8 2) = 1.3 ft2 250 W/ft2/hr =
= 1.1 ft2 350 W/ft2/hr = 385 W
144 in. /ft
2 2 144 in.2/ft2
84) = 320 in.3 2 0.284 = 181.7 lb 0.12 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F
Heat loss from platen (horizontal surfaces, uninsulated) = 2,110 W
3.412 1hr15 12 2 - (10 8 2) = 1.3 ft2 250 W/ft2/hr = 350 W 15 12 2
= 2.5 ft2 100 W/ft2/hr =
144 in. /ft
2 2 144 in.
121.5) = 270 in.3 2 0.286 = 154.5 lb 0.12 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F
= 1,800 W
Heat loss from platen
3.412 (insulated
1hr surface) (700W + 385W + 350W + 250W) 0.20 =
15 12 2
= 2.5 ft2 100 W/ft2/hr = 250 W
144 in.
5.6 lb 0.55 BTU/lb/F (400-70)F
Compensation factor: 20% = 300 W
(700 + 385 + 350 + 250) 0.20  3.412 1hr
(700W + 385W + 350W + 250W) 0.20 ==A340 340
S
= D
W L
W
Total wattage losses at operating temperature  = 2,025 W
3.1416 0.75 9 = 21.1 in2
Total wattage required for heat-up  = 5,050 W

Basic heat equations 3

Total wattage required = 7,075 W

The number of holes 10inthe

4 mold
4 + would
8 4AS=4D theL2
dictate
= 2 ft 350 W/ft2/hr = 700 W
number of heaters required. Dividing
1443.1416 2 the
2 wattage by the
in. /ft 0.75 9 = 21.1 in2 500W 21.1 in2 = 23.7W /in.2
number of heaters will equal the wattage rating of each
heater. Our Web site at www.hotwatt.com/watt.htm lists
1.5 15 4 + 1.5 12 4 suggested wattWdensities for use with various materials.
= 1.1 ft2 350 W/ft 2
/hr = 385
Watt density 144 in. 2
500W /ft2 21.1 in2 = 23.7W /in.2 Safe values vary with operating temperature, flow
Watt density is the rated wattage of the heater divided velocity, and heat transfer rates. In general, the higher the
by the overall area being heated. The watt density permitted material temperature, the lower the watt density should
for any given application depends on how well the material
15 12 2 - (10 8 2) = 1.3 ft2 250 W/ft be, especially those materials which coke or carbonize,
such/hras = 350Watt
W densities should be low if a material is
2
being heated distributes its heat throughout its volume. oils.
144 in.2
/ft2
Water, light oils, and metals typically have high heat being heated to a temperature near the change of state
distribution rates that permit the use of high watt densities. to a vapor occurs, such as water to steam at 212F. The
Heavy oils, syrups, hydraulic fluid, and other materials with vapor state has much poorer heat transfer capabilities
15 densities
low heat distribution need lower watt 12 2 to prevent than
2 liquids, and a watt density chosen for a liquid might
= 2.5 ft 100 W/ft
2
/hr = 250 W
spot overheating. This can lead to damage of the heating be too great for a gas.
An application example 4

144 in.
element, the well, and even the heated material.
As an example, a 10 in. immersion heater is rated at 500
W. There is a 0.5 in. cold area at each end,
(700W + 385Wmaking its total
+ 350W + 250W) 0.20 = 340 W
heating length (L) 9 in. The diameter (D) of the heating area
is 0.75 in. To calculate the watt density of this heater, first All information, data and dimension tables in this
determine the total surface area (AS) being heated: article have been carefully compiled and thoroughly
checked. However, no responsibility for possible errors or
AS = D L omissions can be assumed.
It is the express responsibility of the customer to
3.1416 0.75 9 = 21.1 in2 determine the suitability of the product for the intended
application and Hotwatt Inc. makes no claims or provides
Then divide the wattage of the heater by the surface area: no guarantee in this respect, either written or applied.
Sponsored by Hotwatt 5 March 2013
500W 21.1 in2 = 23.7W /in.2