DOT PRODUCT and CROSS PRODUCT

Definition. We define the dot product of two vectors v = ai + bj and w = ci +

dj to be

v . w = ac + bd

Notice that the dot product of two vectors is a scalar and not a vector. For 3
dimensional vectors, we define the dot product similarly:

If v = ai + bj + ck and w = di + ej + fk then

v . w = ad + be + cf

Example: If v = 2i + 4j and w = i + 5j then

v . w = (2)(1) + (4)(5) = 22

Definition. Let u = ai + bj + ck and v = di + ej + fk be vectors then we define

the cross product u x v by the determinant of the matrix:

We can compute this determinant as

= (bf - ce) i + (cd - af) j + (ae - bd) k

Example.

Find the cross product u x v if u = 2i + j - 3k and v = 4j + 5k

Solution

= 17i - 10j + 8k
 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

Definition 1. Let A be an nn matrix. The real number is called the

eigenvalue of A if there exists a non-zero vector X called the eigenvector

such that A x = X.
Eigenvalue, or characteristic-value, problems are a special class of
problems that are common in engineering and scientific problem contexts
involving vibrations and elasticity. In addition, they are used in a wide
variety of other areas including the solution of linear differential
equations and statistics.
Eigenvalue problems associated with engineering are typically of
the general form:

a11 x1 a12 x2 a1n xn 0

a21 x1 a22 x2 a 2 n xn 0

an1 x1 a n 2 x2 ann xn 0 where is

an unknown
parameter called eigenvalue, or characteristic-value. A solution {x} for
such a system is referred to as the eigenvector. The above set of equations
may also be expressed concisely as:
[ A] [ I ] x 0
The solution of this equation concentrates on determining . One way to
accomplish this is based on the fact that the determinant of the matrix
A I must equal zero for nontrivial solutions to be possible.
Expanding the determinant yields a polynomial in , which is called the
characteristic polynomial. The roots of this polynomial are the solutions
for the eigenvalues.
Physical Background

The mass spring system in Figure 1 is a simple context to illustrate how

eigenvalues occur in physical problem settings. It will also help illustrate
some of the mathematical concepts introduced earlier.

Figure 1. Positioning the masses away from equilibrium creates forces in

the springs that on release lead to oscillations of the masses. The
positions of the masses can be referenced to local coordinates with
origins at their respective equilibrium positions.

To simplify the analysis, assume that each mass has no external or

damping forces acting on it. In addition, assume that each spring has the
same natural length l and the same spring constant k. Finally, assume that
the displacement of each spring is measured relative to its own local
coordinate system with an origin at the springs equilibrium position.
Under these assumptions, Newtons Second Law can be employed to
develop a force balance for each mass:

d 2 x1
m1 kx1 k x2 x1
dt 2 (5)
and
d 2 x2
m2 k x2 x1 kx2
dt 2 (6)

Where xi is the displacement of mass i away from its equilibrium

position. By collecting terms, these equations can be expressed as

d 2 x1
m1 k 2 x1 x2 0
dt 2 (7a)
d 2 x2
m2 k x1 2 x2 0
dt 2 (7b)
From the vibration theory, it is known that the solutions to Equation (7)
can take the form
xi X i sin t
where
X i amplitude of the vibration of the mass i
frequency of the vibration, which is equal to (8)

Tp
where
T p period of vibration (9)

From Equation 8, it follows that

xi ' ' X i 2 sin t (10)

Equations (8) and (10) can be substituted to Equation (7)

2k k
2 X 1 X2 0
m1 m1
k 2k
X 1 2 X 2 0
m1 m2 (11)

Comparison of Equation (11) and Equation (5) and (6) indicates that at
this point, the solution has been reduced to an eigenvalue problem. That
is, we can determine values of the eigenvalue, 2 that satisfy the
equations. For a two-degree of freedom system such as in Figure 1, there
is will be two such values. Each of these eigenvalues establishes a unique
relationship between the unknowns X called an eigenvector.
Example.
1 4 1 4 3
A 0 2 1 x1 1 and x2 2
Given, 0 0 3 , are 0 2 eigenvectors of A?

If yes, what are the eigenvalues?

1 4 1 4 4
Ax1 x1 0 2 1 1 1
0 0 3 0 0

8 4
Ax1 2 1
?

0 0

4
x1 1
= 2 is an eigenvalue of A with 0 as its eigenvector.

1 4 1 3 3
Ax2 x2 0 2 1 2 2
0 0 3 2 2

9 3
Ax2 6 2
?

6 2

3
x2 2
= 3 is an eigenvalue of A with 2 as its eigenvector.
 1 1
A
Example. Given, 2 4 , find all the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors.
1 1 x1 x1
2 4 x x
2 2
x1 + x2 = x1
-2x1 + 4x2 = x2

Rearranging the terms, we get:

x1 - x1 + x2 = 0
-2x1 + 4x2 - x2 = 0

Combining similar terms, we get:

(1-)x1 + x2 = 0
-2x1 + (4- )x2 = 0

Then, we solve for a non-zero solution.

1 1 x1 0

2
4 x2 0

For a non-trivial solution, |A| = 0.

1 1
0
2 4
Evaluating the determinant, we get:
(1 - )(4 - ) + 2 = 0
2 - 5 + 6 = 0 characteristic equation

Solving for the roots,

( - 3)( - 2) = 0

Therefore,
1 = 2 and 2 = 3 are the eigenvalues of A.

We then substitute each in the X.

For 1 = 2,
1 2 1 x1 ' 0
2
4 2 x2 ' 0
1 1 x1 ' 0
2 2 x ' 0
2
1 1 0 1 1 0

2 2 0 2 R1 R2 0 0 0
Since we have a row of zeroes, we have a non-unique solution.
x1 ' x2 ' / 0
1
x
Say x1 = x2 = 1, we have 1 as the eigenvector associated
with = 2.
For 2 = 3,
1 3 1 x1 ' ' 0

2
4 3 x2 ' ' 0
2 1 x1 ' ' 0
2 1 x ' ' 0
2
2 1 0 2 1 0 ( 1 / 2 ) R1 1 1 2 0

R R
2 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Since we have a row of zeroes, we have a non-unique solution.
x1 ' ' 1 2 x2 ' ' / 0
1
x
Say x2 = 2, we have 2 as the eigenvector associated with
= 3.

General Procedure:

Given A(nxn); n eigenvalues with associated eigenvalues.

AX X
AX X 0
A I X 0
Characteristic Equation : A I 0
n Eigenvalues roots of the characteristic equation
for each eigenvalue i , solve for an eigenvector xi nx1
Example.

1 2 1
1 0 1

Solve for the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of 4 4 5 .

Answer: = 1, 2, 3
1.
 Solve for the eigenvalues of the following matrix.

1 3 3
B 3 7 3
6 6 2

2. Find the cross product u x v if

u = 2i + j - 3k and v = 6i + 4j + 5k