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Measuring the Isolation of the Circularly Polarized

Characteristic Waves in NVIS Propagation

Ben A. Witvliet1,2, Erik van Maanen1, George J. Petersen1, Albert J. Westenberg1,

Mark J. Bentum2, Cornelis H. Slump2, Roel Schiphorst2

1
Radiocommunications Agency Netherlands, Spectrum Management Department
P. O. Box 450, Groningen, The Netherlands
Tel: +31 6512 48341; Fax: +31 50 5877 400
E-mail: ben.witvliet@agentschaptelecom.nl

2
University of Twente, Center for Telecommunications and Information Technology
P. O. Box 217, Enschede, The Netherlands
Tel: +31 6512 48341; Fax: +31 53 489 1060
E-mail: b.a.witvliet@utwente.nl

Cite:
Witvliet, B. A.; van Maanen, E.; Petersen, G. J.; Westenberg, A. J.; Bentum, M. J.; Slump, C. H.; Schiphorst, R.,
"Measuring the Isolation of the Circularly Polarized Characteristic Waves in NVIS Propagation [Measurements
Corner]," in Antennas and Propagation Magazine, IEEE , vol.57, no.3, pp.120-145, June 2015.

doi: 10.1109/MAP.2015.2445633

URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=7214390&isnumber=7214355
measurements Corner

Brian E. Fischer Ivan J. LaHaie

Measuring the Isolation of the Circularly Polarized

Characteristic Waves in NVIS Propagation
Ben A. Witvliet, Erik van Maanen, George J. Petersen, Albert J. Westenberg,
Mark J. Bentum, Cornelis H. Slump, and Roel Schiphorst

S
eparate excitation of the character-
istic waves in the ionosphere results
in two orthogonal propagation
channels on the same frequency, which
may be used in diversity and multiple-
input, multiple-output (MIMO) systems.
In this article, a method to measure the
isolation between these paths is proposed
and demonstrated in a near vertical inci-
dence skywave (NVIS) experiment at a
frequency of 7MHz over a 105-km dis-
tance. Characteristic wave isolation
exceeding 25 dB is measured during
Happy Hour: the interval when the
propagation path just opens or closes and
only the extraordinary wave propagates.
Ionospheric Radio
Wave Propagation
EDITORS NOTE
This issues Measurements Corner article describes a very accurate measurement of
the propagation characteristics of near vertical incidence ionospheric skywaves. In it,
the authors describe and characterize the unique morning and evening phenomena
associated with the ordinary and extraordinary waves, which the authors have
dubbed Happy Hours. Of course, this may raise the question for many of our reader
as to what exactly goes on during a morning Happy Hour!
reflected by the ionosphere to create a the propagation mechanism: near vertical
large continuous coverage area (400 km # incidence skywave. A simplified illustra-
400 km) around the transmitter [7]. The tion of the NVIS is given in Figure1, and
antenna system has to concentrate the the propagation mechanism is described
transmit power at high elevation angles in detail in [6].
[7], typically 7090, hence the name of Ionospheric radio wave propagation
adds fading to the received signal, decreas-
ing the link reliability and throughput, but
this may be countered with diversity re-
Ionosphere

Ionospheric radio wave propagation can
be used to bridge hundreds of kilometers
with a direct radio link [1]. This makes
ionospheric radio communication valu-
able when the independence of satellite
or terrestrial networks is required, e.g., in
regions without telecommunication infra-
structure [2], for disaster relief operations
in areas where the telecommunication
infrastructure is destroyed [3][5], and for
defense operations [6]. When the fre-
quency is properly chosen, typically 310
MHz, radio waves sent upward are
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MAP.2015.2445633
Date of publication: 21 August 2015
NVIS
Antenna
Coverage Area
Figure 1. An example of NVIS.
Ionospheric radio wave propagation
can be used to cover a continuous
area with a radius of several hundred
kilometers using a single transmitter.
Frequencies between 3 and 10 MHz
are used, and radio waves must be
radiated at steep angles.
ception or MIMO [8]. Improved diversity
reception can be obtained by adapting the
polarization of the antenna to the circular
polarization of the characteristic waves
propagating in the ionosphere, thereby
creating two independent propagation
paths from the transmitter to the receiver
[9]. In this article, a method to measure
the isolation between these paths is pro-
posed and demonstrated in an NVIS ex-
periment at a frequency of 7 MHz over
a 105-km distance. The Happy Hour
propagation phenomenon that facilitates
this measurement as well as the equip-
ment needed and its calibration and ac-
curacy is described.

120 1045-9243/152015IEEE june 2015 IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine

Characteristic Waves
in NVIS Propagation
Appleton and Builder [10] discovered
that electromagnetic pulses sent toward
the ionosphere were received as pulse
pairs at a distance of 5 km from the trans-
mitter. One of their registrations is repro-
duced in Figure 2. The transmit pulse is
first received via the ground wave (G),
then twice via the F1-layer reflection (F1'
and F1"), and twice via the F2-layer reflec-
tion (F2' and F2"). Appleton explained this
phenomenon with his magneto-ionic the-
ory [11], showing that, under the influ-
ence of the Earths magnetic field, an
electromagnetic wave of arbitrary polar-
ization is split into two circularly polarized
waves of opposite direction of rotation
when entering the ionosphere. Rathcliffe
[12] showed that that only these waves
propagate in the ionosphere and named
them characteristic waves. Each charac-
teristic wave follows its own path and
experiences a particular (variable) attenu-
ation and delay. The ordinary wave fol-
lows a path similar to the path that it
would have followed in the absence of a
magnetic field. The other characteristic
wave is named the extraordinary wave.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the down-
ward ordinary wave has left-hand circular
polarization (LHCP) and the greater
delay while the extraordinary wave has
right-hand circular polarization (RHCP)
and the lesser delay.
The Happy Hour
Propagation Interval
Figure 3 shows the simulated paths of the
ordinary and extraordinary waves, in red
and green, respectively, through the iono-
sphere, over a horizontal distance of
approximately 90120 km. The reflection
takes place in the F2 layer at a 180
280-km height. The reflection height and
path geometry vary over the day. PropLab
Pro 3 ionospheric ray-tracing software
[13] was used and simulations were made
at a frequency of 7 MHz on 9 March
2014, with a smoothed sunspot number
(SSN) of 79 and an effective sunspot
number (IGN) of 164.
In 24 h, the propagation varies as fol-
lows. At night, the electron density of the
ionosphere is too low to support NVIS
propagation at the selected operating
IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine
G
F1' F1" F ' G
2
F1' F "
1
F2" F2' F2"
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Pulse delay measurements of Appleton in 1932. (a) The transmitted pulses
are first received via ground wave G, then twice via the F1-layer (F1' and F1"), and twice
via the F2-layer (F2' and F2"). (b) A 1,115-Hz sine wave, serving as time reference. (Figure
adapted from [10].)
frequency and both waves pass through path height is lowered due to a further
the ionosphere (Figure 3). In the morn- increase in electron density (see Figures
ing, the radiation of the sun causes a 6 and 7). In the evening, the electron
steep rise in the electron density of the density slowly decreases again and the
ionosphere, until it is sufficiently high path altitude increases again (Figure 8).
to reflect the extraordinary
wave at the operating fre-
quency. However, the ordi-
nary wave still passes through Ionospheric radio wave
the ionosphere (Figure4). The propagation can be used
received signal consists of the
to bridge hundreds of
extraordinary wave only and
is circularly polarized. This kilometers with a direct
situation remains until the radio link.
electron density has increased
enough for the ordinary wave
to reflect as well (Figure 5). The received At a certain instant, the electron density
signal is then a summation of the ordi- becomes too low to reflect the ordinary
nary and the extraordinary wave com- wave and it passes through the ionosphere
ponents. As each varies in strength and while the extraordinary wave is still
delay, the received signal shows rapidly reflected (Figure 9). Again, the received
changing polarization. signal consists of only the extraordinary
Throughout the day, both waves prop- wave and is circularly polarized. This situ-
agate from transmitter to receiver. Their ation remains until the electron density
300 300
06:00 UTC 06:30 UTC
250 250
Height (km) "
Height (km) "
200 200
150 150 Happy
100 100 Hour
50 50
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance (km) " Distance (km) "
Figure 3. The ionospheric paths Figure 4. At 06:30 UTC, the ionization
of the ordinary wave (red) and the of the ionosphere has sufficiently
extraordinary wave (green) at 06:00 increased to reflect the extraordinary
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). wave (green), and the ordinary
Daylight is from 06:02 to 16:28 UTC. wave (red) is not reflected yet.
The ionization of the ionosphere is The downward wave has circular
not sufficient to reflect either of the polarization. This is the morning
characteristic waves. Happy Hour.
june 2015 121
 morning Happy Hour is short, typically
300 30 min at midlatitudes in winter. The 300
07:00 UTC 19:30 UTC
250 evening Happy Hour often lasts more 250
Height (km) "

Height (km) "

200 than an hour because of the slower re- 200
150 combination processes. 150
100 100
50 Measuring NVIS 50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Characteristic Wave Isolation 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
This propagation phenomenon can be
Distance (km) " Distance (km) "
used to measure the isolation between
the ordinary and extraordinary waves. If
Figure 5. At 07:00 UTC, both the Figure 8. After 16:38 UTC (sunset), the
substantial isolation between the RHCP
ordinary and extraordinary waves ionization decreases. At 19:30 UTC,
are reflected. Received polarization is and LHCP waves can be demonstrated
waves already penetrate much further
highly variable. in the Happy Hour intervals, this will into the ionosphere and the reflection
provide strong support for the assump- height increases.
tion that the characteristic waves travel
300
11:00 UTC independent paths through the iono-
250 300
sphere with little crosstalk, and that they
Height (km) "

20:30 UTC
200 250

Height (km) "

can be used effectively in NVIS diversity
150 200
and MIMO. Therefore, we propose the
100 150
following experiment. A beacon trans- Happy Hour
50 100
mitter is connected to a linearly polar-
0 50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 ized NVIS antenna and the transmit fre- 0
Distance (km) " quency is chosen so that stable NVIS 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
layer propagation is present during a Distance (km) "
Figure 6. At 11:00 UTC, the reflection major part of the day. The transmit fre-
height is lowered due to the increased quency is chosen so that stable NVIS Figure 9. At 20:30 UTC, the electron
electron density of the ionosphere. layer propagation is present during a density of the ionosphere has decreased
major part of the day. A receive station so much that the ordinary wave is no
longer reflected, but the extraordinary
located approximately 100 km away con-
300 wave is still supported and the
15:00 UTC tinuously measures the signal strength of
250 downward wave has circular polarization.
Height (km) "

200 the RHCP and the LHCP compo- This is the evening Happy Hour.
150 nents of the incoming wave. The ratio
100 between the LHCP and RHCP signal
50 strength is calculated and plotted against 300
Height (km) "

0 time. For this experiment, a measure-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance (km) "
Figure 7. The propagation of both
waves continues at 15:00 UTC.
has decreased so much that the extraor-
dinary wave also passes through the iono-
sphere (Figure 10). This situation remains
until the solar radiation builds up ioniza-
tion again the next morning.
We identified two exceptional in-
tervals (Figures 4 and 9) nicknamed
Happy Hours, in which only the
extraordinary wave propagates and
RHCP is received. This phenomenon
was predicted (but not observed) in
[14] and experimentally confirmed in
[15]. At sunrise, the ionization shows a
steep gradient, and consequently, the
21:30 UTC
250
ment system is realized using commer- 200
150
cially off-the-shelf equipment, complet-
100
ed with a few components specially 50
designed for this experiment. An over- 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
view of the system components and their
Distance (km) "
interconnections is shown as a block dia-
gram in Figure 11.
Figure 10. At 21:30 UTC, the ionization
of the ionosphere has decreased so
Beacon Transmitter much that none of the characteristic
A software-defined radio transmitter- waves are reflected.
type Flex-Radio FLEX-6500 is used, fol-
lowed by a Trans World Electronics
quency (RF) output power of 300 W.
T1000 linear amplifier with a radio fre-
The measured transmitter frequency
stability is better than
0.1 Hz/24 h, and the mea-
sured output power stability is
better than 0.1 dB/24 h. The
The high frequency and time Weak Signal Propagation
accuracy allow for precise Reporter (WSPR) protocol
filtering at the receiver. [16] is used to transmit the

122 june 2015 IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine

station identification and geographical
coordinates using 1.5-baud four-fre-
quency shift keying, with a necessary
bandwidth of 6Hz. The WSPR protocol
has a 2-min periodicity, consisting of
110.6-s transmissions followed by a 9.4-s
silence, synchronized to a standard time
server accessed over the Internet using
Dimension 4 software [17]. The high
frequency and time accuracy allow for
precise filtering at the receiver. A half-
wave dipole antenna is used as a transmit
antenna. It is suspended horizontally at a
height of approximately 4 m (0.09 m)
above farmland soil. The antenna pro-
duces linear polarization with a broad
main lobe toward the zenith. For high
angles, the radiation pattern is omnidi-
rectional. For low angles, the antenna
radiates lengthwise with vertical polar-
ization. Therefore, to minimize ground
wave coupling, it is oriented perpendicu-
lar to the direction of the receiver.
Turnstile Antenna
A turnstile antenna [18] was selected to
measure the field strength of both char-
acteristic waves. This antenna consists of
two quadrature-fed perpendicular half-
wave dipole antennas and exhibits circu-
lar polarization for the steep elevation
angles used in NVIS propagation. The
polarization sense can be reversed by
changing the phase difference of the
dipoles from +90 to -90. On frequen-
cies between 3 and 10 MHz, this turn-
stile antenna can be realized as wire
dipole elements suspended in an invert-
ed vee configuration from a single
extendable mast, as shown in Figures 12
and 13. The copolar and cross-polar
antenna diagrams shown in Figures 14
and 15 are calculated using NEC-4.2
method-of-moments antenna simulation
software [19]. The Sommerfeld ground
model [20] is used to obtain realistic
results near real ground. The model was
created and analyzed with 4Nec2 [21].
Farmland soil was used in the calcula-
tions. Practical realization of the antenna
can be observed in Figure 16.
Balance Transformers
and Feed Lines
Both dipole antennas are fed through 1:1
balance-unbalance transformers (baluns),
IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine
NVIS
Propagation
LHCP
RHCP
Turnstile
Antenna
Phasing
PA BPF
+/-90
SDR TX
Lab RX
View
Internet
PC WSPR Dimension 4 Time Dimension 4
PC
Server
Figure 11. A block diagram of the experimental measurement system.
A (left) beacon transmitter is connected to a linearly polarized NVIS antenna. A
(right) receive stationlocated approximately 100 km from the transmitter
continuously measures the signal strength of the RHCP and the LHCP components
of the incoming wave. SDR: software-defined radio; Tx: transmitter; PA: power
amplifier; BPF: bandpass filter; Rx: receiver; PC: personal computer.
type Diamond BU-50. As any difference
in phase delay or attenuation of these bal-
uns would degrade quadrature, five bal-
uns are measured pairwise. Individual
phase delays vary from 5.9 to 7.0. A
matched pair is selected with an attenua-
tion difference smaller than 0.05dB and a
phase difference smaller than 0.1. The
baluns are connected through identical Figure 12. The turnstile antenna
lengths (50 m) of EcoFlex 10 doubly made of two quadrature-fed half-
shielded coaxial cable. Both cables are wave dipole antennas suspended in
taped on opposite sides of the antenna an inverted vee configuration from a
support (mast), and ferrite clamps are single extendable mast.
added every meter to suppress common-
mode current that would otherwise influ-
ence the antenna radiation diagram. The
horizontal part of the feed lines is buried 10.05 m
approximately 70cm below the ground to
7.5 m
avoid coupling with the antenna. The
electrical length of both feed lines is mea- 2.5 m
sured and the difference in phase delay is
less 0.16. From these measurements, the Figure 13. The dimensions of the
overall difference of cable and baluns is dipole elements of the turnstile
expected to be lower than 0.1 dB and 0.5. antenna (wire radius: 1 mm).
june 2015 123
 75 90 75
60 60
0 dBr
45 Copolar
45

30 -10 dBr
30

15 Cross Polar -20 dBr 15

0 -30 dBr 0
0 dBr = 5.5 dBi (CP)

Figure 14. The vertical antenna diagram showing copolar

(red) and cross-polar (blue) circular polarization antenna
gain of the turnstile antenna, simulated using NEC-4.2
method-of-moments software. Farmland soil was used in
the calculations.
Figure 16. The turnstile antenna installed at the measurement
location. The farmhouse shown in the picture is approximately
50 and 80 m from the antenna. Other buildings are >800 m from
the antenna.

Phasing Network phasing network is shown in Figure 17.

surement system depends on the cross
The quadrature feed for the turnstile The practical realization mounted in apolarization of the measurement anten-
antenna is realized using switched coaxi- transportation box is shown in Figure18.
na. To evaluate the influence of the
al delay lines. The feed lines coming The phase and amplitude difference of quadrature error on the cross polariza-
from the perpendicular dipoles are con- the completed phasing unit was mea- tion of the turnstile antenna, the NEC-
nected to a phasing box, in which one sured using an Agilent E5062A network 4.2 antenna model from the Turnstile
cable is lengthened with a quarter wave analyzer and was carefully aligned. The
Antenna section is used. In the model,
phasing line to provide 90 phase shift. total quadrature error of the phasing the dipole elements are kept perfectly
The other feed line is lengthened by a unit is <0.1 and <0.05 dB. This makesidentical and perpendicular on perfectly
half-wave phasing line that can be the overall quadrature error in the turn-
flat ground, but quadrature errors are
bypassed using coaxial relays. Depend- stile antenna <0.6 and <0.15 dB. introduced to produce cross-polarization
ing on the position of these relays, the levels of -20, -25, and -30 dB at an ele-
phase difference between the dipoles Antenna Cross Polarization vation angle of 80. These quadrature
antennas is now either 90 or -90. The The maximum characteristic wave isola- errors are plotted in the graph of Fig-
phasing lines are connected to an RF tion that can be measured with our mea- ure 19 and ellipses are drawn through
combiner (Merrimac PDNL- these points to delimit the
20 -100). The RF combiner has 0 areas in which a certain cross
a measured phase error of 330 polarization is achieved.
0 dBr 30
<0.03 and an attenuation A quadrature error of 0.6
Copolar
error of <0.04 dB. The coaxial -10 dBr and 0.15 dB will result in a
relays are Tohtsu CX-600M, 300 60 cross polarization of approxi-
with a measured insertion loss mately -32 dB. However, the
-20 dBr
of 0.01 dB and an isolation real cross-polarization value
greater than 80 dB. The phas- Cross Polar will also depend on the physi-
ing lines are made of Belden 270 -30 dBr 90 cal symmetry of the antenna
H-155 doubly shielded coaxial wires and the homogeneity of
cable. Their insertion losses the ground below them. For
are 0.25 and 0.5 dB, respec- example, adding a random
tively. To compensate for this, 240 120 height error between 0 and
attenuators of 0.25 and 0.5 dB 30cm to the end height of the
are inserted as indicated in the four dipole legs, while keeping
210 150
diagram. Two 6-dB attenuators the leg length constant, will
are inserted between the 180 0 dBr = 5.0 dBi (CP) degrade the cross polarization
antenna feeder line and the to values between -25 and -29
phasing unit to make the phase Figure 15. The horizontal antenna diagram at 70 dB. Some specific combina-
elevation showing copolar (red) and cross-polar (blue)
shift less dependent on the circular polarization antenna gain of the turnstile antenna, tions that cause worse degra-
source impedance of the simulated using NEC-4.2 method-of-moments software. dation can also be found. This
dipoles. A block diagram of the Farmland soil was used in the calculations. must be kept in mind when

124 june 2015 IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine

installing the measurement antenna sys-
tem and when interpreting the measure-
ment results.
Measurement Receiver
The HF radio environment puts high
demands on measurement receiver
performance. A 24-h registration
shows that the maximum total power
at the antenna terminals of a dipole
antenna is -40dBm, due to the accu-
mulated power of high-power short-
wave broadcast stations. At the same
time, the minimum discernible signal
power is -135 dBm. Therefore, the
intermodulation free dynamic range
of the receiver must exceed 95 dB.
For our experiment, a Rohde and
Schwarz FSMR26 measurement
receiver was selected. This receiver
provides a combined measurement
uncertainty of 0.3 dB for 95% confi-
dence on 7 MHz, with a 100-Hz
receiver bandwidth and a root-mean-
square detector. The specified -1 dB
input compression point of the receiv-
er is +13 dBm, the third-order input
intercept point (IIP3) is +17 dBm,
and the second-order input intercept
point is +35 dBm.
We measured an IIP3 of
+18 dBm at 7 MHz for a 200-
kHz spacing and a displayed
average noise level (DANL)
of -135 dBm. The maximum
allowed input power Pmax for
which the third-order inter-
modulation products remain
beneath the receiver noise
floor can be calculated as
Pmax =IIP3 - ^IIP3 -DANL h /3
^
=18 dBm - 18 dBm +135 dBm /3
 =-33 dBm.
1 dB
! Amplitude Error "
This leaves only 7 dB of headroom;
therefore, a 7-MHz bandpass filter is
added at the receiver input. This reduc-
es the maximum total input power to
-20 dBm and increases the headroom
to 13 dB. Filter passband attenuation is
only 0.23dB. A 100-Hz receiver band-
Both data acquisition
and polarization sense
are controlled by a laptop
computer using LabView
software.
width is chosen for the measurements.
This is sufficiently large to ensure fast
h settling of the detector and selective
(1) enough to reduce the probability of
cochannel interference. Measurements
using LHCP and RHCP are alternated
every 5 s. Both data acquisition and

{0 + 90 -20 dB
polarization sense are controlled by a
0.5 dB -25 dB
-6 dB -0.25 dB
-30 dB laptop computer using LabView soft-
0 dB ware. Time synchronization between
{0
-0.5 dB R transmitter and receiver is achieved by
-0.5 dB
-6 dB synchronizing both to the same stan-
-1 dB dard time server, which is accessed over
-10 -5 0 5 10
{0 + 180 ! Phase Error " the internet with Dimension 4 [17] soft-
ware. The synchronization error is
Figure 19. The simulated cross lower than 0.05 s.
Figure 17. A block diagram of the polarization of the turnstile antenna as
phasing network for the turnstile a function of the amplitude and phase Measurement Results
antenna using coaxial phasing lines error of the phasing unit, assuming
perfectly identical dipoles. The Using the system described in the pre-
to produce either -90 or +90 phase
elevation angle is 80. vious section, dual circular polarization
difference. The attenuation of the
phasing lines is compensated with small
attenuators (0.25 and 0.5 dB).
7.042
60
7.041
50
Frequency (MHz) "

7.04
40
7.039
30
7.038
20
7.037 10
7.036 Beacon
0
7.035 -10
16:00 16:10 16:20 16:30 16:40 16:50
Time (UTC) "

Figure 18. The practical realization of Figure 20. The spectrogram showing the strong and cyclic signal of the beacon
the phasing network for the turnstile transmitter and other radio signals on adjacent frequencies. The color scale is received
antenna. signal strength in decibel microvolts. The measurement was taken on 9 March 2014.

IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine june 2015 125

 measurements were performed from
Signal Strength
60 Saturday, Extraordinary (R) Saturday 8 March 2014 14:51 UTC to
(dBuV) " 8 March 2014 Tuesday 11 March 2014 at 00:00 UTC.
40 Ordinary (L) The beacon transmitter was located
20 53.18058 north and 6.29503 east.
0 The measurement system was located
40 52.26153 north and 6.62175 east.
30 25 dB Both locations are in rural areas in The
RH/LHCP
(dB) "

20 Isolation (L/R) Netherlands. The path length was

10 104.5km, and the azimuthal direction
0 was 188. As shown in [7], this distance
-10 is sufficient for the NVIS signal to
00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 00:00
Time (UTC) " dominate the ground wave. At the
time of the measurements, the SSN
Figure 21. The start of the measurements on Saturday, 8 March 2014 at 14:51 UTC. was 65. Ionization was sufficiently high
The signal strength of the extraordinary wave is shown in green, and the ordinary to use a frequency near 7 MHz to
wave is shown in red. The ratio of the two is shown in blue. Daylight ends at 16:28 obtain stable NVIS propagation for a
UTC. NVIS propagation ends around 20:35 UTC. The evening Happy Hour shows large part of the day. This frequency
approximately 25-dB wave isolation.
was also high enough to ensure E-layer
transparency. The expected elevation
angle, obtained by simulations, varies
Signal Strength

60 Sunday, Extraordinary (R) between 75 and 80 during daytime

9 March 2014
(dBuV) "

40 Ordinary (L) propagation and between 79 and 86

when the propagation path opens or
20
closes. The ionosondes located at
0
Dourbes (50.1 north, 4.6 east),
40 Juliusruh (54.6 north, 13.4 east), and
30 25 dB Chilton (51.5 north, -1.3 east) were
RH/LHCP
(dB) "

20 Isolation (L/R) monitored for sporadic E-layer patch-

10
es that could disturb the measure-
0
ments, however, none were observed.
-10
00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 00:00
Time (UTC) " Signal Identification
and SNR
Figure 22. The continuation of the measurements on Sunday, 9 March 2014. During the 57-h measurement interval,
Daylight is from 06:02 to 16:28 UTC. NVIS propagation starts around 06:03 UTC a spectrogram (frequencytime graph or
and ends around 20:25 UTC. Both Happy Hours show approximately 25-dB wave
isolation. The short signal loss at 02:30 UTC due to beacon failure shows that the waterfall diagram) was recorded every
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is >20 dB at night. 2.5s, alternating on both antenna polar-
izations. In this spectrogram, the beacon
signal is easily identified, first by its
transmit frequency and second by its
Signal Strength

60 Monday, Extraordinary (R)

10 March 2014 precisely defined onoff pattern, as can
(dBuV) "

40 Ordinary (L) be observed in Figure 20. The off peri-

20 ods are used to verify the absence of on-
0 channel interference. Fortunately, no
40
data had to be discarded because of
30 25 dB interference and the beacon signal was
RH/LHCP

sufficiently strong and the frequency was

(dB) "

20 Isolation (L/R)
10 clear. The off periods in the beacon
0 signal were also used to estimate the
-10 instantaneous SNR, which was greater
00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 00:00
Time (UTC) " than 65 dB during daylight hours. At
night, with no apparent NVIS propaga-
Figure 23. The continuation of the measurements on Monday, 10 March 2014. Daylight tion, the SNR was still greater than
is from 06:02 to 16:28 UTC. NVIS propagation starts around 06:10 UTC and ends around 20dB. The latter can be observed on 9
21:40 UTC. Both Happy Hours show approximately 25-dB wave isolation. March 2014 at 02:30h UTC (Figure 22),

126 june 2015 IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine

when the beacon transmitter has a short
failure due to human error.
Dual Circular Polarization
Measurements
The beacon frequency was filtered
from the spectrogram data and the
remaining data were time gated to
retain only the samples in which the
beacon transmitter was switched on.
The signal strength of the beacon for
both LHCP and RHCP reception is
plotted in Figures 2123. For ease of
interpretation, the 57-h continuous
measurement is presented in 24-h
intervals. Signal strength of the extraor-
Morning Happy Hour Observations
The measurements during the morning
Happy Hour of 9 and 10 March 2014
are shown in Figures 24 and 25. Again,
the lighter colored pixels represent the
individual measurement samples
recorded every 5 s; the solid lines show
a 2.5-min floating average. The morn-
ing intervals consistently started a few
minutes after sunrise with a sudden
increase of the received signal strength
of the extraordinary wave. The signal
strength is increased by 35 dB in a
60
Signal (dBuV) "
10-min interval, just as the propagation
channel switches on. After that
moment, the received polarization is
nearly perfectly RHCP. The rise of the
signal strength caused by the ordinary
wave started later and was more gradu-
al than that of the extraordinary wave.
In the interval where the extraordinary
wave propagated and the ordinary wave
did not, a characteristic wave isolation
of 25 dB was measured. The onset of
the propagation before the Happy
Hour interval was gradual; a slight
Extraordinary (R)

dinary wave (RHCP) is shown in green

and that of the ordinary wave (LHCP) 40
is shown in red. The lighter colored pix- Ordinary (L)
els are the individual measurement
20
samples recorded every 5 s; the solid
lines show a 2.5-min floating average.
Daylight on 9 March 2014 was from
30 25 dB
RH/LHCP (dB) "

06:02 to 16:28 UTC at path midpoint

(52.72 north, 6.46 east). NVIS propa- 20
Isolation (L/R)
gation started every morning around 10
sunrise at approximately 06:10 UTC
and ended between 20:00 and 22:00 0
Sunday, 9 March 2014
UTC, several hours after sunset, with a -10
large day-to-day variation. A blue trace 05:00 05:15 05:30 05:45 06:00 06:15 06:30 06:45
Time (UTC) "
is added below the measured signal
strength curves, showing the ratio of
Figure 24. The signal strength of the ordinary (red) and extraordinary waves
the signal strength of the ordinary and (green) and their ratio (blue), measured during the morning Happy Hour of
extraordinary waves. The morning and Sunday, 9 March 2014. The peaks in the blue trace show the characteristic wave
evening Happy Hour can be clearly isolation during Happy Hour.
seen. The morning Happy Hour is
shorter than the evening Happy Hour,
as predicted in the section Character- 60
Extraordinary (R)
Signal (dBuV) "

istic Waves in NVIS Propagation.

40
Ordinary (L)
Analysis and Discussion
Figures 2123 prove the existence of a 20
morning and evening Happy Hour inter-
val in which only RHCP waves are
received, consistent with preliminary 30 25 dB
RH/LHCP (dB) "

measurements in 2009 [15]. Since the

previous measurements were made near 20
Isolation (L/R)
the sunspot cycle minimum and these 10
extended measurements were made
0
near the sunspot cycle maximum, inde- Monday, 10 March 2014
pendence of the position in the sunspot -10
05:30 05:45 06:00 06:15 06:30 06:45
cycle is demonstrated. In all five Happy Time (UTC) "
Hour intervals, instantaneous RHCP/
LHCP ratios of up to 35 dB are Figure 25. The signal strength of the ordinary (red) and extraordinary waves
observed, as well as a 2.5-min average of (green) and their ratio (blue), measured during the morning Happy Hour of
approximately 25 dB. Monday, 10 March 2014.

IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine june 2015 127

 Interpretation of Measured
60
Extraordinary (R)
Characteristic Wave Isolation
Signal (dBuV) " The measured characteristic wave isola-
50
tion values were consistently around
40 25dB. This is 12 dB greater than the iso-
Ordinary (L)
30 lation measured during earlier experi-
20
ments [15], which is attributed to the
significantly improved quadrature feed-
30 25 dB ing network and antenna symmetry. The
RH/LHCP (dB) "

true characteristic wave isolation is possi-

20
10
0
Saturday, 8 March 2014
-10
19:00 19:15
Figure 26. The signal strength of the ordinary (red) and extraordinary waves
(green) and their ratio (blue), measured during the evening Happy Hour of
Saturday, 8 March 2014.
increase in the signal strength of the
extraordinary wave began 14 h before
the Happy Hour interval started.
Therefore, the baseline value for these
ratio values was calculated over a longer
time interval.
Evening Happy Hour Observations
The measurements during the evening
Happy Hour intervals of 810 March
2014, which occurred several hours after
sunset, are shown in Figures 2628. The
NVIS propagation of the ordinary wave
started to decay between 1 and 2h earli-
60
Signal (dBuV) "
Isolation (L/R)
19:30 19:45 20:00 20:15 20:30 02:45 21:00
Time (UTC) "
er (8 March and 10 March, respectively)
than the NVIS propagation of the
extraordinary wave. During the Happy
Hour interval, RHCP waves were
received at the measurement site. The
extraordinary wave exhibited a stable sig-
nal level up to the end of the NVIS
propagation period, after which the sig-
nal strength dropped abruptly. The eve-
ning Happy Hour had a longer duration
than the morning Happy Hour and its
onset and duration showed a larger day-
by-day variation. The measured charac-
teristic wave isolation was 25 dB.
Extraordinary (R)
bly still higher. In Figure 29, showing the
morning Happy Hour of 10March 2014,
we see the steep rise of the extraordinary
wave signal (green) and the smoother as-
cend of the ordinary wave signal (red).
The expected slope of the red trace is
added as a dashed black line. We see an
abrupt step in the red trace when the
green trace rises. This indicates a leak-
age from the RHCP channel to the
LHCP channel in the measurement sys-
tem, rather than an ionospheric phe-
nomenon. There are three possible
interpretations.
1) The cross polarization of the mea-
surement antenna is not limiting the
measurement and the characteristic
wave isolation is exactly 25 dB.
2) The cross polarization of the mea-
surement antenna limits the mea-
surement range to 25 dB, and the
characteristic wave isolation is great-
er than 25 dB.
3) The characteristic waves are slightly
elliptically polarized, with a charac-
teristic wave isolation greater than
25 dB. The cross polarization of the
measurement antenna is greater than

50
25 dB for perfectly circular polariza-
tion, however, the cross polarization
40 is lower for the incoming waves that
Ordinary (L)
30 are elliptical.
20
The measurements performed here are
not conclusive on this issue. Exclusion of
30 25 dB option 1) is only possible by in situ mea-
RH/LHCP (dB) "

surement of the cross polarization of the

20 measurement antenna. However, due to
Isolation (L/R)
10 the abrupt step observed in the ordinary
wave signal, authors favor interpretation
0
2) or 3). To differentiate between these
Sunday, 9 March 2014
-10 two, absolute polarization measurements
19:00 19:15 19:30 19:45 20:00 20:15 20:30 02:45 21:00
Time (UTC) " are necessary. This could be achieved by
simultaneously measuring both ampli-
tudes and the phase difference on both
Figure 27. The signal strength of the ordinary (red) and extraordinary waves
(green) and their ratio (blue), measured during the evening Happy Hour of ports of the turnstile antenna using a
Sunday, 9 March 2014. synchronous dual channel measurement

128 june 2015 IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine

receiver. If the incoming waves are
slightly elliptical, orthogonality can be 60 Extraordinary (R)

Signal (dBuV) "

restored by adapting phase and ampli- 50
tude in the receiver [22].
40
Ordinary (L)
Nighttime Propagation 30
Observations 20
After the NVIS propagation path
closed, a clearly discernable beacon sig- 30 25 dB

RH/LHCP (dB) "

nal remained. This beacon signal had
20
the typical flutter fading normally asso- Isolation (L/R)
ciated with ionospheric reflection or 10
scattering. The character of this signal
0
was unlike the ground wave, which is Monday, 10 March 2014
more stable. Although the beacon sig- -10
20:00 20:30 21:00 21:30 22:00 22:30
nal was 45 dB lower than during day- Time (UTC) "
time, the SNR was still more than 20
dB. This can be observed in Figure22; Figure 28. The signal strength of the ordinary (red) and extraordinary waves
at 02:30 UTC, the beacon transmitter (green) and their ratio (blue), measured during the evening Happy Hour of
Monday, 10 March 2014.
had a short failure and the recorded sig-
nal strength decreased approximately
20 dB. Previous researchers assumed 60
Extraordinary (R)
that the residual propagation at night is
either due to scattering on irregular 50
Signal Strength (dBuV) "

patches of higher ionization in the iono- Ordinary (L)

sphere [23] or due to side scatter on the
ground at a large distance [24]. No
means were available during this exper-
iment to measure azimuth and eleva-
tion angle or absolute polarization,
therefore, no further analysis could be
made of this phenomenon. If the night
time propagation is due to a scattering
mechanism, dual circular polarization
diversity will probably not be effective
at night, as the polarization will proba-
bly be lost in the process.
Conclusions
The measured isolation between the
ordinary and extraordinary waves in
NVIS propagation exceeds 25 dB. The
measurements were performed using a
dual circularly polarized measurement
antenna. Observations suggest that high-
er isolation can be achieved by further
adapting the antenna to the polarization
of the incoming waves that may be
slightly elliptical. Two highly isolated
paths can be created on the same fre-
quency using dual circularly polarized
antennas on both transmit and receive
sides of the link, effectively doubling the
data transfer capacity of the link. Alter-
natively, without modification on the
transmit side, a dual circular receive
Antenna
40 Characteristic
Cross
Polarization? Wave
Isolation?
30
20
10
05:30 06:00 06:30 07:00 07:30
Time (UTC) "
Figure 29. The measurement during the morning Happy Hour of 10 March 2014
shows an abrupt step in the ordinary wave signal, possibly indicating insufficient
antenna cross polarization.
antenna can be used to implement an in Ambt Delden for the measure-
effective receive diversity system to fight ments, J. Mielich of the Leibniz Insti-
fading in NVIS links [9]. The measure- tute of Atmospheric Physics Khlungs-
ments were done at midlatitudes in the born for providing verified ionosonde
Northern Hemisphere (53 north, 6 data, and G. Visser of the Radiocom-
east), and the results may depend on the munications Agency Netherlands for
latitude chosen. The measurements assistance with accurate phase delay
made use of Happy Hour phenomenon: measurements and technical discus-
when the NVIS propagation path first sions. We also thank the Radiocommu-
opened up or nearly closes, only the nications Agency Netherlands for the
extraordinary wave propagates and the use of their Rohde and Schwarz
ordinary wave passes through the iono- FSMR26 measurement receiver.
sphere or is absorbed.
Author Information
Acknowledgments Ben A. Witvliet (b.a.witvliet@utwente.
We would like to thank Mr. and Mrs. nl) received his B.Sc. degree in electron-
Overbeek for the use of their property ics and telecommunications in 1988

IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine june 2015 129

 from the Hogeschool voor Techniek en
Gezondheidszorg in Enschede, The
Netherlands. He has working experience
in electrical and electronic maintenance
in Israel, in international telecommuni-
cation network management in The
Netherlands, as a chief engineer of the
high-power shortwave radio station of
Radio Netherlands World Service in
Madagascar, and as a manager of a team
of technical specialists for TV, FM, and
The measured isolation
between the ordinary and
extraordinary waves in NVIS
propagation exceeds 25 dB.
AM broadcast transmitter operator
NOZEMA in The Netherlands. Since
1997, he has been working for Radio-
communications Agency Netherlands,
currently as a technical advisor. Since
2011, he has been combining his work
with part-time Ph.D. research in the
Telecommunication Engineering group
of the University of Twente, The Neth-
erlands. He is a Senior Member of the
IEEE, a member of the IEEE Antennas
and Propagation Society, and a member
of the European Association on Anten-
nas and Propagation.
Erik van Maanen (erik.vmaanen@
agentschaptelecom.nl) worked for Delft
University of Technology, The Nether-
lands, for five years and has been with
the Radiocommunications Agency
Netherlands since 1993, currently as a
technical advisor. His areas of expertise
are short-range devices, antenna tech-
nology, digital signal processing, mea-
surements, instrument control, and
simulation and scenario tools. He was a
contributor and chapter coordinator of
the Spectrum Monitoring Handbook
from 1995 to 2005 of the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) and
authored ITU-R recommendations on
helicopter antenna measurements and
radio noise measurements. He partici-
pates in several international working
parties on radio equipment standardiza-
tion and frequency management.
130
George J. Petersen (george.petersen
@agentschaptelecom.nl) studied telecom-
munications at the Royal Military Acade-
my (1989). He received his M.Sc. degree
in business management from Radboud
University in 2004. He worked at several
positions in the Ministry of Defense. Since
1998, he has been working for the Radio-
communications Agency Netherlands, cur-
rently as a public safety specialist.
Albert J. Westenberg (westberg@
xs4all.nl) served in the Dutch
Navy for 21 months. He
worked as development engi-
neer in a laboratory of the
Ministry of Defense for almost
eight years. In 1978, he started
working for the Radiocommu-
nications Agency Netherlands.
Until his retirement in 2005,
he was involved in maritime
regulations, including equipment type
approval, frequency planning, and inter-
national coordination.
Mark J. Bentum (m.j.bentum@ut-
wente.nl) received his M.Sc. degree in
electrical engineering (with honors) in
1991 and his Ph.D. degree in 1995, both
from the University of Twente, En-
schede, The Netherlands. From De-
cember 1995 to June 1996, he was a
research assistant at the University of
Twente. In June 1996, he joined The
Netherlands Foundation for Research
in Astronomy (ASTRON). In 2008, he
became an associate professor in the
Telecommunication Engineering Group
at the University of Twente. He is now
involved with research and education in
mobile radio communications. His cur-
rent research interests are short-range
radio communications, novel receiver
technologies in the field of radio astron-
omy, channel modeling, interference
mitigation, sensor networks, and aero-
space. He is a Senior Member of the
IEEE, chair of the Dutch URSI com-
mittee, initiator and chair of the IEEE
Benelux AES/GRSS Chapter, board
member of the Dutch Electronics and
Radio Society NERG, board member of
the Dutch Royal Institute of Engineers
KIVI NIRIA, member of the Dutch
Pattern Recognition Society, and has
acted as a reviewer for various confer-
ences and journals. Since December
june 2015
2013, he has also been the program di-
rector of electrical engineering at the
University of Twente.
Cornelis H. Slump (c.h.slump@
utwente.nl) received his M.Sc. degree in
electrical engineering from Delft Uni-
versity of Technology, The Netherlands,
in 1979 and his Ph.D. degree in physics
from the University of Groningen, The
Netherlands, in 1984. From 1983 to
1989, he was with Philips Medical Sys-
tems in Best, The Netherlands, as the
head of a predevelopment group on
X-ray image quality and cardiovascular
image processing. In 1989, he joined the
Department of Electrical Engineering
from the University of Twente,
Enschede, The Netherlands. In June
1999, he was appointed as a full profes-
sor in signal processing. His main
research interest is in detection and esti-
mation, interference reduction, pattern
analysis, and image analysis as a part of
medical imaging. He is a Member of the
IEEE and of SPIE.
Roel Schiphorst (schiphorst@
gmail.com) received his M.Sc. degree
(with honors) in electrical engineering
in 2000 and his Ph.D. degree in 2004
from the University of Twente, The
Netherlands. From 2004 to 2014, he
was a senior researcher of the chair Sig-
nals and Systems. He is the author or
coauthor of over 70 papers, published
in technical journals or presented at
international symposia. His research
interests include coexistence studies in
wireless applications and digital signal
processing in wireless communication
(physical layer). He is a Member of the
IEEE, COST-TERRA, Network of
Excellence ICT ACROPOLIS, and CR-
platform NL. Since 2013, he has been
with BlueMark Innovations, a technolo-
gy firm that specializes in detecting and
locating smartphones.
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IEEE Antennas & Propagation Magazine
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