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 ASME P T C * L S - B 70 W 0 7 5 7 b 7 0 0 0 5 2 7 7 4 5 W

PART 8 1
Measurement INSTRUMENTS I
of Indicated I
AND

Power
APPARATUS
I

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 ASME P T C m L 7 . 8 70 W 0757670 0 0 5 2 7 7 5 7 m

. _ .

Copyright, 1970, by
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

Printed in the United States of America

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 ASME P T C * L S m 8 70 m 0 7 5 3 6 7 00 0 5 2 7 7 6 3 W

Foreword

The scope of the work of Technical Committee No. 19 on Instruments and Apparatus
is to describe the various types of instruments and methods of measurement likely to be
prescribed inany of the ASME Performance T e s t Codes. Such details as the limits and
sources of error, methods of calibration, precautions, etc., as will determine their range
of application are given.
Only the methods of measurementandinstruments,includinginstructionsfortheir
use, specified in the individual codes are mandatory. Other methods of measurement and
instruments, that may be treated in the Supplements on Instruments and Apparatus, shall
not be used unless agreeable to all parties to the test,
On June28,1940, the Performance Test Codes Committee approved the Supplement
on InstrumentsandApparatus,Part 8 on Measurement of IndicatedHorsepowerinits
finally revised form, It was approved and adopted by Council of the Society on June 30,
1 9 4 L During 1960 the reorganized technical committee reviewed this Supplement and re-
affirmed it for reprinting without change.
On June 18, 1964, the Performance Test Codes Committee directed that PTC Com-
mittee No. 19.8 on Measurement of Indicated Horsepower be reorganized and undertake a
revision of theSupplement on InstrumentsandApparatustoincludeneededinformation
on engineandcompressorindicators. P T C Committee No, 19.8 requested that the title,
Measurement of IndicatedHorsepowerbechangedbecause of its reference to units of
power. On June 15, 1967, the standing Committee voted to change the title from Measure-.
ment of Indicated Horsepower to Measurement of Indicated Power,
This edition was approved by the Performance Test Codes Committee on April 20,
1970, It was approved and adopted by the Council as a standard practice of the Society by
action of the Policy Board, Codes and Standards on June 5, 1970.

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 ASME PTC*KLS-B 7 0 m 0757670 0052777 O W

PERSONNEL OF PERFORMANCE TEST CODE COMMITTEE 19.8

ON INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS

Hunt Davis, Chairman

Roy M. Crawford, Associate Director of Engineering, Union Carbide Corporation, Chemicals and
Plastics Operating Division, P. O. Box 8361, South Charleston, West Virginia 25303

Hunt Davis, Manager Research and Development, Worthington Compressor and Engine Interna-
tional, Buffalo Operations, P. O. Box 69, Buffalo, New York 14240

Melvin J. Helmich, Executive Engineer, Products; Cooper-Bessemer Company, Mount Vernon,

Ohio 43050

William L. Lindl, Chief Test Engineer, Nordberg Manufacturing Company, P. O. Box 383,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201

John E. Mitchell, Staff Engineer, Research Department, Caterpillar Tractor Company, Peoria,
Illinois 61611

Thomas L. Novosad, Supervisor - Mechanical Section, Tennessee Gas Pipeline Company,

5510 South Rice Ave., Houston, T e x a s 77036

Augustus R. Rogowski, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-

nology, Sloan Laboratory, Building 31, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139

Lyn E. Sturdevant, Chief Engineer - Franklin Plant, Chicago Pneumatic Tool Company, Howard
Street, Franklin, Pennsylvania 16323

P a u l S. Vaughan, Consulting Engineer, 74 Green Island Road, Toms River, New Jersey 08753

Walter Wolentarski, Staff Engineer, Union Carbide Corporation, Linde Division, P. O. Box 308,
Tonawanda, New York 14152

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 ASME PTC*L7*8 70 0757670 0052778 2 m

Personnel of Performance Test Codes Committee

F. H. Light, Chairman
J. W. Murdock, V i c e Chairman

J. H. Anderson J. H. Fernandes W. C. Osborne

K. C. Cotton F. K. Fischer W. A. Pollock
W. A. Crandall A. S. Grimes J. H. Potter
R. C. Ddnnettel J. L. Hilke C. B. Scharp
J. M. Driscoll L. J. Hooper H:C. Schweikart
M. D. Engle E. L. Knoedler J. F. Sebald
V. F. Estcourt R. T. Mathews J. C. Westcott
W. G. McLean . .

.,r------~
r

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 ASME Performance Test Codes
Supplement on
Instruments & Apparatus
Part 8
Measurement of Indicated Power
CONTENTS

Chapter Pars.
1 GENERAL ....................... 1-37
2 MECHANICAL
INDICATORS ........... 1-27
3 BALANCED
PRESSURE
INDICATING
SYSTEhlS...................... 1-34
4 ELECTRONIC INDICATING
SYSTEMS ..... 1-19

CHAPTER 1, GENERAL

Contents material to be measured; and general test conditions

Pars. such as types of equipment available, which becomes
General............................ 1. significant when two or more devices are equally
......................
Indicated Power 7 suited to the application. When the proper selection
.............
Determination of Dead Center 11 of equipment h a s been made, calibration shall be
Procedures......................... 15
.................
Evaluation of Diagrams 24 conducted as described. The sources of error in the
particular measurement shall be evaluated and deter-
mined where significant. Qualified personnel shall be
General
selected for all phases of the work.

1. T h i s Supplement of the Performance Test
Codes treats the direct measurement of indicated
power of piston engines and compressors by u s e of
the engine indicator.
2. In the measurement in Performance Test Code
work i t is important that the instrument best suited to
the particular problem be selected. The choice will
be governed by accuracy needed; accessibility to the
3. Types of indicators may be divided into three
distinct classes which are treated in the following
chapters:
Chapter 2- Mechanical Indicators
Chapter 3 -Balanced Pressure Indicating Systems
Chapter 4- Electronic Indicating Systems
Basic characteristics of each type are summarized
in the table below:

indicator Type Accuracy Pressure Range Max. Speed output

Mechanical i 4% Vac to 1200 psi 250 rpm- P-v diagram

Balanced pressure i 1% 0-3000 p s i 1400 rpm p-8 diagram
Electronic 2 3% Vac to 100,OOOpsi Over 3000 rpm Ch. 4, Par. 2
.
"

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 A S MP EE R F O R M A N C E
4. The measurement of indicated power in a dis-
placement machine depends on the determination of
[pdv over a complete cycle. The devices which
record data to permit the determination of the above
integral are called indicators, and the value of the
integral, in proper units, i s t h e i n d i c a t e d work per
cycle, which can be converted to units of power by
multiplying by the number of cycles per unit of time.
T h i s is the indicated power.
5. These devices must be able to s e n s e or record
pressure either continuously or at many points through-
out the cycle, and furthermore must be able to relate
the timing of the pressure data to the corresponding
cylinder volume at every point. T h i s may b e a direct
pressure-volume relationship. Alternatively, it may
be an indirect one obtained from pressure-time and
volume-time determinations, which requires timing
synchronization, or indexing means.
6. This Supplement pertains only to the determina-
tion of indicated power. Interpretations of capacity,
volumetric efficiency, friction or flow l o s s e s horn the
data obtained are beyond the scope of this Code.
Reference on these matters is made to PTC-9 and
PTC-19.7.
Indicated Power
7. The indicated power is the power exerted by,
or expended upon, the working fluid within the cylin-
der of a piston engine or machine and can be express-
e d by the equation
pi1An
p c.
-
33,000
in which
Pi = indicated power in units of one horsepower
(33,000 ft-lb/min)
Pi indicated mean effective pressure, lb/in.2
= measure of t h e work done during one cycle, and the
(IMEP)
L = piston stroke, ft
A = net cross-sectional area of the piston, in.2
n = number of working strokes per minute per cylin-
der end. In single-acting two-stroke cycle en-
gines n is equal to the rpm; in single-acting
four-stroke cycle engines n i s e q u a l t o one-half
of the rpm.
In double-acting engines and compressors
the indicated mean effective pressure, pi, and
the cross-sectional area of the piston, A , are
8
/----
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T E S CT O D E S
determined separately for the two ends of the
cylinder. The indicated power for the whole
cylinder will be the sum of the indicated power
values thus obtained for the two-cylinder ends.
It will be noted that the product piA is equal
to the mean force acting on the piston; the
product ln is the piston travel during 1 min;
and the constant 33,000 i s the number of ft-lb
in 1 hp-min.
A s expressed by the above equation, the
determination of the indicated power involves
measurements of area A , length 1, and speed n,
besides the indicated mean effective pressure
pi. Measurements of the first three quantities
are treated in other sections. In this section,
only the determination of the indicated mean
pressure is dealt with.
8. The indicated mean effective pressure (IhlEP)
i s that pressure which, assumed as acting at constant
magnitude on the piston, would produce or absorb
during one piston stroke an amount of work equal to
that produced or absorbed during one complete work-
ing cycle by the actually occurring variable pressure.
The indicated mean effective pressure may also be
defined a s the indicated work of one complete cycle,
divided by the piston displacement in which this
work was done. The units thus may be inch pounds/
cubic inch, or pounds per square inch.
9. The engine indicator is a pressure sensing sys-
tem, capable of recording a varying pressure as a
function of another variable, such a s piston travel,
crank angle, or time. In a broader sense all such
records are called indicator diagrams; and in a re-
stricted sense the indicator diagram means a chart
of pressure inside of a cylinder of a machine drawn
on the piston-travel basis. In the following, the term
will be used in its restricted sense, unless otherwise
stated. For a complete working cycle, the indicator
diagram i s a closed curve the area of which i s a
mean height, interpreted in terms of the pressure
scale, represents the indicated mean pressure.
10. The indicator diagram is useful not only for
the determination of the indicated mean pressure but
also for judging other characteristics, such as the
instantaneous fluid pressure, and faults, in the ma-
chine. In connection with the knowledge of the brake
horsepower as determined by the brake-dynamometer,
i t is used for the determination of mechanical effi-
ciency, and of power loss due to friction.
-\a
 ASME P T C m 2 7 - 8 7007 5 7 6 7000 5 2 7 8 1
INSTRUMENTS A N D
11. Determination of DeadCenter. The accurate
determination of piston dead center is necessary for
attainment of reliable data.
12. The exact position of the flywheel correspond-
ing to the dead center can be found by bisecting.the
angle between two flywheel positions corresponding
to the same piston position. The procedure is as
follows: (Fig. 1)
(1) T o a stationary part of the engine secure a
pointer (made of strong wire or steel strip) nearly in
contact with the flywheel.
(2) Turn the flywheel and bring the crank in a
position about 5 deg before the dead center and make
a mark on the flywheel at the tip of the pointer.
(3) A dial indicator (readable in 0.001 in incre-
ments) should be attached s o a s t o r e a dthe movement
of the piston or crosshead. Set the dial indicator to
read zero.
(4) Turn the flywheel further in the same direction
past the dead center until the crosshead, or piston
comes back past the same position a s under (3). Then
reverse the direction of rotation and carefully bring
the piston or crosshead back to a zero reading on the
dial indicator. Do not overshoot this adjustment and
do not come back to it in the original direction of rota-
tion of the flywheel a s the reversal of direction has
the purpose of having all the pins against the same
surfaces of the bearings when the crank is in position
on each side of the dead center position. Make an-
other mark on the flywheel at the tip of the pointer.
(5) Bisect the angle between the two marks on
the flywheel and mark this point. Bring this point
under the pointer, The piston is now accurately in
the dead center.
e later for the evaluation of the test.
FIG. 1 METHOD OF LOCATING THE DEAD CENTER
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APPARATUS
13. In engines with offset crank or articulated
connecting-rod mechanism, the dead center of the
master rod should be determined according to Par. 12.
The offset or articulated piston position is to be
determined by calculation.
14. If the fastening of the pointer is difficult
then, instead of it, a pair of dividers can be used,
one leg of which is placed in a punch mark on the
stationary part of the engine (e.g., on the frame, or
bedplate) and the other leg is placed into the punch
mark on the flywheel. Instead of a pair of dividers, a
carefully made piston tram, (a) can be used for de-
fining a convenient position of the piston (or cross-
head), and a flywheel tram (b) for identifying the
corresponding position on the flywheel (Fig. 1). The
dead center is found by dividing the circumference
between (c) and (e) in half, preferably by means of a
steel measuring tape, the midpoint F thus found
being the dead center. The flywheel tram should be
carefully preserved, and the two punch marks, F on
the flywheel, and G at the chosen point in the sta-
tionary part of the engine, should be permanently s e t
and protected from accidental obliteration.
Procedures .
15. The indicating test should be carefully plan-
ned in advance. In guaranty tests involving a large
power plant, it is desirable to make a schematic -.
sketch of the plant, noting on it the location of the
pressure gages, thermometers, indicators, and other
measuring instruments, together wifh their distin-
guishing factory o r other numbers.
16. Data sheets should be prepared with appro-
priate columns, such a s engine make, bore, stroke,
cylinder number, speed, day, hour, and minute; baro-
metric pressure; pressure at the intake and delivery
conduit of compressors; brake load and electric load;
number of card; indicated mean pressure and other
pertinent data; in the case of locomotives the speed
and slope of the track; on ships the distance traveled
and speed. It is better to obtain too much data than
to m i s s some data which may be found necessary
17. In extreme c a s e s of engine indicating, detona-
tion can take place in the passage due to compression
ignition of combustible__materialin the passage, as
the cyIinder pressure rises. The effect of this process
i s to cause th indicator to record peak pressures far
in e x c e s s of the true values. Interestingly, if peak
 A S M PEE R F O R M A N C TE E S CT O D E S
pressure is close to top center, and the duration of
the false pressure peak is short, its effect on the
work area of the indicator card can be negligible.
18. A restricted passage or one partially filled
with liquid could lead to very serious errors in both
pressure and crank angle. Liquid in the space at the
pressure sensing element is to be avoided as it could
cause a time shift in the recorded pressure points.
Entry can be minimized by mounting the cylinder unit
so that liquids will not impinge or collect on it.
Liquid problems in flush mounted units in a firing
engine will generally not be encountered, since the
unit will run hot enough to keep itself clean. Trouble
is sometimes encountered with lubricating oil in the
pickup passage of a compressor, or an engine which
i s being motored.
19. Every effort should be made to minimize the
length of the passage connecting the indicator instru-
ment to the cylinder volume. Special probes which
permit location of the sensing element at the end of
the passage near the cylinder volume will give su-
perior data. The effect of the passage length is to
produce high frequency standing waves which may
obscure the desired data.
20. Special precautions are required when indi-
cating the power cylinders of internal combustion en-
gines. The cycle-to-cycle variation in cylinder.pres-
sures requires a good statistical sampling technique.
T h e maximum pressure for one particular cycle may
significantly exceed the average of other maxima,
and the indicator components and attachment devices
must be selected with this in mind to prevent acciden-
tal failure with consequent damage or injury. The
cycle-to-cycle variation in maximum cylinder pressure
i s generally greater in spark-ignited engines than in
compression ignited engines, and specific awareness
of the safety implications is mandatory.
21. It should be ascertained before the test (with
the engine in cold condition) that the indicator open-
ing is not obstructed by soot, dirt or rust, nor covered
by the piston in its dead center position, Special
attention is to be given to the careful fitting of the
valve or cock; these should be free from leakage.
Usually a short "blow" through the cock while run-
ning i s adequate to clear the passage. The valve or
cock must be also in faultless condition; these ele-
ments form part of the machine rather than of the
indicator, and their failure may necessitate shutting
off the machine,
T"--
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22. When taking a diagram, the valve (or cock)
should be opened to its fullest extent in order to
prevent throttling. The practice of eliminating the
vibrations from the indicator diagram by means of
restricting the valve opening results in false data,
which i s of less value for the evaluation than a
diagram containing indicator passage vibrations.
23. Any error in speed will make a corresponding
error in indicated power. A method which virtually
eliminates speed errors is to mark the flywheel or
equivalent rotating part every 10 deg s o that there
will be 36 stripes passing a point every revolution.
A 60-cycle strobe light will stop this pattern at each
multiple of 100 rpm. If s p e e d i s roughly s e t with any
reasonably accurate tachometer and the strobe pattern
stopped as a final speed adjustment and held station-
ary during the taking of the indicator diagram, there
will be negligible speed error in the determination of
indicated power in locations where the ac frequency
is monitored. In other locations, the strobe should be
triggered by or compared with a vibrating reed tuned
t o 60 cycles/sec.
Evaluation of Diagrams
24. Depending on the indicating system used, the
results obtained may be either pressure-time diagrams,
or pressure-volume diagrams,
25. When the diagram obtained is a pressure-time
diagram, it should be replotted on a pressure volume
b a s i s . T h i s may be done manually, or preferably with
a device known as a pressure-volume converter, or a
replotter. This device usually consists of a system
of two tables, or two drums, or one table and one
drum. One holds the pressure-time record and on the
other the pressure-volume diagram i s drawn. In the
two table system, both tables are moved by mechani-
cal connection to a rotating shaft. The first table
moves the pressure-time record under a reference
sight the same distance it moved on the indicator for
the same shaft angle. The second table is linked to
the shaft by means of an adjustable crank-connecting
rod linkage s o that its motion corresponds to that of
the engine piston. The abscissa conversion between
tables is therefore from time to volume. The pressure
ordinates are transferred from one table to the other
by means of a sturdy sliding bar with a sight trained
on the record of table (1) a t one end, and a point
which traces the P-v diagram on table (2) at the other
end.
10
" " = = =
 I N S T R U M E N T AS N AD P P A R A T U S

p-t diagram sliding table

P-V diagram sliding table
drive cord
pulley

FIG. 2 PRESSURE-TIMETOPRESSURE-VOLUME REPLOTTER

~-
.~ ~

FIG. 3 PRESSUREVOLUME CONVERTER, OR REPLOTTER: WITH INTEGRALPLANIMETER

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 ASME P E R F O R M A N C E
To avoid top center error, which is j u s t a s impor-
tant here a s i t i s on the compressor or engine, the top
center reference line on the pressure-time record must
be accurately lined up in the sight when the conver-
sion linkage is exactly on i t s top center position. The
connecting sod length must be adjusted to the l , / r
ratio of the engine or compressor. The guides for the
tables and for the ordinate transfer bar must be rigid
and carefully aligned. Typical pressure-volume con-
verters are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
26. Beterminatisn sf the Indicated Mean Effective
Pressure. The pressure-volume diagram area has to
be measured, preferably with a planimeter which is
an integral part of the replotter. Dividing this area by
the length of the diagram (along the abscissa line)
gives the mean height of the diagram. Multiplying the
mPan height by the scale factor give the indicated
mean effective pressure.
47. The planimeter must be kept in a faultless
condition, and its accuracy checked from time to time
and adjusted when necessary,
28. It is necessary to go around the diagram with
the tracing point of the planimeter several times, in
order to compensate for the error in tracing. The read-
ing s o obtained has to be divided by the number of
circumscriptions.
29. If no planimeter is available the mean height
can be determined by drawing in the diagram equidis-
tant vertical lines, say 10, and summing up the mean
heights of the strips s o formed. A somewhat more
accurate value is obtained by using Simpsons rule
to be found in most engineering handbooks.
30. If the pressure scale is found by calibration
to be not uniform, but to have a different value at the
various ranges of i t s motion, then the diagram h a s to
be subdivided by horizontal lines into two or more
parts, and the mean heights of these, referred to the
total diagram length, have to be determined separate-
ly. T h e s u m of the partial indicated mean effective
pressures so obtained gives the actual indicated
mean effective pressure. This subdivision, however,
must not be carried too far, lest the errors in the area
determination outweigh the gain in accuracy due to
the correction in the true pressure scale. This proce-
dure is not permissible in an acceptance test when
an accurate spring with uniform scale shall be used.
(See Diederichs and Andrae, Experimental Mechani-
cal Engineering, Chap. VIT, Art. 19.)
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T E S T C O D E S
31. In some diagrams a loop appears. This may
be due to a fault of the engine, e.g., too high com-
pression in a steam engine, or it may be inherent i n
the regular engine cycle, e.g., the intake and exhaust
stroke of a four-cycle internal-combustion engine. In
such cases the algebraic signs of the resulting areas
have to be considered. If an area drawn by the pencil
i n a clockwise direction is, say, positive, then the
areas drawn counterclockwise are negative, and vice
versa. The area of the smaller loop is to be deducted
from the larger one (Fig. 4). If the area is measured
with the planimeter, the negative area of the loop
will be automatically deducted provided the planime-
ter tracer follows the course of themoving indicator
point.
FIG. 4 INDICATOR DIAGRAM OF A FOUR CYCLE
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE WITH
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE WORK AREAS
(WEAK-SPRING DIAGRAM)
32. Determination o4 the Rate of Pressure Wise.
This quantity is of importance in internal-combustion
engines, in connection with the investigation of en-
gine knock which is dependent, among other factors,
on the ignition quality of the fuel used. For this deter-
mination the pressure-time diagram is needed, which,
however, can be also derived from an offset diagram
if the exact location of the dead center in the diagram
and the crank connecting-rod ratio in both the engine
and in the indicator reducing gear are known.
33. The rate of pressure rise at a given phase of
the cycle is equivalent to the slope of the tangent to
the pressure-time curve drawn at the point correspond-
ing to the phase in question. If the pressure-time
diagram is determined by electrical means, it may be
possible to obtain the rate of pressure rise by elec-
trical differentiation of the pressure-time signal. It
can be expressed either on a time basis, i.e., lb/in.z/
s e c , or on a crank angle basis, i.e., lb/in./deg
crank angle. Evidently, for this purpose, the diagram
must be very accurate; from a diagram containing
serious indicator vibrations, false conclusions would
be drawn,
 I N S T R U M E N T AS N AD P P A R A T U S
34. The determination of the polytropic exponent
has an important role in the thermodynamic analysis
of the perfortilance of steam engines, internal-combus-
tion engines, and compressors. For this purpose a
very accurate diagram is needed, free from indicator
vibrations, and also the location of t h e p = O (atmos-
pheric line) and V = O (compression space) lines must
be known and drawn on t h e diagram accurately. The
polytropic exponent can be determined by several
methods, such a s plotting the diagram on logarithmic
paper, or by determining the characteristic of the
polytropic curve by graphical means. For the detailed
treatment of these methods the reader is referred to
textbooks on engineering thermodynamics.
35. Determination of the MaximumPressure. T h i s
quantity is of importance for strength calculations.
Its determination from diagrams which are not seri-
ously affected by inertia errors causes no difficulty.
In the case of indicator diagrams containing super-
imposed vibrations (especially in internal-combustion
engines with rapid pressure rise) the true maximum
pressure is below the value recorded in the indicator
diagram, and therefore for calculating stresses the
u s e of the latter is a safe procedure. If closer approx-
imation to the true value is sought then the expansion
ISeverns, W. H., and Degler, H. E., Steam, Air and Gas
Power, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1939, p. 29.
l.?
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line has to be enveloped between two smooth curves
tangent to the lowermost and uppermost points of the
superimposed vibration lines; the line located midway
between the two lines can be used then for the deter-
mination of the maximum pressure.
36. Interpretation of IndicatorDiagrams
The indicator diagram is a valuable aid in diag-
nosing faults in piston machines. If the diagram of
the machine is known in i t s new and correctIy ad-
justed condition then a diagram taken later, showing
deviations from the initial, correct condition, signi-
f i e s a fault. Using the indicator a s a trouble detector
presupposes familiarity with the normal behavior of
the engine or compressor.
37. It is important to bear in mind that the dia-
gram, as such, must be correct, i.e., not adversely
affected by errors. On the other hand, in most cases
no extreme accuracy is necessary, as the diagrams
are considered in the qualitative sense rather than in
the strictly quantitative sense. In other words, the
indicator diagram is still usable for diagnosing faults,
even if the inherent errors (superimposed vibrations)
disqualify it for the determination of horsepower or
r a t e of pressure rise.
 ASME PTC*L7*8 70 W 0757670 005278b
A S M PE E R F O R M A N C TE E S CT O D E S
CHAPTER 2, MECHANICAL INDICATORS
Contents
Pars.
Types of Indicators, .....................
Application of the Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction. .......................
Testing and Calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Installation. ........................
Operation ..........................
Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography ..........................
Types of Mechanical Indicators
1. The indicator diagram represents the interrela-
tionship between two variable quantities: the pressure
and the piston travel, both of which change, accord-
ing to the characteristics of the engine, with greater
or l e s s rapidity. In the course of drawing a diagram
the moving parts of the indicator move with variable
velocities, hence undergo accelerations and decel-
erations which in turn involve accelerating and de-
celerating forces. The spring force is, therefore, at
any given instant, not equal to the fluid force but
differs from it by the amount of the accelerating or
declerating force. This represents an error in the
record, usually referred to as the inertia error; the
larger the mass and the longer its excursions (hence
accelerations), the greater is the inertia error. Con-
versely, this error can be reduced by reducing the
moving masses, and by increasing the stiffness of
the restoring spring, Briefly, it can be stated that in
the actually drawn indicator diagram, over the true
representation of pressure, is superimposed a vibra-
tion curve corresponding to the natural vibration of
the indicator moving parts.
The record of the piston travel, as represented by
the drum displacement, is also adversely affected by
inertia errors due to the mass of the drum and of the
cord, and the elasticity of the latter.
Other things being equal, the amplitude of this
superimposed vibration will be greater when the
natural period of vibration of the indicator moving
parts is longer, and when the rate of change of the
pressure, and of the piston travel, is faster. For a
thorough theory of the indicator errors, see Par. 27.
The indicator diagram of low-speed machines (up
to 250 rpm) can be obtained with modern types of
mechanical indicators with satisfactory accuracy,
I
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I W
(See Chap. 1, Par. 3.) For the investigation of high-
speed machines, more refined and elaborate indica-
tors have been developed embodying a great variety
1 of principles.
4
5 2. Indicators can be classified as follows:
10 (a) Single-cycle indicators which draw the com-
16 plete diagram of a working cycle; these have the
21 following subdivisions:
26 (1) Mechanicallymagnifying,pencil-recording
27
indicators, which draw the diagram in convenient
s i z e (about 1%x 3 in. or greater) on a piece of paper
ready for evaluating. The natural frequency of vibra-
tion of the pressure measuring parts usually does not
exceed 200 cycles/sec.
(2) High-speed,pencil-recordingindicators
which draw a small diagram of about 3/4 X 1%in. on
a piece of paper; the diagram still can be observed
visually, or with a magnifying glass. The natural fre-
quency of the pressure measuring parts is up to about
500 cycles/sec.
(3) Micro-indicators, which draw on a cellu-
loid, or on a glass surface, a diagram of microscopic
s i z e , to be magnified and photographed subsequently,
by optical means, The natural frequency of the pres-
sure-measuring parts of these types usually does not
exceed 1200 cycles/sec,
(4) Optical indicators in which a light beam is
used as an optical magnifying lever and the diagram
can be observed on a transparent screen, or photo-
graphically recorded. The natural frequency of the
pressure-measuring parts is usually of the order of
3000-5000 cycles/sec.
( b ) Special indicators for miscellaneous purposes.
In t h i s group belong the indicators for taking pressure
diagrams on a time basis on a large drum or continu-
ous strip of paper, which have been found useful for
recording the rate of pressure rise and the spray
valve motion, in diesel engines (e.g., the Bacharach
chronomatic drum); the maximum pressure indicators
for indicating the compression and combustion pres-
sure only, which afford a convenient means for check-
ing the equality or inequality of load between the
cylinders of a diesel engine (e.g., the Bacharach
premax indicator and the Okill maximum pressure
gage, also the Kiene type), the mean pressure in-
dicators for giving the mean pressure on the basis of
piston stroke and time.
3. The purpose of this chapter is to give instruc-
tions for regular acceptance or routine tests of pis-
ton machines of low and medium speed, and therefore
14
 ASME PTC*L7.8 70 m 0757670 0052787 3 m

I N S T R U M E N T AS N AD P P A R A T U S
only the mechanically magnifying, pencil-recording
types of indicators will be conside-ed here.

Application of the Indicafor

4. For the sake of orderly treatment, this subject

will be discussed under the following subdivisions:
o Construction of the indicator itself,
o Testing and calibration.
o Installation of the indicator on the engine, in-
cluding the accessories for the connection with
the engine, and the drum drive.
o Operation giving directions and recommendations
for carrying out the indicating tests for the best
results.

Construction

5. Three representative types of the engine in-

dicator, of American manufacture, are ilIustrated in FIG. 6 OUTSIDESPRINGINDICATOR
Figs. 5, 6, and 7.
Mounted in a frame or body, fitted with a union
connection for attachment to the engine to be tested,
there are, according to the two variables to be re-
corded, the following groups of elements, which will
be described in detail:
(1) pressure-measuring parts, i.e., cylinder, pis-
ton, piston rod, spring, magnifying gear (pencil move-
ment), and
(2) piston-travel measuring parts, Le., drum, drum
post, drum return spring, paper clips, cord guide
pulley.

FIG. 7 HIGH-SPEED ENGINE INDICATOR WITH

CANTILEVER SPRING

6. The Cylinder and Piston. In most modern con-

FIG. 5 INSIDESPRING INDICATOR
structions these are removable from t h e body and
from the piston rod, respectively, and can be inter-
changed with s e t s having various cross-sectional
area. The normal size piston has an area of 1/2
in. (0.798 in. diam). For low pressures (blowers,
light spring diagrams), multiples, and for high pres-
sures, submultiples of this dimension are used, ac-
cording to Table I.

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 ASME P T C U L 7 . B 7 0 W 0 7 5 7 b 7 0 0 0 5 2 7 8 8 5 W '

A S MPEE R F O R M A N C E T E S T C O D E S

TABLE I S P R I N GS C A L E
Pressures required to give one inch pencil displacement and allowable pressure limits with various springs when used with
- pistons of various
sizes

Maximum Spring scale, Ib/in.2 per in. o f p e n c i l d i s p l a c e m e n t

Piston allowable
Piston Piston Spring No.
diameter, p r e s s u r e to
No. In.
a r e a ,i n . 2
be m e a s u r e d ,

4/1
2/1
1* 596
1.129
2
1
1075
150
5 3
6
20 10 .
. O

a .
.. .... ..
.. .. e .

1/ 1 0.798 0.500 300 12 20 40 72 100 80 140 200

1/2
1/5
0.564
0.357
0.250
o. 100
600
1500
a .

. I .... . , ,, 144
360
160
400
200 400280
500 700 1000
1/ 10 O. 252 0.050 3000 ..
..
.. ., , 800720
1440
1000
1600 2000
1400
2800
2000
4000
1/20 O. 178 0,025 6000
.. .. . ,
e .

1/40 O. 126 0.0125 12000 2880 3200

4000
5600
8000
These piston sizes, spring sizes, and combinations are frequently used in practice. Besides these, other piston sizes, spring
s i z e s , and combinations are occasionally used. q
I

The cylinder is usually made of tough, close-
grained bronze. For ammonia compressor service,
c a s t iron i s preferable because it will not be corroded
by the ammonia, while the copper constituent of the
bronze is attacked thereby, if exposed for a long
duration. If a bronze cylinder is being used for am-
monia service damage can be minimized by careful
lubrication, and by thorough cleaning after the in-
dicating test is completed.
F o r internal-combustion engine service, where the
g a s e s have no lubricating properties, a more continu-
o u s and positive lubrication should be provided,
7. The spring is usually of the helical, double
wound type. Owing to its greater accessibility and
facility of changing, and chiefly to its freedom from
temperature effects the outside spring types are pre-
ferred, especially for high-pressure steam engine and
internal-combustion engine service, The spring scales
usually employed are tabulated in Table I.
In a successful type of high-speed indicator (Fig.
7) a cantilever type spring is used which makes pos-
sible a reduction in the length and m a s s of the piston
rod and hence in the inertia of the moving masses.
8. The recording gear serves for the magnifica-
tion of the piston travel. The requirements are that
the pencil path should be a straight line and parallel
to the piston motion, and that the magnification ratio
should be the same over the whole range of the pen-
cil movement. Backlash should be reduced to the
l e a s t amount compatible with freedom of movement.
9. The connecting element is the valve or cock
which, on its one end, is screwed into the cylinder,
and on its other end carries the indicator by means
of the nut and cone union of the indicator. A few de-
signs are shown in Fig. 8.
Testing and Calibration
10. A true diagram which represents with fidelity
the working process of a machine can be obtained
only with an indicator which is accurate and i s main-
tained in a condition a s free from faults and defects
as possible. The conclusions drawn from an incor-
rect diagram may be entirely erroneous. The stresses,
wear and tear, lack of proper lubrication, and ac-
cidental damage to which the indicator is exposed in
its use make it necessary to test its condition and
calibrate it from time to time. Small adjustments can
be attended to by the user; serious defects should be
remedied by the indicator manufacturer. Defective in-
struments should not be used.
11. Misalignment of the drum a x i s with reference
to the piston motion can be detected by drawing ab-
s c i s s a and ordinate lines with the spring removed.
The two s e t s of lines should be accurately perpen-
dicular and of even strength. Abscissa lines of un-
even strength are caused by eccentricity of the drum,
which disqualifies it for use.
12. The spring scale, stamped on the foot of the
spring, is only approximate, because the actual
spring scale is subject to alteration, as the elastic
properties of the spring change with time and in con-
sequence of the repeated stresses. Therefore the
spring shall be calibrated from time to time, and i n
c a s e of important t e s t s , before and after the test.
13. The calibration of the spring can be done
with deadweights or by fluid pressure.

16

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 ASME PTCmL9.B 7 0 M 0 7 5 7 b 7 0 0052789 7 M

I N S T R U M E N TAS N AD P P A R A T U S

( a ) Normal plugcock(b)Forged-steelindicatorvalve,
with possibility of grinding-in in i t s a s s e m b l e d
Screw-down
(c) valve
condition

FIG. 8 VARIOUS TYPES OF COCKS AND VALVES

14. The calibration of the indicator should be
done both by i.ncreasing and decreasing pressures,
taking care that no reversal takes place. In this way
two s e t s of pressure lines are obtained on the card
showing a slight difference for a given pressure
value owing to backlash and friction. This difference,
while discernible, should be of small amount. The
pressure range of a given spring should be subdivided
into five or ten equal pressure intervals. It is natural
for the spring scale to show some variation between
the lowest and the highest part of the range; if this
difference is small, the mean value can be applied to
the whole range of the spring; if it is large, then it
is necessary to discriminate between the scale valid
for the lower and that valid for the upper half of the
range, and to take these values into consideration in
the evaluation of the diagram by subdividing the dia-
gram into a lower and upper portion, and applying to
each the scale valid for that portion. To what extent
such corrections should be undertaken depends on
the importance of the test; for routine comparison
purposes the requirement for accuracy is lower than
for an important t e s t for acceptance purposes.
15. Calibration by the deadweight method, using
the indicator itself with the spring which is to be
used, determination of s p r i n g s c a l e a t approximately
70 F and 212 F, and measuring the piston diameter
a t room temperature, is recommended.
Installation
16. The indicator should be installed in such a
manner that:
(1) T h e normal operation of the machine is inter-
fered with a s l i t t l e a s p o s s i b l e .
(2) The same pressure acts on the indicator pis-
ton as on the engine piston.
(3) The indicator drum displacement is trully pro-
portional to the piston displacement of the engine or
machine.
These requiremets are discussed further in the
following paragraphs.

17
f
r-
?
COPYRIGHT American Society of Mechanical Engineers
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 ASME P T C * L S * B 7 0 W 0757670 0052770 3
A S h lPEE R F O R M A N CTEE SCT O D E S
17. IndicatorReaction. This term meanstheal-
teration of the engine function which is due to the at-
tachment of the indicator, and to the actuation of the
measuring parts. The compression space of an en-
gine (steam or internal-combustion) and compressor
is increased by the vlume of the indicator cylinder
and of the connecting tube, and the engine cycle is
influenced thereby. While in large engines these ef-
fects are negligible, in small engines and in the case
of small compression spaces (as in small compres-
sors and internal combustion engines) this alteration
can attain considerable importance.
18. FactorsEnteringintotheAccuracy of Pres=
sureMeasurement. In order to insure that the in-
dicator piston is subjected to the same pressure as
the engine piston, it is necessary to make sure that
the indicator passage connects to the engine cylinder
space (and not, e.g., to the precombustion chamber),
through a passage unobstructed in any of its posi-
tions by the engine piston, soot or carbon. The cocks
and valves must be s o formed that they provide a s
short, straight, and free passage as possible in order
to prevent throttling. The indicator cocks and valves,
usually employed are shown in Fig. 8.
19. The indicator should be mounted on machines
dealing with gaseous fluids in such a way (pointing
upward, or slantingly upward) that any collected
liquid drains away.
20. The drum displacement must be, at all points,
truly proportional to the displacement of the engine
piston. For this purpose reducing mechanisms, which
can be of (a) lever type, (b) pulley type, and (c)
crank type, are employed. The first two derive the
motion from some reciprocating part of the machine,
usually the crosshead or piston, while the third type
is driven by the crankshaft. Given suitable dimen-
sioning of the parts every type is capable of provid-
ing accurate proportionality for the reducing motion.
Operation
21. In the important matter of the selection of the
piston size and spring it must be borne in mind that
reduction of inertia errors requires a small diagram,
but, for convenience and accuracy of evaluation, a
large diagram is desirable. Therefore, the largest
piston should be used which still allows the peak
pressure to come within the range of the diagram
height. It is a matter of sound engineering judgment,
and some trial and error, to strike a compromise be-
.tween these conflicting requirements.
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m
22. Before starting the test make sure that the
machine has reached normal operating conditions,
i.e., those under which the horsepower determination
is desired. Before taking the diagram it is advan-
tageous to open the cock or valve for two or three
cycles in order to warm up the indicator and thus re-
duce the viscosity of the lubricant. A s a rule, one
diagram is taken on a card, except in cases in which
the load is variable, in which c a s e more than one
(possibly five) are taken in order to show the dif-
ference between the successive diagrams.
23. The atmospheric line should be drawn on
each card immediately after taking a diagram. This
is done by closing the valve or cock, and bringing
thereby the indicator space into communication with
the atmosphere, and then letting the drum be oscil-
lated by the drum drive from one end position to the
other.
24. After a card is taken, it should be scrutinized
for errors and faults such as hitting on the drum
stops, too much pencil friction, and the like.
25. The frequency with which it is necessary to
take indicator cards depends on the character of the
load. If the load is changing only slowly cards taken
5, 10, or 15 minutes apart usually give sufficient in-
formation. If the load is fluctuating, more frequent in-
dicating is necessary, and sometimes one even has
to resort to taking continuous cards on a long strip
of paper. In the latter case it is advantageous to se-
l e c t the time in such a manner that both the highest
and the lowest loads are indicated.
Advantages and Di sadvantages
26. The mechanical indicator is a direct reading
instrument, with the advantages of simplicity, and
with no amplifying equipment needed at the time it is
being used. The records are simple and are immedi-
ately available. Thus records can be taken in rather
rapid succession, and direct comparisons can be
made. No complicated optical devices or film devel-
opers are needed to produce permanent records.
The mechanical indicator customarily draws a
pressure-volume diagram, which, by use of a plani-
meter, serves as a means of determining the indicated
power of the cylinder. The mechanical indicator is
limited in high-frequency response because of the
inertia of the parts. Even with the most careful de-
signs, and the use of lightweight materials wherever
applicable, the indicator is not suited to a high-speed
 ASME P T C * 1 7 - 8 7 0 W 0 7 5 7 6 7 00 0 5 2 7 7 1
I N S T R U M E N T S A N D
machine. In order to produce a pressure volume dia-
gram, the indicator drum must be connected to a de-
vice that simulates piston motion on a small scale.
This involves a tension cord with a spring to main-
tain the tension in the cord. Unless carefully adjusted
with a cord having a minimum of stretch, serious er-
rors will be experienced in the precise positioning of
the volume portion of the record.
If the reducer motion is of the drum type, great
care must be taken to assure that the ends of the
piston stroke coincide precisely with the ends of the
indicator stroke.
The mechanical indicators should be properly
lubricated, since they are customarily used to take a
succession of cards, and they are subject to the ef-
f e c t s of heat and carbon formation which can inter-
fere with proper functioning. While the mechanical
indicators are often used to take weak spring dia-
grams, this involves a change of the springs, and
often a change of piston and cylinder diameters. It is,
of course, necessary to calibrate the instrument for
all piston and spring combinations, which may be
used.
19
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5 M
A P P A R A T U S
27. Bibliography
DeJuhasz, K. J., The Engine Indicator: Its Ilesign
Theory, and Special Applications, Instrumcnts Publishing
CO., Pittsburgh, 1934; 235 pp., 270 figs., and an extensive
bibliography.
Diederichs, H., and Andrae, W. C., Experimental Me-
chanical Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1930; Chap. VII, The Engine Indicator, pp. 254-367,
129 figs.
Judge, A. W., The Testing of High-speed Internal-
Combustion Engines, Chapman and Hall, London, 1924;
Chap. VI1 on Pressure Measurements and Chap. VI11 on
Indicator Diagrams, pp. 192-269, 82 figs.
Morrison, L. H., American Diesel Engines, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1931. The indicators used in diesel en-
gine practice, a s well a s their operation and the evaluation
of diagrams, are treated in pp. 542-585, 4 4 figs.
Moyer, J. A., Power Plant Testing, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1926; Engine Indicators, pp. 103-158, 80
figs.
Shoop, C. F., and Tuve, G. L., Mechanical Engineer-
ing Laboratory Practice, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1930.
Brown, W. L., Methods for evaluating requirements
and errors in Cylinder Pressure Measurements, SAE,
Jan. 1967, 670008.
-~
ASME P T C * L 7 * 8 7 0 m 0757670 0052772 7 m

A S M PE E R F O R M A N C TE E S CT O D E S

CHAPTER 3, BALANCED-PRESSURE INDICATING SYSTEMS

Contents From this card the indicated power and indicated

Pars.
General..............................
Principles of Operation...................
Cylinder Units .......................
Circuit.. ..........................
Recording Unit, ......................
................
Materials of Construction
mean effective pressure may be obtained by con-
verting the record to a pressure-volume plane.
1
5. The only dynamic element in the entire system
4
7 consists of a thin metal diaphragm of small diameter
8 which can be made to signal the start of i t s motion
9 under a very small difference between the cylinder
12 and external pressures.

Bibliography .......................... 33. indicatorrecordsobtained from reciprocating com-

General
1. This section covers the application of bal-
anced-pressure
indicating
comprised
systems o a
thin diaphragm exposed to the cylinder pressure on
onesideand a known arbitrarypressure on theother
andanelectro-mechanicalsystemforrecordingtheindicator,Fig.
pressure and crank angle a t whichdiaphragm balance but most
i s achieved.
cal
2. Certain auxiliary pieces of apparatus are
also considered, which measure engine speed, and
convert the pressure-crank angle record to a pres-
sure-volume diagram.
3. The indicator is applicable to all recipro-
cating machines involving a repetitive gas pressure
cycle.
Principles of Operation
4. The balanced pressure indicator is a device
which records crank angle at the instant when the
pressure in the cylinder just exceeds or just falls
below an externally applied known pressure. By
slowly varying the external pressure over the range
of possible cylinder pressures, a s e r i e s of points is
produced which forms a plot of cylinder pressure
versus crank angle. Obviously this indicator dia-
gram i s made up of points recorded from many suc-
cessive cycles, and thus represents an average
indicator card for the particular operating conditions.
pressors may be widened throughout the cycle
due to pulsations on discharge and.suction. In this
case the mean value of the broadened band is taken
a s t h e most accurate path.
Description
7. Thecylinderunit of thebalanced-pressure
9, is constructed in avariety of ways,
commonly it consists of a roughly cylindri-
bodythewhich is connected
cylinder
with the to
sensing end of the unit as nearly flush with the inner
wall as possible. At this end of the unit is a circu-
lar supporting disk, perforated with many small holes.
The flat side of this disk is exposed to the cylinder
gases. The other side of the disk has a slightly re-
cessed or dished surface which supports a thin dia-
phragm of steel, beryllium-copper or other suitable
material. On the other side of the steel diaphragm is
another perforated support, similar to the first, but
ground flat and incorporating an electrical contact
a t i t s center. An electrical connection from the con-
tact is led out of the end of the unit. The external
pressure opening and connection is provided a t t h e
end of the unit which communicates with the space
in back of the second supporting disk. With any
given steady external pressure supplied to the unit
from a suitable pressure source, the diaphragm is
forced away from the electrical contact when the
cylinder pressure is l e s s than the external pressure,
and makes contact again when the cylinder pressure
exceeds the external pressure. When extreme accu-
racy is desired, contacts may be used on both s i d e s

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 I N S T R U M E N T AS N D A P P A R A T U S

CONTACT-SIDE BACKING PLATE

WITHDRILLEDHOLES

CYLINDER-SIDE BACKING PLATE

WITHDRILLEDHOLES

FIG. 9 CONSTRUCTION OF PICKUP UNIT OF

BALANCED-PRESSUREINDICATOR

of the diaphragm s o t h a t a s s o o n as diaphragm move.

ment starts, due to pressure imbalance, contact is
broken and a signal is produced by the indicator
circuit. The cylinder unit may be specially designe( a
to extend to the bottom of the connecting passage
(Fig. 10)
8. Circuit. - Variouselectricalcircuitsare
used. The common function of the electrical circuit
is to produce a high tension pulse each time the
cylinder pressure exceeds or falls below the extern-
al pressure, i.e., whenever the diaphragm in the
cylinder unit moves. It is also necessary for the
circuit to limit the current at the contacts, to insure
dependable contact action and long cylinder unit
life. The circuit must also have a very small and i n
variant time constant, and short recovery time. The
high tension pulse is usually produced by discharg-
ing.a condenser into the primary of an induction
coil a s is done in some types of modern ignition
systems,
FIG. 10 BALANCED-PRESSURECYLINDER-UNIT
9. Recording Unit. To record
crank
the
angle DESIGNED FORFLUSH MOUNTING
a t which the cylinder pressure equals the external

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 Y.._ I
I
FLAT L""""""""""""""""
DIAPHRAGM
CYLIWR UNIT
FIG. 1 1 SCHEMATICDIAGRAM OF BALANCED-PRESSUR
INDICATING SYSTEM
pressure (Fig. ll), paper with a black or sensitized
surface is mounted on a hollow metal drum which ro-
t a t e s in bearings and i s driven directly from the
crankshaft by means of a torsionally stiff shaft and
coupling system. A spark discharge point is mounted
above and close to the surface of the rotating drum,
on a guide parallel t o the drum axis. When the dia-
phragm i n the cylinder unit moves, the indicator
circuit causes a spark to pass from the point to the
drum. The angular position of the mark produced on
the drum paper, with respect to a reference point-
usually top center, is a measure of the crank angle
at that instant.
10. The external pressure supplied to the cylin-
der unit is also conveyed to a system to move the
spark discharge point along its guide and parallel to
the recording drum axis, to a position which depends
upon the intensity of the external pressure. 'This is
usually a chamber containing a closely fitted plunger
which i s s e a l e d G t h l i g h t oil. When a given extern-
al pressure is applied, the plunger moves the spark
discharge point against a calibrated spring. The
mark produced on the drum paper by the spark is
therefore also a record of the external pressure (and
cylinder pressure) which existed at the simultane-
ously recorded crank angle. To avoid static friction
errors in the pressure indicating system, the chamber
is usually rotated slowly about the plunger during
the operation of the indicator. Another type of system
uses a servomechanism comprising of an electronic
power amplifier, pressure transducer, and servomotor
to drive the sparking point.
22
,T-
COPYRIGHT American Society of Mechanical Engineers
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INDICATOR
11. The source of external pressure may be a
mechanical pump or a bottle of compressed gas-
usually nitrogen. Carbon dioxide should not be used
due to foaming of t h e s e a l oil. The recording drum
can be reloaded without stopping the compressor or
engine by connecting it to the drive from the crank-
shaft through a close-fitting dog clutch. A rubber
tired or belted synchromesh arrangement is needed to
make clutch engagement possible at high speeds. A
s e t of adjustable breaker points or the equivalent is
usually mounted on the recording drumshaft and is
carefully s e t to produce spark marks on the drum
paper at an angular position corresponding to top
dead center. This line is, of course, required a s a
reference or datum. Another system is to use a mag-
netic or photoelectric sensor.
12. Materials 0 4 Construstion. No uncommon
materials are required in the construction of the
balanced pressure indicator. The cylinder unit is
usually made of common s t e e l with mica insulation
at the contact points. Spring steel or beryllium-
copper has been used successfully for the moving
diaphragm. The recording drum is usually of alumi-
num alloy for lightness.
13. Acsuraey. While the balanced pressure in-
dicator is an inherently accurate device it is quite
e a s y to get erroneous results if certain details of ad-
justment or installation are ignored. In this section
" = =
 ASME P T C * l 7 * 8 7 0
INSTRUMENTS
only errors associated with the design and construc-
tion of the indicator recorder and cylinder unit will
be discussed. Errors arising from the installation of
the indicator on the engine, or contributed by auxili-
ary equipment will be considered in another section.
14. With an unclamped diaphragm of 0,005 in.
thickness, it appears possible to keep the delay in
breaking contact in the cylinder unit to about 0.20
deg at 3000 rpm, giving an error of about 1per cent
under these conditions. The error would be propor-
tionately less at lower speeds.
15. Sensitivity. On commercialbalanced-pres-
sure indicators it is common to use a plunger spring
giving a spark point movement as much as 0.2 in./psi
external pressure when details of the pump loop are
being investigated. When indicating diesel engines
a sensitivity of 0.005 in./psi might be used. These
values represent practical limits of sensitivity.
16. Responsiveness. A freediaphragmwillre-
spond to a tenth of an inch of mercury pressure dif-
ference or less. A clean flat clamped diaphragm may
require up to an inch or two of mercury to produce a
contact.
17. Variance. Position of the spark marks on the
drum seem to vary randomly a.005 in. to 0.01 in.
about the mean. This would represent a maximum
dispersion of f 2 psi with a heavy spring, or 0.2 to
0.4 deg of crank angle for a typical drum diameter of
about 3 in. The variance would thus be about 0.015
deg and 0.5 psi.
18. Investigation has shown a random variation
in contacting time with a clamped diaphragm of
f 30 microsec. This corresponds to I 0.36 d e g a t
2000 rpm or a variance of about 0.015 deg, assuming
normal distribution.
19. Calibration. The plunger springs or elec-
trical servomechanism may be calibrated by means
of a deadweight tester. The corresponding spark
point positions are indicated on the drum by rotating
the drum and plunger barrel and producing a line of
sparks around the drum at each pressure position.
The distance between these lines will determine the
sensitivity and should agree with the spring constant.
Zero-pressure displacement to be expected with
clamped diaphragms may be determined on the bench
by subjecting the cylinder unit to an increasing pres-
sure difference until the diaphragm contact is made or
broken as indicated by a high-impedance continuity
checker.
COPYRIGHT American Society of Mechanical Engineers
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0 7 5 7 b 7 0 0052775 2
A N D .APPARATUS
Application and Installation
Sources of Error
20. TopCenterPosition. The area of the in-
dicator card on the P-v plane represents the indica-
ted work per cycle and therefore the indicated mean
effective pressure or, at a given speed, the indicated
power. The values obtained for these quantities
will be i n error with any type of indicator, if the
measured cylinder pressures are associated with the
wrong cylinder volumes. It. is therefore essential
that the angular position of the top center reference
line on the indicator recording drum corresponds as
closely as possible with the top center piston posi-
tion of the cylinder being indicated.
21. The effect of a top center shift on measured
indicated power will depend to some extent upon the
shape of the diagram as affected, for example, by the
compression ratio of the machine. Investigations
have shown that a displacement of 1deg in the top
center reference line will usually result in errors in
the neighborhood of 2 to 5 per cent i n the measure-
ment of the indicated power of the machine.
22. To minimize this error in the balanced-pres-
sure indicator there must be no backlash or torsional
deflection in the recording drum drive or in the clutch
u s e d for drum disengagement. The breaker points or
other equipment used for triggering the spark circuit
to produce the top center reference line must be rigid-
ly constructed and free from vibratory characteristics
which might lead to an angular shift between top
center and the reference line when speed is varied.
23. An overall check of top center reference line
accuracy, including breaker point and circuit delays
may be made by triggering a strobe light with the
top center high tension spark pulse. The strobe will
show the flywheel at top center position over the
range of speeds being run when the apparatus i s COP
rectly adjusted.
24. ConnectingPassages. It is recommended
that the cylinder unit should, if possible, be instal-
led flush with the inner surface of the cylinder or
head as stated in Chapter 1.
25. If a clean unrestricted passage between the
indicator and cylinder is fairly long it will give rise
under certain running c,onditions to gas vibrations a t
the indicator diaphragm near the point of peak pres-
sure, which records as a wide band of points at t h i s
23
.-
 ASME P T C * L S m 8 70 m 0757670 0052776 4
A S MP EE R F O R M A N C E
location. In this case it is often considered suf-
ficiently accurate to assume that the mean value of
the vibrating pressure at the indicator is the cylinder
pressure,
26. Axial Spark Point Movement. The system,
which moves the spark point along the drum axis a
distance proportional to the applied external pres-
sure, is not subject to static friction errors if the
barrel i s continuously rotated about the plunger. The
entire system is easily calibrated or checked for
spring errors by using a deadweight tester and care-
fully measuring the extension of the spark point. The
plunger is sealed with light oil, axial viscous forces
will be present while the plunger is moving. Appre-
ciable pressure errors may therefore be introduced by
changing the external pressure too rapidly. A study
of the effect indicates that a plunger with typical
length-diameter ratio supplied with SAE-10 oil a t
room temperature will have an error of about 0.08 p s i
when moving at a velocity of 0.125 in./sec. If the
entire card is taken with one pass of the spark point
and a t moderate plunger speed, the error in IMEP or
indicated power from this source should be negligible,
a s any pressure displacement in the expansion line
will be compensated for by an equal displacement in
the compression line.
27. SparkWander. Onmany indicators the spark
point is s e t 0.02 to 0.03 in. above the record drum to
prevent cutting the paper. Because of random ir-
regularities in the paper structure the spark may
p a s s through the paper slightly to one side of the
point. This wandering may give to each point a pos-
sible error in position of up to about 0.005 in. in any
direction. Since there are many points, this random
wander may be averaged out by using the midline of
the points, with negligible error. The amount of
wander may be estimated for a particular case by
examination of the scatter of the atmospheric refer-
ence line r the top center reference line.
28. Zero-PressureDisplacement. Insomecylinder
units the moving diaphragm is clamped at its edges
on assembly and may buckle when exposed to cylinder
temperatures. The diaphragm may then require sever-
al inches of mercury pressure difference to cause it
to move from one supporting disk to the other. Be-
cause of the flat inner supporting disk, the diaphragm
usually tends to buckle outward, making the required
external pressure (and recorded pressures) less than
the actual cylinder pressures throughout the entire
diagram. This type of error is the equivalent of mov-
ing the zero-pressure reference line upward and while
24
COPYRIGHT American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Licensed by Information Handling Services
T E S T C O D E S
undesirable, has little effect on the area of the p-v
diagram or on the indicated power since all parts of
the diagram are displaced the same distance vertical-
]Y*
29. The zero-pressure error may be eliminated by
using an unclamped diaphragm which starts to move
as soon as any pressure difference is present, The
contact side of an unclamped diaphragm may eventu-
ally become fouled by material from the cylinder.
Some investigators have suggested installing clamped
diaphragms hot so that they will not buckle when
heated.
30. Measuring Power in the Presence of Cyclic
Irregularity. The balanced-pressure indicator card,
being a plot of many cycles, will indicate cyclic ir-
regularity by a widening of the pressure line,
31. Cyclic irregularity in engines is a phenomenon
associated with spark ignition. It seems to occur in
two forms. Either the time between passage of the
spark and the start of pressure rise or the rate of
pressure r i s e itself may vary from cycle to cycle. In
either case the magnitude of the peak pressure is af-
fected by the variation in the crank angle a t which
burning of the charge is completed. When distribution
curves of peak pressure are plotted they are usually
fairly symmetrical, indicating that there are as many
early cycles as there are late ones. This condition
probably exists only when optimum ignition advance
is maintained. Since both edges of the indicator
card represent nonoptimum cycles, and the midline
represents the nearly optimum cycles, the indicated
power obtained by using the midline will probably
be a little too high although this is the usual pro-
cedure in such cases.
I t is general experience that power is not greatly
affected by moderate cycle-to-cycle irregularity. In
the absence of reliable general information it is dif-
ficult to recommend a method for arriving a t t h e cor-
rect value of indicated power. Whether any serious
error is involved in using midline values should be
capable of determination by comparing the indicated
power obtained using the midline and using the edges
of the curve. In most c a s e s it is believed the dif-
ference will be quite small.
Advantages and Disadvantages
32. Advantages of the balanced-pressure indicat-
ing system are:
(u) It is an accurate method.
( b ) It is free from calibration changes, circuit
 ASME PTCxL9.B 70
INSTRUMENTS
drift, electrical interference of hysteresis.
(c) The unclamped diaphragm unit is free from
zero shift and other temperature effects.
(d) The cylinder unit is relatively inexpensive
and easily repaired.
(e) The circuitry i s simple.
( f ) The large diagram is easily measured.
(g) It allows averaging the IMEP of machines
having short-term cycle-to-cycle variations.
(h) The completed card is large, permitting high
degree of accuracy of measurement.
Disadvantages of the balanced pressure indicating
system are:
(u) It requires conversion from P-t to p-v.
( b ) It cannot record single cycles.
(C) The time required to record and compute
IMEP and indicated power is relatively long.
Bibliography
(L
Improvement of Accuracy of Balanced Pressure Indi-
cators and Development of an Indicator Calibrating Ma-
chine, NACA Technical Note 1896.
Brown, W. L., Methods for Evaluating Requirements
and Errors in Cylinder Pressure Measurement, SAE Pre-
print 67008, Jan. 1967.
COPYRIGHT American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Licensed by Information Handling Services
0759b70 0052797 b W
A N D APPARATUS
66
Displacement Compressors, Vacuum Pumps and
Blowers, ASME Performance Test Code, No. 9
Dickinson, H.C., and Newell, F. B., A High-speed
Engin Pressure Indicator of the Balanced Diaphragm
Type, NAPCA, No. 107.
Taylor, E. S., and Draper, E. S., ANew High-speed
Engine Indicator, Mechanical Engineering, vol. 55,
March 1933, pp. 169-171.
The Dobbie McInnes Farnborough Indicator, The
Automobile Engineer, vol. 15, Jan. 1925, pp. 9-14.
Church, D.R., and Hart, D. K., Balanced Pressure
Indicator, Mechanical Engineering, vol. 72, no. 5, pp.
389-391.
Walshaw, T. D., Effect of Phase Errors in Time-
Base Indicator Diagrams, Engineering, vol. 168, no. 4356,
July 1949, pp. 73-75.
deCourcy, Indicator Diagrams, The Automobile Engi-
neer, vol. 15, Oct. 1925, pp. 334-335.
Miller, N. L., and Wade, P. A.,A Precision Balanced-
Pressure Compressor Indicator and Data Reduction Tech-
nique for the Acceptance Test, Diesel and Gas Engine
Power Div.,ASME, 1968.
Novosad, T. L., Todays Balanced-Pressure Indicator
Its Application, ASME 62WA351.
Gish, R.E., McCullough, J. D., Retzloff, J. B., and
Mueller, H. T., Determination of True Engine Friction,
SAE Trans., vol. 66, 1958, pp. 649-667.
 ASME P T C * : L 9 . 8
A S M PE E R F O R M A N C TE E S CT O D E S
CHAPTER 4, ELECTRONIC INDICATING
Contents
General ............................... 1
.......... 3
Description and Principles of Operation
Characteristics
Accuracy .............................
Range .............................. 5 and the ratio determined by means of the circuitry in
Sensitivity ........................... 6
Responsiveness .......................
7
Variance ............................
8
Calibration ............................. 9 lyzed from these diagrams. A few of them are:
Installation and Operation ................... 13
Essential Considerations ................... - 1 6
Treatment Data ........................
of 17
Advantages and Disadvantages ........... ....18
Bibliography ........................... 19
General
1. Scope. This chapter covers the application of
electronic indicator systems comprised of mechanical
and electrical components in which the pressure and
piston travel, crank angle, or time values are con-
verted into proportional variations of electrical cur-
rent or voltage; which in turn are observed and/or re-
corded by means of readout devices.
2. (a) Electronic indicating systems should be
designed to obtain directly the data required for the
determination of indicated power. These include
measurement of the following:
(1) Speed(rpm). This measurement establishes
operating conditions and is a basic requirement in
determining indicated power. Variation in speed will
affect all other measurements.
(2) Instantaneous P ressure and Corresponding
P iston Position. T h e s e may be directly related or
obtained on a common time base.
(3) I n d i c a t e d P o w e r ( C h a p . 7,
may be directly recorded or indicated by appropriate
electronic computation utilizing data from (1) and
(2) above.
( b ) Other useful data may be directly indicated or
recorded, using the same instrumentation.
these are:
(1) I n d i c a t e d M e a n E f f e c t i v e P r e s s u r e ( C h a p .
7;Par. 8).
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70 W 0 7 5 9 6 7 0 0 0 5 2 7 9 8 8 . m :
SYSTEMS
(2) I n d i c a t e d V o l u m e t r i c E f f i c i e n c y o f a Com-
pressor. This value is determined from the p-v dia-
Pars.
gram. The ratio of the length suction stroke (the time
the suction valve opens and remains open until the
end of the stroke is reached) to the total length of the
card is the indicated volumetric efficiency of the com-
4 pressor cylinder end. These lengths are measured
the computing section of the apparatus.
(3) P r e s s u r e v s . T i m e a n d P r e s s u r e vs. V o l u m e
Diagrams. There are many results that can be ana-
7. Fluctuations of operating conditions
2. Compressor and engine valve performance
3. Compressor or engine cylinder performance
4. Compressor or engine piping performance
; 5. Detect malfunction of compressor and
engine piston rings
6. Study of spark plug and/or ignition per-
: formance, including pulsation and vibration study
These diagrams can be produced by several meth-
ods such as oscilloscope with visual or photographic
display, oscillograph, X-Y plotter, numerical display,
chart printer, or tape punch.
3. Description and Principles of Operation
(u) Electronic indicator systems are composed of
the following basic components, which are inter-
related as shown in the block diagram, Fig. 12:
(1) Pressuretransducer
(2) Motion transducer
(3) Synchronizer
(4) Amplifiers
(S) Powersupply
(6) Readoutdevice
( b ) Pressure transducers are used to convert pres-
sure into proportional electrical signals. There are
two general types of pressure transducers in common
use. The strain gage transducer modifies a known
electrical signal through change of resistance due to
Par. 7). This deflection of the pressure element on which it is
mounted, The piezoelectric transducer generates a
static charge proportional to the pressure to which it
is subjected. The user should refer to the manufactuer
for details of construction and limitations of use.
Some of Particular note should be made of errors that can
arise from temperature shocks and mechanical strain.
( c ) Motion transducers provide an input to the
readout device which is proportional to time, crank
.
26
 ASME P T C * L S - B 7 0 W 0757b70 0052777 T m

ciI
I
I
I
SUPPLY

F-

II
INSTRUMENTS
r"""""""""""

TRANSDUCER
PRESSURE TRANSDUCER MOTION

--" --" --" """.I

I
OR
1
i
I

SYNCHRONIZER
A N D APPARATUS

(3) Digital or analog computer in conjunction

I I
II I""" AMPLIFIER
AMPLIFIER
I
I horsepower or a permanent record of the P-t or P-v
I diagram is desired, a photograph may be taken of the
II
I The oscillograph produces a graphical trace on a
READOUT
FIG. 12 BLOCK DIAGRAM, ELECTRONIC
INDICATING SYSTEM
angle, or piston position. F o r example, the following
may be used:
(1) To indicate time, a constant speed drive for
a recording chart or for the horizontal sweep of an
oscilloscope.
(2) To indicate crank angle, a chart drum di-
rectly connected to the crankshaft.
(3) To indicate piston position, a dynamically
similar proportional mechanical linkage or an ap-
paratus to electrically analog the mathematical equa-
tions of piston travel.
(d) The synchronizer provides a signa1 at a known
time or point in the cycle to initiate and complete the
indicator diagram or the computation of work per
cycle. A common means of doing this is to install a
plug or cavity on the rim of the flywheel which
triggers a capacitance pickup once per revolution.
(e) Amplifiers are used to increase the electrical
signal from the various transducers to a magnitude
compatible with the requirements of the readout de-
vice.
(f) A power supply system is required to regulate
and convert the characteristics of the incoming elec-
tric power source to match the requirements of the
individual components of the indicator system. Fre-
quency voltage to these components is critical and
must be held constant at the specified values.
(g) Readout devices accept the electrical signals
that have been appropriately amplified and convert
them to a form that can be utilized to determine
horsepower and/or other performance characteristics
of the machine being indicated. Readout devices may
be one or more of the following types:
(1) Oscilloscope
(2) Oscillograph
with X-Y plotter, numerical display, printer, or re-
cording chart
The oscilloscope produces a visual display of the
relationship between two' or more variables on the
f a c e of a cathode ray tube. F o r the purpose of in-
dicated power these variables are pressure as an
ordinate plotted against time, crank angle or piston
position (volume) a s a b s c i s s a . If a calculation of
display.
strip chart of the same variables as the oscilloscope,
except that with the oscillograph these variables are
usually presented only as a function of time. To ob-
tain indicated power these traces mustbe replotted
a s a P-V diagram.
A digital or analog computer calculates intep
mediate or final results from the input data signals in
accordance with programmed instructions and trans-
mits the results to one or more display devices, such
a s X-Y plotter, data printer, recording chart or nu-
merical display. Results indicated may be mean time,
crank angle, piston position, volume, or speed. Re-
s u l t s may be instantaneous values or values aver-
aged over a predetermined period or number of cycles.
Special purpose computers for these purposes have
been described in the second and third listing of the
Bibliography,
Characteristics
4. Accuracy. T h e error in measurement of IMEP
by u s e of electronic equipment is highly dependent
upon the components used, their installation, and
their calibration. Since there are many sources of
error, they all must be considered and balanced. The
total error in the indicating system caused by sys-
temic errors, for example- timing error, will be the
sum of the errors from each source. These errors
must be eliminated wherever possible. Random errors
that follow a normal frequency distribution produce a
total error such that the square of the total error is
approximately the sum of the squares of the individ-
ual random errors. By grouping errors and limiting
the total of each group to a random error of plus or
minus L5 per cent, the probability of the overall
system error exceeding 3 per cent is the same a s t h e
probability of exceeding the 1.5 per cent limit for
each group. Thus, with due care, the electronic in-
dicating system will produce results within 3 per cent
of actual operation. T o achieve this result, the

27
'r
.W. "

COPYRIGHT American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Licensed by Information Handling Services
 ASME P T C * L S - 8 70 m 0757670 0 0 5 2 8 0 0 2 M
A S M E P E R F O R M A N CTEE S T
various sourccs of error may be grouped and con-
trolled a s follows:
( O ) P h a s e S h i f t - plus/minus 1.5 per cent
This includes the total of the errors in timing in-
dicator location, circuit delays, crankshaft twist,
and passage effects inherent in the pickup installa-
tion.
( b ) Calibration - plus/minus 1.5 per cent
This includes the total of the errors in system
calibration, sensitivity, stability, and linearity.
( c ) Readout System - plus/minus 1.5 per cent
This includes errors in the integration systems,
meters, plotters, oscilloscopes, photographic accu-
racy, etc., where the various readout means are ap-
propriate.
(d) Pickup System Errors -plus/minus 1.5 per cent
This includes hysteresis, thermal strain and other
associated sources of error.
5. Range. The u s e of components of electronic
engine indicating systems is limited to their range of
acceptable accuracy. Normally accuracy is specified
as a percentage of rated output so that, in effect,
accuracy is decreased if they are used at an output
significantly below their rating. For best accuracy,
all components of the indicating system should Oper-
ate within manufacturer specified limits but in a
range close to their ratings. If operation outside this
normal range is necessary, system accuracy must be-
evaluated at the output level to be used. The system
used must fit the error l i m i t s under Par. 4.
6. Sensitivity. The sensitivity of an indicating
system is its designed output related to a specified
change in the measured variable. Units within the
electronic circuitry must be properly matched to pro-
vide needed sensitivity and the readout device must
produce a signal that can be interpreted to meet re-
quired accuracy. Systemic sensitivity errors should
be eliminated as completely as possible and the re-
maining random errors must be controlled within the
limits under accuracy.
7. Responsiveness. The indic.atingsystemhasa
l o s s in accuracy in addition to its designed sensi-
tivity due to dynamics in operation. System hysteresis
and inertia are examples of c a u s e s of this loss. In
mechanical indicators these losses can be significant.
In electronic systems, hysteresis is much l e s s but
pressure transducers may have a significant error.
These errors must be controlled within the limit speci-
fied under accuracy.
8. Variance. The variance of repeatability of
readout of electronic indicating systems embody er-
COPYRIGHT American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Licensed by Information Handling Services
C O D E S
rors from several sources. The total effect is one of
random error about a mean. T h i s must be controlled
within the limits specified under accuracy.
Calibration
9. General. Calibration of thetransducer-
electronics system is basically dependent on the par-
ticular system. Procedures given here for pressure,
electrical, speed calibration are generalized. It is as-
sumed that instrument specifications permit a s t a t i c
calibration not influenced by dynam.ic pressure con-
ditions and operating temperatures. Manufacturers
instructions should be consulted for detailed calibra-
tion and testing procedures; otherwise the following
procedures should be used (Par. 10).
10. PressureCalibration
(a) Connect all components of the indicating sys-
tem with cable to be used during test.
( b ) Connect transducer to a deadweight tester.
(C) Set gain controls to a minimum value, turn
power on, and allow 15 min for instrument to reach
operating temperature unless a longer period has
been specified by the manufacturer.
(dl Electrically zero the system at the reduced
gain setting. Increase gain setting step wise to
maximum, zeroing system at each setting.
(e) Reduce gain setting to a minimum value and,
without disturbing the position of the electrical
cable, apply full-scale pressure to the transducer
with the deadweight tester. Increase gain control
scale. Reduce loading to 50 per cent of full scale
and then to 25 per cent. The output device reading
should drop to one-half and then one-quarter scale,
thus establishing linearity of the measuring system.
Hysteresis can be checked by zeroing the instru-
ments and repeating the calibration, in increasing
steps.
(f) A t the completion of the physical calibration,
unload the transducer to atmospheric pressure and
recheck the zero reading.
(g) In case system response is not linear, replace
transducer and repeat. If still nonlinear, the amplifier
and readout device should be checked for linearity by
substitution of an appropriately standardized signal
generator to feed these elements. It is suggested
that this be done by qualified technicians.
11. ElectricalCalibration, Theelectrical Cali-
bration ignores transducer behavior, checking only
the electronics section and readout device. Conse-
quently, it is a n interim calibration only.
( a ) Manufacturers specifications may be used for
 ASME P T C * L S - 8 70 W 0759b70 0052801 4
I N S T R U M E N T S ,AND
the electrical calibration, if the transducer is that
supplied with the equipment. For different trans-
ducers or for standard transducers suspected of an
output loss, the calibration may not be valid, and
(b) below should be substituted for the manufacturers
specification.
(b) Pith gain controls set in positions established
by the physical calibration, adjust the calibrate knob
to a position which drives the readout device to some
value near full scale. Record the calibrated set value
and the readout device indication along with the
established full-scale pressure value.
(c) During subsequent test periods, electrical
calibration can be established as follows:
(1) Attach transducer to electronics section
with cables to be used during the test. Zero system
as under Par. 10.
(2) Set calibrate know to previously recorded
value for desired full-scale pressure indication.
(3) If necessary, adjust gain control until read-
out device indicates previously recorded value as-
sociated with the pressure scale to be used. Instru-
ment is now electrically calibrated for this pressure
scale. Changes in transducer performance will, how-
ever, not be reflected.
12. Speed Cal i bration
(a) Most electronic indicating systems have two
methods of speed calibration. One is built into the
unit and the other is generated through the actual
~ operation of the motiontransducer.
( b ) To ensure accuracy using the built-in speed
system, it is recommended that a bench test be per-
formed utilizing an ac synchronous motor locked into
a stable 60-cycle power source.
(c) By driving the motion transducer with this
motor, an accurate calibration of the instrument rpm
readings can be obtained.
Installation and Operation
13. Introduction. The basic components of elec-
tronic indicating systems, though varied in basic de-
sign, require similar procedures with respect to instal-
lation and operation, It is the purpose of this section
of the standard to.outline general recommendations
with respect to procedures that should be followed in
the installation and use of this type of equipment.
14. Installation
Power Requirement. An a c power source of suit-
able voltage and frequency for the instrumentation
must be available. The equipment should be warmed
COPYRIGHT American Society of Mechanical Engineers
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m
A P P A R A T U S
up for a period of a t l e a s t 1S min prior to taking actual
measurements.
Pressure Transducer Installation. In order to
achieve the best accuracy, it i s recommended that
the pressure transducers be selected to operate as
close to full-scale range as possible.
It is important that the pressure transducer be
installed as close to the cylindervolume being indi-
cated as practical. Long passage connections should
be avoided. (See Chap. L, Par. 19.)
For multistage or multicylinder applications it is
advantageous to equip the indicator unit with a
method of switching from one indicating point to an-
other.
During the initial setup it is recommended that
each transducer be calibrated s o that recalibration in
the middle of a t e s t is avoided. Following a test, the
calibration should be checked.
For compressor valve power loss determination,
differential pressure-type transducers may be used,
provided care is taken to minimize the length of g a s
passages.
Special water-cooled or gas-cooled pressure trans-
ducers should be utilized on cylinders having high
temperatures such as internal combustion engine
cylinders.
In order to extend the life of the transducers, a
minimum time of exposure to pressure and tempera-
ture from within the cylinder is recommended.
Motion Transducer Installation. T h e connection of
the motion transducer to the engine or compressor
crankshaft is critical. It is recommended that a direct
drive be employed, if possible.
In the event an offset drive is absolutely neces-
sary, care must be taken to ensure zero slippage,
backlash and elasticity in the drive.
If couplings are employed, they should be of the
zero backlash type and assembled with minimum
angularity.
The motion transducer drive shaft should be de-
signed rigid enough to be completely free of both
lateral and torsional critical speeds,
15. OperatingProcedure. Performtherequired
calibration s t e p s a s i n d i c a t e d in the manufacturers
system instruction book. Install the equipment as
recommended in P a r s . 14 and 16.
Set the controls of the equipment in accordance
with the data analysis form that has be en prepared
for the unit being indicated. This procedure may in-
volve, as-an example, the correct determination of
parameters listed in Par. 17.
 .ASME PTC*LS.B 7 0 m 0 7 5 9 6 7 00 0 5 2 8 0 2
A S M PEE R F O R M A N C TE E S T
Perform the correct indicating procedure to obtain
the measured results desired. Most electronic indi-
cating systems will measure the following relation-
ships:
o Indicatedpower
o Instantaneous volumeandpressure
o Oscilloscope displays of pressure versus
time, pressure versus volume, and pressure
versus crank angle diagrams
o RPM, speed
o Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)
Upon completion of the indicating record a normal
analysis of the.results should be made to determine
validity of the test procedures.
16. EssentialConsiderations
(u) General. In order to achieve proper results
with an electronic indicating system, it is essential
that all of the criteria outlined in the installation sec-
tion of this Code be met. Instruments must be ade-
quately maintained in a ready-for-use condition in
order to reduce the possibility of error and to achieve
the time advantage which is a major benefit derived
from electronic indicating.
( b ) L o c a t i o n of Equipment. Electronic components
of the system should be adequately supported and
isolated from vibration. The equipment should be lo-
cated as near to the unit being indicated a s possible
in order to minimize electrical lead length and to
provide a neat installation. Leads should be installed
in a neat and orderly fashion and arranged to minimize
the possibility of operators tripping over them. Move;.
ment of cables can cause electrical capacitance
changes which may shift zero settings. Consideration
should be given on a multicylinder installation to the
rapid transfer of equipment from one cylinder to an-
other with a minimum of rearrangement and hazard of
entanglement.
( c ) Synchronization. It is extremely important that
dead center location be determined, a s described in
Chap. 1. The motion transducer must be adjusted to
synchronize with the event marking on the flywheel
of the unit for the cylinder being indicated. In most
systems an electrical strobe-type timing light is pro-
vided to record synchronization relationship in order
that readjustment can be achieved during operation.
17. Treatment o f Data. In order to obtain an ac-
curate determination of compressor or engine cylinder
indicated power, the following information is required
in order to obtain correct instrument settings prior to
operation:
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b m
C O D E S
(u) Crankshaft- connecting rod Zc/r ratio.
( b ) Degree of connecting rod articulation, if present
in the machine design,
(c) Swept volume of the cylinder being indicated.
(d) Speedrange.
( e ) Estimatd power range.
( f ) Estimated maximum cylinder pressure (engine
or compressor).
(g) Type of machine, either two- or four-stroke
cycle for power engines, single- or double-acting
compressor.
(h) Relationship of timing events versus flywheel
markings. On an engine, top dead center (TDC) timing
relationships should be used. On a compressor cylin-
der, outer dead center (ODC) timing relationships
should be used.
(i) Firing order to properly establish the phase
relationship between various cylinders on a multi-
cylinder unit.
(i) Bores and strokes of engine or compressor.
(h) Operating speed (rpm).
In order to facilitate the making of indicator set-
tings and to conduct the indicator test, it is recom-
mended that a tabulation of all the above information
be made available for reference. All preliminary cal-
culations should be completed prior to the indicating
test.
18. Advantages and Disadvantages. Theadvan-
tages and disadvantages of electronic indicating sys-
tems as compared to mechanical indicators and bal-
anced pressure indicating systems are outlined below:
(u) Advantages
(1) The electronic system can be applied to
much higher speed machines, due to instantaneous
response and low inertia, Graphic readout devices,
such as oscillographs and X-Y plotters, may limit the
speed to about 1000 to 2000 cycles/min, but oscillo-
scope readouts are, for practical purposes, not limited.
(2) Pressure sensing units'(pressure transducers)
may be small enough to be placed a t the pressure
source, e.g., flush with the cylinder wall, minimizing
time lag, piping resonance and distortion.
(3) Multiple readings can be taken simultane-
ously or in quick succession.
(4) Readings can be either from a single cycle
or averaged over many cycles.
(5) Readout devices are many and varied, and
can be selected to suit the purposes of the test.
(6) Readout devices can be remotely located.
(7) Pressure aud time scales may be easily
changed.
 ASME P T C * k L 7 - 8 70 0757b70 0052803 B m

I N S T R U M E N T AS N AD P P A R A T U S

(8) Datacan be transferredto a computer,which 19. Bibliography

when properly programmed can calculate desired final
Application of deadweight testers to calibration of pres-
results, providing information such as indicated
sure transducers, Performance Test Codes Supplement to
Power, mean effective pressure, power losses, Instruments and Amaratus,
I.
Part 2, Pressure Measurements,
metric efficiency, etc. Chap. 4, Deadweight Gauges and Testers (PTC 19.2-1964).
( b ) Disadvantages VanDyke, J., Ives, D.C., and Fetterhoff, K. I., A Port-
(1) Equipment
cost is high. able
Digital Computer
for Engine
Indicating and Analysis,
Diesel and Gas Engine Power Div., ASME, 1966.
(2) Equipment is complex, delicate, and bulky.
Damewood, G,, An Automatic Engine Indicator and
( 3 ) Equipment operation, calibration, and main- ~ n ~ lo i l~ and~ cas~ power
~ , ~- i ~A . , ~ 1963, ~ ~ ,
tenancearecriticalandrequirespecial skills. Accuracy of Electronic Measurements in Internal Com-
(4) Pressure transducers require special care, bustionEngines, The Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
includingcooling,when used
in
contact
withhot London.
Chute, M., Electronics in Industry, McGraw-Hill, New
gases.
York, p. 478ff.

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