INTRODUCTION
The parietal cell is a highly specialized epithelial cell with several distinctive
morphological characteristics that directly bear on its functional activities (1).
The apical plasma membrane has the unusual structural form of a series of small
canals (canaliculi) that invaginate from the surface and project throughout the
entire cell interior, with frequent interconnections among canaliculi. In the non-
secreting or resting parietal cell, these apical canalicular surfaces are lined with
short, stubby microvilli that are supported by prominent actin microfilaments in-
cluding accessory actin-binding proteins. Throughout the cytoplasmic space there
is an abundance of membranous structures, rich in H,K-ATPase, that take the mor-
phological form of vesicles, tubules, and cisternal sacs; these are commonly called
H,K-ATPase-rich tubulovesicles.
Parietal cells undergo a profound morphological transition upon activation of
acid secretion. Although limited by the optics of light microscopy, careful histo-
logical examination by Golgi in the late 19th century noted the enlargement of
canaliculi that occurred in secreting parietal cells. Electron micrographs of maxi-
mally stimulated cells have since revealed dilated canalicular spaces, a dramatically
expanded apical membrane surface with elongated microvilli, and diminution of
cytoplasmic tubulovesicles (24). Mounting evidence has contributed to a general
consensus for the membrane recycling hypothesis which holds that activation of
acid secretion results in a fusion-based recruitment of H,K-ATPase-rich cytoplas-
mic membranes into the apical plasma membrane (5). However, an alternate view
has argued that the H,K-ATPase-rich membranes are contiguous with the apical
plasma membrane in both resting and stimulated states, thus negating the need
for a fusion-based recruitment process (68). Recent evidence has clarified the
morphological argument through the use of high-pressure, rapid-freeze fixation to
prepare gastric parietal cells for electron microscopy (EM) and analysis of three-
dimensional structure (9). Models constructed from ultra-thin serial sections, as
well as tomographic reconstruction of thick tissue sections using high voltage EM,
clearly demonstrate the separation of tubulovesicular membranes from the plasma
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TABLE 1 Summary of parietal cell proteins implicated in the cell activation process
Mass Cellular Presumed
Name (kDa) location function Reference
Proton pump
H,K-ATPase = 96 Tubulovesicle (resting) H+ pumping (86)
-, -subunits = 6080 Apical PM (secreting) stabilize -subunit (115)
Trafficking and membrane recycling proteins
Syntaxin 1 34 Apical PM (?) Docking protein (92, 93)
Syntaxin 3 34 Cytoplasm (resting) H,K-ATPase translocation (92, 94)
Apical PM (secreting) (94)
SNAP-25 25 Apical PM SNARE pairing (92)
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membrane and generally confirm early studies using chemical fixation techniques.
This revisiting of parietal cell ultrastructure, together with the requirement for
recruitment/fusion-based proteins in parietal cell activation (see below) reinforces
the recruitment-recycling model of parietal cell activation. In addition, this new
fixation method has revealed that the abundant parietal cell mitochondria form an
extensive reticular network throughout the cytoplasm, as has been reported for
several other cell types. Because of the close coupling between acid secretion and
oxidative metabolism, it will be of interest to evaluate whether, and to what extent,
dynamics of mitochondria are related to the cell activation.
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and neural stimuli in vivo. Study of the cell biology of acid secretion has been
greatly facilitated by the technique of gastric gland isolation, developed by
Berglindh & Obrink, along with the method to monitor acid secretion in vitro
by accumulation of the weak base, aminopyrine (10).
From the pioneering work of Chew and her colleagues (11, 12), primary cul-
tures of parietal cells have also been of special value in localizing functionally
relevant proteins and defining events in the secretory cascade. Many intracellular
signaling pathways have now been identified with their contributing roles in pari-
etal cell activation, including protein kinase A (PKA), protein kinase C (PKC),
Ca2+-calmodulin (CaM) kinase II, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3 kinase), and
several other downstream kinases. Histaminergic stimulation is by far the most
potent activation pathway observed for the stimulation of gastric acid secretion
in vitro. Although cholinergic and gastrinergic stimulation can be seen in vitro,
the magnitude of stimulation for many species is much reduced compared with
stimulation in vivo, most likely because parietal cells are in close contact with
histamine-releasing enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells in vivo (13). Isolated ca-
nine parietal cells appear to be an exception, tending to be more responsive to
cholinergic stimuli than to histamine (1). In this review we first focus on signaling
events underlying cAMP-mediated stimulation and the PKA stimulation pathway,
and then move to a discussion of cholinergic pathways and an overview of other
kinase pathways.
out on intact gastric glands. Because the plasma membrane provides a barrier
to separate intracellular environment from extracellular bath, the development of
permeable parietal cell models was important for a more direct manipulation of
cytosol. Several permeabilized models, in which electroporation (30) and digitonin
(3033) were used to render gastric glandular cells permeable, have provided useful
information. However, none of these earlier permeabilized preparations could be
transformed from the resting to secreting state by the addition of secretagogues or
cAMP. This problem was eliminated by the use of -toxin, isolated from Staphylo-
coccus aureus, as a permeabilizing agent. The -toxin permeabilized gastric gland
model can be triggered by cAMP to effect the resting-to-secreting transition that
is correlated with the phosphorylation, from 32P-ATP, of a dozen phosphoproteins
(34), several of which are similar to those mentioned above from the intact gland
studies.
The narrow pore size generated by -toxin (3 nm in diameter) allows passage
of only small molecules such as nucleotides. Thus the -toxin model has been
useful in studies of metabolism and protein phosphorylation associated with stim-
ulation (34, 35), but access to large macromolecules is required for biochemical
reconstitution of parietal cell activation. To this end, several permeabilized sys-
tems have been developed to allow the introduction of large peptides and proteins
while retaining the resting-to-secreting transition in response to the addition of
cAMP. One system employing the detergent -escin tested a variety of inhibitory
peptides that block the activities of several protein kinases, including PKA, PKC,
myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), and CaM kinase (36). These peptide inhibi-
tion experiments confirmed the roles of PKA and MLCK, but not CaM kinase and
PKC, in parietal cell secretion. In addition, the inclusion of peptides that inhibit
Arf (adenosine ribosylation factor) into -escin-permeabilized glands was shown
to attenuate the cAMP-stimulated parietal cell activation, suggesting a functional
role for Arf protein in parietal cell secretion.
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they added brain cytosol and purified fractions into digitonin-permeabilized gas-
tric glands. They demonstrated a stimulatory activity by brain cytosol as judged by
aminopyrine uptake. The stimulatory activity was further characterized as phos-
phatidylinositol transfer protein (PITP). Although PITP is a stimulatory factor for
acid secretion, it is not associated with the cAMP-dependent pathway. This re-
constitution model promises to be of importance for the further identification and
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parietal cell (25, 26). Endogenous parietal cell parchorin is present in the cytosol
and relocated to the apical plasma membrane upon histamine stimulation, very
reminiscent of the translocation of H,K-ATPase in response to stimulation. When
parchorin, linked to green fluorescent protein (GFP), was exogenously expressed
in kidney cells, GFP-parchorin also appeared in the cytosol and was relocated to
the plasma membrane when Clefflux from the cells was triggered. Interestingly,
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parchorin was co-purified with a new type of kinase activity (42), suggesting that
there may be some functional link between that kinase and the phosphorylated
form of parchorin.
directly involved in the activation of parietal cell secretion, which are modulatory
or inhibitory to the activation, and which are true downstream effector proteins
rather than secondary and tertiary reporters of changes in metabolic load.
hancement of acid secretory function with chronic exposure to the growth factors.
Because of the observed differential effects of the acute and chronic responses to
tyrosine kinase inhibitors, they proposed that EGF and TGF- modulate parietal
cell function by multiple signaling pathways. They reasoned that a soluble tyrosine
kinase was involved in mediating the chronic effects of EGF, whereas the acute
potentiation of histamine-stimulated secretion by certain tyrosine kinase inhibitors
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SNARE Proteins
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acid secretion (95). Karvar et al. (96) used an adenovirus-based GFP reporter to
show that GFP-VAMP-2 is co-localized with H,K-ATPase to cytoplasmic mem-
branes of resting parietal cell cultures and that GFP-VAMP-2 is translocated along
with the pump enzyme to the apical plasma membrane after stimulation by his-
tamine. To test the involvement of VAMP-2 in parietal cell activation, they treated
SLO-permeabilized glands with tetanus toxin, which is a highly specific pro-
tease for VAMP proteins. They demonstrated a correlation between the cleavage
of VAMP-2 and the inhibition of glandular acid secretion, confirming an earlier
suggestion that the proteolytic cleavage of VAMP-2 inhibited acid secretion in
isolated parietal cells that were permeabilized by SLO and stimulated with cAMP
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(97). Further support for the participation of SNARE proteins in the recruitment of
H,K-ATPase is offered by recent studies of Karvar et al., who doubly infected pari-
etal cell cultures with genes constructed with different fluorescent proteins linked
to VAMP-2 and SNAP-25 (98). In resting cells, the two proteins were localized
to different membrane compartments: VAMP-2 to H,K-ATPase-rich cytoplasmic
vesicles, and SNAP-25 to apical membrane vacuoles. Upon stimulation with his-
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tamine, the two signals became coincident in the expanded plasma membrane
consistent with SNARE complex formation associated with membrane recruit-
ment. Furthermore, introduction of a SNAP-25 construct lacking the functional C
terminus inhibited acid secretion by the isolated cells.
Rab Proteins
In addition to SNARE proteins, small GTPase proteins have long been implicated
in vesicular membrane trafficking (99). Studies in several systems, primarily in
neuronal synapses, have demonstrated that Rab3 family members redistribute from
a membrane-bound location to the soluble cytosolic fraction upon fusion of secre-
tory granules with target plasma membranes. Rab proteins are then recycled back
onto mature secretory vesicles after reinternalization of the membrane. Although
this cycle is well established for Rab3, far less is known about the functional activ-
ity of other Rab proteins during vesicle fusion and recycling. In the gastric parietal
cell, there are several Rab proteins, including Rab11 and Rab25 (93, 100, 101). In
nonsecreting parietal cells, the Rab11a isoform is associated with H,K-ATPase-
containing tubulovesicles that fuse with the apical plasma membrane in response
to secretory agonists such as histamine (94).
Using matrix-assisted laser desorption mass spectrometry, Duman et al. (102)
confirmed that Rab11 is associated with H,K-ATPase-enriched gastric micro-
somes, and their data provided a stoichiometric estimate of one Rab11 per six
copies of H,K-ATPase. Furthermore, Rab11 exists in at least three forms on rabbit
gastric microsomes: The two most prominent resemble Rab11a, whereas the third
resembles Rab11b. Using an adenoviral expression system, Duman et al. expressed
the dominant-negative mutant Rab11a N124I, in primary cultures of rabbit pari-
etal cells. Rab11a N124I is a mutant of Rab11a in which aspargine (N) at position
124 has been replaced with isoleucine (I). The mutant was well expressed with a
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Dynamin
Another component of clathrin-dependent trafficking pathways is the large
GTPase dynamin, which is essential for receptor-mediated endocytosis and is
clearly known to interact with clathrin and coat-forming proteins, but its precise
function in vesicle formation remains controversial (106, 107). Given the distri-
bution of clathrin and clathrin adaptors in the parietal cell, it is not surprising that
a dynamin-like molecule should be associated with the apical membrane. In fact,
dynamin II has been immunolocalized to the apical membrane of both resting
and stimulated parietal cells (94, 105). Interestingly, among the various cell types
in gastric glands, dynamin appears to be expressed predominantly, if not exclu-
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sively, in the parietal cell (105). Although it has been proposed that dynamin acts
as a pinchase for constriction of endocytic membrane separation from plasma
membrane, this remains to be established (107).
Using a GST-dynamin II fusion protein as an affinity matrix, Okamoto et al.
identified two proteins that bind to dynamin II, the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase
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c-src and lasp-1 (108). Moreover, the binding of c-src and lasp-1 was specific for the
proline-rich domain of dynamin II. Their study also showed the presence of c-src
on tubulovesicular membranes, with an active tyrosine kinase that phosphorylated
tubulovesicular proteins in vitro, one of which may be the 100-kDa H,K-ATPase.
A potential trafficking role for c-src on tubulovesicular membranes is of inter-
est because c-src has been found on endosomal membranes (109), as a regulator
of other apical membrane trafficking pathways (110, 111), and shown to regu-
late membrane transporters directly by phosphorylation (112). The interaction of
lasp-1 with dynamin II is also of interest, suggesting the possibility of some regula-
tory role for lasp-1 in coordinating the actin cytoskeleton and vesicular trafficking
machinery via dynamin (108). As with c-src, the functional consequences of lasp-1
dynamin II interaction remain to be characterized.
Although these interactive data provide interesting possibilities for connection
between signaling molecules such as c-src and the downstream effectors, such
as dynamin, lasp-1 and even H,K-ATPase, the role of the in vitro protein-protein
interactions in parietal cell physiology and their regulation during cell activation
remain to be characterized.
Myosin Vb
Given the importance of Rab11a in tubulovesicle trafficking, Lapierre et al. (113)
set up a yeast two-hybrid screen for proteins interacting with active Rab11a.
Among three Rab11-interacting proteins discovered, one is myosin Vb. These
authors further characterized myosin Vb in polarized MDCK cells. They found
that myosin Vb is associated with apical endosomes. Furthermore, this associa-
tion depends on the integrity of microtubules, providing the interesting suggestion
of a role for myosin Vb in plasma membrane recycling in connection with the
microtubule cytoskeleton. Expression of the C-terminal tail of myosin Vb dis-
persed the distribution profile of transferrin receptor and retarded recycling of the
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analyses (13) and from studies with microfilament disrupters such as cytocha-
lasin (128, 129). Highly organized microfilaments are a characteristic feature of
microvilli within the canaliculus of the gastric parietal cell. However, the radial
arrangement of the actin filaments in proximity to the microvillar membrane in
parietal cells (3) is distinctly different from the central core localization of actin
filaments of intestinal microvilli (130).
The actin gene family encodes a number of structurally related, but functionally
distinct, protein isoforms that modulate contraction in muscle tissues and control
shape and motility of nonmuscle cells (131). In mammals, there are at least six
different actin isoforms, each encoded by a separate gene, and they differ by
<10% of the amino acid sequence, primarily in the N-terminal region (132).
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in epithelial cells. They found that -actin was predominantly localized to the
apical plasma membrane of all glandular cells, including the tortuous microvilli-
enriched canalicular surface of parietal cells, as well as the entire gland lumen,
whereas -actin was predominantly localized to the basolateral membrane.
The canaliculi of resting parietal cells are replete with short microvilli that
include radially organized actin microfilament bundles projecting along the mi-
crovillus and extending one or more micrometers into the cytoplasm (3). The
radical membrane transformations of cell activation result in elongation of mi-
crovilli, which suggests a commensurate shift in the ratio of monomeric G-actin
to filamentous F-actin. However, measurements on the state of actin in gastric
glands revealed the following: (a) Parietal cell actin is primarily organized in the
F-actin form (90%); (b) the microfilament disrupter cytochalasin D destabilizes
the F-actin and inhibits acid secretion; and (c) phalloidin, which stabilizes F-actin
filaments, does not inhibit acid secretion (135). Surprisingly, the authors could find
no significant change in the ratio of F- to G-actin when the cells were transformed
from rest to maximal secretion: F-actin remained about 90% of the total. These
data are consistent with an hypothesis that microfilamentous actin is necessary for
membrane recruitment underlying parietal cell secretion; however, they suggest
that rapid exchange between G- and F-actin is not essential for the secretory pro-
cess and that the parietal cell maintains actin in a highly polymerized state. This
conclusion was underscored by the work of Ammar et al. (136) who tested the actin
monomer-sequestering agent latrunculin B (Lat B) on parietal cell structure and
function. Lat B inhibited acid secretion and increased the extractable monomeric
actin but only at relatively high doses (1070 M). Because the authors observed
high sensitivity of other parietal cell functions to Lat B (e.g., formation of lamel-
lipodia was inhibited at 0.1 M), they reasoned that there were distinct pools of
exchangeable actin in parietal cells, with microvillar microfilaments being partic-
ularly stable owing to the presence of stabilizing, capping, and bundling proteins.
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They proposed that the resistance of acid secretory function to Lat B is the result
of stable actin filament-turnover pathways that minimize the accessibility of the
actin monomer to Lat B.
The actin cytoskeleton has been linked to the mechanism of potentiation of
cAMP-mediated acid secretion by carbachol in rabbit gastric glands (137). The
observed potentiation was dependent upon release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores
regulated by the type 3 IP3 receptor (the major subtype in the parietal cell), but
it was unaffected by changes in extracellular Ca2+ or inhibitors of either PKC or
CAM kinase II. On the other hand, the disrupter of actin filaments, cytochala-
sin D, preferentially blocked the secretory effect of carbachol and its synergism
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with cAMP, as well as the release of Ca2+ from stores. Treatment of glands
with cytochalasin D also caused redistribution of the IP3 receptor from a plasma
membrane-like fraction to the microsomal fraction, suggesting a dissociation of
the stores from the plasma membrane and a functional coupling between actin
filaments and the receptor-mediated Ca2+ store.
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Ezrin-Actin Interactions
An actin-binding/regulatory protein that may have a primary role in parietal cell
function was mentioned above as the stimulation-dependent 80-kDa phospho-
protein called ezrin. Ezrin was independently identified by various investigators
for their special interests (138140) and implicated as a cytoskeleton-membrane
linker protein. Ezrin is the best studied member of the ERM (ezrin-radixin-moesin)
family (141). These proteins share approximately 75% primary sequence identity
and contain an N-terminal globular domain followed by an -helical region and
a C-terminal tail domain (142). Although ezrin was originally purified with the
microfilament bundles from intestinal microvilli, the native, full-length protein
possessed no convincing F-actin binding activity in tests that used -actin from
skeletal muscle, a commonly used rich source of pure actin. However, C-terminal
fragments of ezrin were shown to bind filamentous -actin (143); consequently,
Bretscher et al. (142) developed a model of intra- and intermolecular folding of
full-length ezrin to account for the discrepancy.
Ezrin was first identified in parietal cells on the basis of PKA-dependent phos-
phorylation concomitant with stimulation of gastric glands (19, 22). Double im-
munostaining for ezrin and for -actin revealed that these two proteins are abundant
and primarily co-localized to the same regions within parietal cells, characteris-
tic of the tortuous apical canalicular surface wending through most of the cell
(23, 24, 134). Interestingly, ezrin is almost exclusively localized to parietal cells,
whereas staining for the -actin isoform is intense along the apical borders of all
cell types lining the gland lumen as well as within apical canaliculi of parietal
cells. Because the -actin isoform is primarily distributed near the basolateral
membrane of parietal cells (134), it appears that ezrin is co-localized with -actin,
but not -actin, as a subset of the F-actin microfilaments.
On the basis of actin-ezrin cyto-localization studies and the knowledge that
-actin is not expressed in parietal cells, Yao et al. (144) hypothesized that ezrin
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et al. (146) reported that a compound designated ME3407, a potent acid secretion
inhibitor, arrested the morphological transition of cells stimulated by histamine.
Because ME3407 was found to liberate the phosphoprotein ezrin from the api-
cal plasma membrane, as well as to inhibit histamine-triggered translocation of
H,K-ATPase, these authors hypothesized that ME3407 may exert its inhibitory
action on the modulation of protein phosphorylation required for recruitment of
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(149), followed by the collapse of the actin cytoskeleton in parietal cells. These
studies suggest the importance of ezrin in the integrity of the actin cytoskeleton of
parietal cells. Significantly, the activation of calpain, as evidenced by the hydrolysis
of ezrin, was correlated with the inhibition of parietal cell secretion, presumably
through the loss of ezrin. This ezrin-calpain interaction is unique because the
calpain cleavage site is located to the C-terminal 200 amino acids of ezrin where
sequences of the ERM family are divergent. To explore the possible regulation
by calcium and calpain I of the interaction between -actin and ezrin, Herman
and his associates overexpressed calpastatin, an endogenous inhibitor of calpain,
in fibroblast cells. The overexpression resulted in a diminished calpain activity
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and increased ezrin protein level, which was experimentally correlated with an
inhibition of filopodial formation (150), suggesting that spatial activation of calpain
may be necessary for actin dynamics associated with spreading at the leading edge.
It will be of interest to evaluate whether the hydrolysis of ezrin, or the liberation of
ezrin from actin cytoskeleton, is essential for formation of cytoplasmic extensions
such as filopodia or microvilli.
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PERSPECTIVES
Although great progress has been made over the past 10 years in characterizing
the mechanisms and participants in parietal cell secretion, the challenge ahead is
to define the precise function and the physiological regulation of the implicated
proteins and identify new players (152). By analyzing both the cell biology and
physiology of phenotypic changes in cultured parietal cells and even transgenic
animals expressing mutant regulatory proteins, it will be possible to determine
whether and how a particular molecule operates upon the signaling cascade and
downstream effector reactions of parietal cell activation. Molecular engineering
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ular medicine of associated disorders such as peptic ulcer disease and gastric
carcinoma.
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Figure 1 Schematic model for regulated tubulovesicle cycling in the parietal cell.
In resting cells, the proton pump H,K-ATPase is sequestered in inactive cytoplasmic
tubulovesicles (TVs). Secretagogue stimulation triggers the translocation of TVs ulti-
mately leading to activation of proton pumping (solid arrows). Once the stimulus has
decayed, the proton pump is internalized to terminate acid secretion (dotted arrows).
The regulated TV cycle can be divided into following steps: (a) Docking. TVs that
contains H,K-ATPase and intrinsic factors dock at the active zone of the target mem-
brane. H,K-ATPase is inactive owing to low permeability to K+. Docking is defined as
the initial contact/interaction between vesicle membrane and target membrane medi-
ated by specific proteins, such as VAMP-2, syntaxins, SNAP-25, and exocyst protein
complex SEC6/8. Docking can occur between vesicles and apical plasma membrane
(heterotypic) and among vesicle membranes themselves (homotypic). (b) Priming.
After docking, TVs go through a maturation process that enables competency for
membrane fusion, possibly mediated by PKA-dependent phosphorylation and Ca2+-
dependent activation. (c) Fusion/proton pumping. Lipids of primed TVs are competent
to mix with those of the apical membrane allowing H,K-ATPase to partition into the
membrane. The proton pump begins active H+ transport while TV contents such as
intrinsic factor exocytose into the gland lumen. (d ) Endocytosis. After the stimulus
removal, the H,K-ATPase-rich regions of apical membrane are retrieved into the cy-
toplasm. The initial internalization is facilitated via clathrin-coated pits and dynamin.
(e) Endosome fusion. Coated TVs fuse with apical early endosome. This may be facil-
itated by small GTPases and their accessory proteins. ( f ) Budding. TVs are reformed
chiefly by budding from recycling endosomes. The newly formed TVs are either com-
petent for translocation and subsequent docking, or committed to a homotypic fusion
to gain competence. (g) Translocation. H,K-ATPase-containing TVs translocate back
to the active zone either by diffusion or by motor proteins.
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CONTENTS
FrontispieceJean D. Wilson xiv
PERSPECTIVES, Joseph F. Hoffman, Editor
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vii
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viii CONTENTS
CONTENTS ix
INDEXES
Subject Index 881
Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 6165 921
Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 6165 925
ERRATA
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